A PASSIVE COOLING DESIGN FOR MULTIFAMILY RESEDENCES
IN HOT, HUMID CLIMATES
by
Joseph C. Tang
Tunghai University,
Taichung, Taiwan
B.S.
1977
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the
Degree of
Master of Science In Architecture Studies
at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1983
June,
c
Joseph C.
Tang,
1983
reproduce
author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to
The
in
document
thesis
this
of
copies
and to distribute publicly
whole or in part.
Signature of Author.
----
----I----------------Department of Archftecture
May 6, 1983
Certified by....
Timothy )Johnson
Principle Research Associate
Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by..
N. John Habraken, Chairman,
Departmental Committee for
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
4AY 26 1983
LIBRARIES
A PASSIVE COOLING DESIGN FOR MULTIFAMILY RESIDENCES
IN HOT, HUMID CLIMATES
by
Joseph C.
Tang
Submitted to the Department of Architecture
on May 6, 1983
in partical fulfillment of the requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Science in
Architecture Studies.
ABSTRACT
People living in hot, humid climates suffer either from
extremely uncomfortable weather conditions or from the great
cost
of
air-conditioning systems for maintaining
comfort.
Most
of the available passive cooling techniques which
are
applicable
to
other
climates have
been
proven
to be
ineffective in hot, humid climates.
This
thesis
examines the available
passive
cooling
techniques
and
describes their potential and
limitations.
This thesis also proposes a series of passive cooling design
solutions for the multifamily residences found in hot, humid
climates
like
Taipei.
In addition,
a
low-cost
cooling
system
is
developed
as
a
substitute
for
conventional
high-cost
air-conditoning systems,to be used during periods
when
passive
means
are
incapable
of
maintaining
human
comfort.
This
newly proposed system employs
a
seasonal
cooling
reservoir
coupled to a heat pump DHW heater.
The
continuous
heat
extraction from the cooling reservoir
for
DHW
needs makes the reservoir an effective cooling resource
in the summer.
Thesis supervisor:
Timothy Johnson
DEDICATION
to
my
This
thesis is dedicated with deep love and respect
Lord
Jesus
perserverance,
grandmother
and
Christ
faith,
and
for
love;
His
to my
support
dear
for having raised and supported me
physically;
in
parents
and
spiritually
to Charlotte Fan for her continual
in love and prayer.
wisdom,
support
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Timothy Johnson
for support, guidance, and
valuable suggestions
MIT provost office
for
scholarship
Bill
for
editing
Bartovics,
assistance
Matthew Toth
Yi-May Chen
for typing and formatting
Shih-Kwang Liu
Chen-Yih Hsu
for
graphic assistance
for
weather data information
Chih-Shiang Liu
Lee-Hsueh Hung
Wei-Kang Tsai
Chi-Fang Chen
Ming-Cheng Chen
Weather Bureau, R.O.C.
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
1.0
2.0
3.0
Chapter
1.0
I
Background ...............................
Objectives ...............................
Scope ....................................
II
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Chapter
1.0
III
......
Weather Data and
...........
.............................
Air Temperature ..............
Humidity .....................
Air Movement .................
Other Helpful Data ...........
Hourly Weather Data .................
Monthly Average Hourly Weather Data
(M.A.H.W.D.)
........................
Design Tools
20
22
23
25
27
28
-29
29
30
30
-32
Design Tools
Geographical Position ...............
Essential Weather Data ..............
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.5
14
17
18
20
20
.......................
Physical Effect.....................
Natural Ventilation
.................
Thermally Induced Ventilation .......
Wind Induced Ventilation ............
Night Ventilation ...................
Mechanically Driven Ventilation .....
Weather Data
1.3
1.4
14
Orientation .........................
Window and Sunshading Design.........
and Colors
Choice of Materials
Ventilation Control..................
Evaporative Cooling ......................
Radiant Roof Cooling .....................
Earth Coupled Cooling ....................
Detached Earth Coupled Cooling
Dehumidification .........................
1.1
1.2
2.0
.............................
Convective Cooling
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2..6
11
12
13
The Available Passive Cooling Techniques
Load Control
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.0
Introduction
.............................
34
-34
35
35
36
36
38
38
39
41
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Psychrometric Chart Analysis ........
Bioclimatic Chart Analysis ..........
Monthly Average Hourly Weather Data
Chart (M.A.H.W.D. Chart)-.............
Sun Chart and Shading Mask Protractor
41
43
Sun Chart ....................
Shading Mask Protractor ......
"Shaded" Sun Chart and Shading
Devices Design ...............
47
52
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.5
2.6
2.7
Chapter
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
IV
Wind Roses ..........................
Soil Temperature Profile Analysis
Cooling Load Calculations ...........
Design
58
61
62
62
Issue and Passive Solutions
Design Issue .............................
Plan Rearrangement .......................
Load Control .............................
69
71
76
3 1
3.2
3.3
76
77
77
Orientation .........................
Window Design .......................
Sunshading Design ...................
Choice of Materials and Colors
Sealed Building ..........................
Variation
................................
6.1
6.2
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
Chapter V
...........
Ventilation
Schedule ................
Wind Roses and Design Solutions
6.2.1
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
...
45
47
.....
79
84
Main Facades Facing North and
South ........................
84
Main Facades Facing East and
West..........................
86
Main Facades Facing North-Eest
86
and South-West ...............
Main Facades Facing North-West and
South-East ...................
90
Low-Cost Cooling Using Annual
Introduction.............................
Summer Cooling Load .....................
Heat Pumps ..............................
Heat Pump, DHW, and Seasonal
Storage
-93
9-3
95
Cooling Reservior
.......
4.1
77
79
79
Domestic Hot Water
6
Heater
..........
98
98
4.2
Seasonal Cooling Reservoir and Sensible
Cooling ............................
99
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.3
Heat
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.4
Heat
112
Analysis .....................
118
Initial Cost .......................
Energy Savings .....................
118
119
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
Chapter VI
1.0
2.0
110
112
Heat Pump Operation Schedule
Annual Reservoir Temperature
Profile .....................
Mechanical Loops ............
Economical
5.3
Heat Pump DHW Heater and
Dehumidification ............
Run-Around Coil
................
107
112
4.4.3
5.1
5.2
Pump and Latent Cooling ........
Pump Operation Schedule ........
4.4.1
4.4.2
5.0
Seasonal Cooling Reservoir ..
99
Reservoir Material ..........
100
Reservoir's Volume and Location 101.
The Amount of Insulation ....
101
Charge and Discharge Periods
104
Sensible Cooling - Radiant Panel
System ......................
106
Domestic Hot Water Saving ...
Summer Air-Conditioning Saving
Total Yearly Saving ............
Perspective ........................
114
115
119
119
120
120
Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusions .............................
Recommendations .........................
122
124
Appendices
A.
B.
C.
D.
Cooling Load Calculations ..................
Heat Exchange and Temperature Profile of
the Cooling Reservoir....................
Ground Temperatures at Different Depth...
Economical Analysis......................
Bibliography.....................................
7
127
137
147
148
159
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
2.1
General Rule-of-Thumb for Building Orientation
2.2
Solar Incidence on the South and West Facades
2.3
Profile Angle
.......................................
2.4
Typical Wind Pressure Distribution on A House........
2.5
The Effect of Applying Wind-Inducing Devices ........
2.6
Sorbent Dehumidification
............................
3.1
3.2
3.3
Psychrometric Chart
.................................
Givoni's Psychrometric Chart
........................
Givoni's Psychrometric Analysis of Taipei's
M.A.H.W.D......... ...................................
3.4
Olgyay's Bioclimatic
3.5
Aren's
.6
Chart
..........................
Bioclimatic Chart..............................
Aren's Bioclimatic
M.A.H.W.D.........
Analysis of Taipei's
...................................
3.7
Taipei's M.A.H.W.D. Chart
3..8
Human Comfort Needs on the M.A.H.W.D. Chart as
Analyzed by Givoni's Psychrometric Chart..............
3.9
Human Comfort Needs on the M.H.W.A.D. Chart as
Analyzed by Aren's Bioclimatic Chart...................
3.10
Solar Altitude and Azumuth
3. 11
Sky-Dome Sun
3.12
Cylindrical
3.13
Sky-Dome Shading Masks with Different
Observation Points.........
..........................
3.14
Sky-Dome Shading
3.15
Cylindrical
3.16
Sky-Dome and Cyclindrical Shading Masks for
the Same Shading Devices.............................
.17
Chart
...........................
..........................
..................................
Sun Chart
...............................
Mask Protractor
Shading Mask
Protractor
....................
..................
Corrections to Olgyay's Shading Masks ................
3.18
"Shaded" Sun Chart
3.19
Wind Roses of Taipei, for the Time Period:
1972-81........ ......................................
for Taipei .........................
8
Temperature Profiles for
Taipei ...............
3.20
Ground
3.21
Building Heat Gains in Summer
4.1
The Prototype of Present Multifamily Residence
in Taipei...... ......................................
4.2
Privacy Interruptions in Contemporary Building
Designs..............................................
4.3
A
4.4
A Design Concept for Preserving the Present
Floor Area Per Family................................
4.5
An
4.6
Weatherstripping at Window and Door Frame.........
4.7
Ventilation
4.8
Sunshading and Wind-inducing Design for
North-South Orientated Buildings...................
4.9
Sunshading and Wind-inducing Design for
East-West Orientated Buildings....................
4.10
Movable Insulation with Louvers below The
Window Sill.........................................
4.11
A Second Option for Sunshading and Wind-Inducing
Design in East-West Orientated Building............
4.12
Sunshading and Wind-inducing Design for NE-SW
Orientated Buildings ..............................
4.13
Sunshading and Wind-inducing Design for NW-SE
Buildings..............................
Orientated
5.1
Typical
Load in
5.2
Flat-Plate Thermosiphoning Solar Heater..............
5.3
Cooling Reservoir as A Floating Fundation for
Buildings............................................
5.4
The Insulation Effect of Soil Mass around The
Reservoir............................................
5.5
Mass below The
of Soil
Effect
The Insulation
Reservoir............................................
New Design
External
..............................
Proposal
Wall
.......................
Section...........................
Schedule on A
M.A.H.W.D. Chart.........
Unit Plan Facing South and Its Summer
Taipei.....................................
9
5.6
Horizontally Extended Insulation Detail at The
Building Edges.......................................
5.7
The Dew-Point Temperature of A Typical
Space on A Psychrometic Chart........................
5.8
Radiant Panel Condensation Control with A
Four-Pipe System.....................................
5.9
Detail
5.10
Basic Components of
5.11
Water Source Heat Pump...............................
5.12
Conventional
5.13
Water Source Heat Pump with A Run-Around
5.14
Heat Pump
5.15
Annual
5.16
Mechanical
Loops for Non-Cooling Season Operation....
5.17
Mechancial
Loops for Cooling
5.18
The Perspective of
of Ceiling Panels for
Conditioned
radiant Cooling.......
A Conventional
Dehumidifier......
Heat Pump DHW Heater....................
DHW Heater
Coil........
with A Run-Around Coil...........
Cooling Reservoir Temperature Profile.........
Cooling
10
Season Operation........
Reservoir Application..
CHAPTER
I
INTRODUCTION
1.0
BACKGROUND
the
As
total
that
controlling
more
an
mechanical
on
capable
for architecture in the future.
energy
Passive cooling
being designed to be passively heated.
on
due
developed
the
other
hand,
have
the complexity of the
to
poorly
very
been
energy
exchanges
humid
They are particularly complicated in hot,
involved.
and
More
Most of them
have begun to show up around the world.
techniques,
of
optimal
the
means
and
more,
systems,
is by no
environment,
people
buildings designed to passively utilize natural
flows
are
reliance
solution
design
1974,
appeared in
realize that cheap energy is to be no
to
began
energy crisis first
climates where high temperature and R.H. are always regarded
as the most difficult problems to deal
Unfortunately,
the
those of
The
humid
hot,
with passively.
most of the developing contries lie
the more "advanced" nations in the developed world.
"advanced" passive technologies however, are
passive
heating
applicable
to
cooling.
Consequently,
always
follow
always
Their technologies
belts.
in
suffer
for
these
rahter
people in third
than
world
unsolved problems.
primarily
to
passive
countries
They
must
tolerate either discomfort due to weather conditions, or the
tremondous
cost of using air-conditioning systems to obtain
11
comfortable interior conditions.
As a result, the reduction
energy expended for air-conditioning and the maximum use
of
parts of
passive cooling techniques are the essential
of
hot,
humid
so that overall building energy savings and
human
by
made
effort
regions,
any
countries
which lie
the
in
comfort can both be obtained simultaneously.
the comfort in residences is the primary concern of
As
people
these climates, and as the
in
chosen
will
the
is
apartment
(which
Taipei
most popular type in
to illustrate the proposed techniques),
focus
multifamily
5-story
this
thesis
appropriate
the passive cooling techniques
is
to
multifamily residential buildings in hot, humid climates.
2.0
1)
OBJECTIVES
Examine a number of existing passive cooling techniques
and indicate their limitations and potentials.
2)
an
Develop
accessible
Introduce
readily
utilize
to
weather data for the design of
cooled residential
3)
method
analytical
a
passively
building.
a passive cooling building design which
can
maximize the passive cooling potential.
4)
Introduce
a low cost
cooling technique
pump DHW heater coupled to a seasonal
during
using
a heat
cooling reservoir
the periods when passive means are incapable of
satisfying the cooling loads.
5)
Use
hourly weather data from Taipei
12
to illustrate
the
low-cost
cooling technique for multifamily residential
buildings in
3.0
thesis
passive cooling design referred to in this
this
popular
to change the existing
intended
not
configuration
fits
humid climates.
hot,
SCOPE
The
is
the
method, climate responsive design, and
analytical
building
which
but rather to find a feasible solution
popular
type
of
approach
manufacturers
convincing
is
and/or
important
in
landlords
to use the newly proposed cooling techniques with
minimum
acceptable
materials,
popular
either
terms
This
building.
of
and
overall
type of residential
manufacturers,
inconvenience
configurations
resulting
or
from
builing
in
changes
design.
design
landlords,
from
changes
13
Radical
will
or
construction
changes
not be accepted
due
users,
different
in
in
the
popular
to
the
by
the
building
living
CHAPTER
II
THE AVAILABLE PASSIVE COOLING TECHNIQUES
literature review will
A
passive
techniques
cooling
reveal that there are numerous
climatic
different
presented
currently being
Most
needs.
in
them,
of
response
to
however,
are not applicable to hot, humid climates (such as
most
It is necessary, therefore, to discuss the
Taiwan).
techniques
popular
and to understand their
potential
and
limitations.
1.0
LOAD CONTROL
control
Load
means
the
through
cooling
loads
weather
conditions.
desirable and useful
minimization
the
weather
walls
Attention to this
of
intruding
external
from
issue
is
always
regardless of whether the building is a
passive system or not.
The four most influential
factors in
load control will be discussed as follows:
1.1
Orientation
best
The
will
orientation for passively
cooled
buildings
assure a minimization of direct solar radition and will
take
Givoni
full
advantage of the prevailing wind patterns.
pointed out building orientation affects the
climate in two respects:
14
B.
indoor
directions.
rooms facing different
A
of the building.
orientation
the
and
direction of the prevailing winds
the
between
relation
the
problems associated with
Ventilation
b)
the
and
Solar radiation and its heating effect on walls
a)
time-proven
and general
rule of
orient
thumb is to
and
building toward true south, with its main facades,
largest
Its
areas facing south and north.
wall
external
minor facades will therefore be exposed to the east and west
(Fig. 2.1).
the
This
orientation is best because the low summer sun in
east
and west creats excessive solar radiation on
and
beam
radiation.
low
angles
heat
heat
to
dramatically
gain
gain
the
through
the east
and west,
through
the
windows
will
compared to
the
at
the
to
2.2).
(Fig.
of incidence on the south side
conduction
Therefore,
radiation
These rays strike the vertical facades
on the east and west side, as compared
angles
steeper
incident
west facing walls or windows due to the
east
the
walls,
or
increase
south and
north.
more
Another
south
is easier to accomplish
where
is that shading
orientation
the
recently realized reason for true
window actually faces true south.
profile
angle
of
The variation in the
(the angle between the normal
to window
the sun projected in a plane perpendicular
the
rays
the
window plane) of the sun is minimized for south
15
and
to
facing
N
E
w
S
Fig. 2.1
General
Rule-of-Thumb for Building Orientation
Summer Sunset
N
S
E
Fig. 2.2
Summer Sunrise
Solar Incidence on the South and West Facades
16
(Fig. 2.3).
windows
device
A good south facing horizontal
shading
can effectively shade the summer sun, and still
let
in the winter sun.
C
Fig.
1.2
2.3
Profile
Angle 4XYZ
Window and Sunshading Design
radiation through the windows is obviously to be
Solar
avoided
in
accomplished
fins.
hot,
by
Shading
exterior
venetian
(01gyay2
"Design
humid
using
climates.
This
horizontal
overhangs
coefficients
blinds,
with
for
roller
Climate"),
17
different
shades,
can also be
task
and
can
vertical
interior
and
be
or
curtains
applied
to
heat gain factors to estimate the resultant reduction
solar
in gains.
Horizontal
the
on
position
is
The vertical
to the south.
very
window areas may be required for optimal
solar
daylighting
Nevertheless, it is always good to
ventilation.
and
east and west side window areas,
the
reduce
in
efficient
This can be difficult, however, because
control.
and natural
those
is
areas
window
Reducing
large
the
because
side
north
the sun is low at these orientations.
altitude of
radiation
fins are useful to control
east, west, or
the
on
sun
sun's
side because the altitude of
south
high
the
overhangs are useful to control the sun
increase
on the north or south, so that the same total
window
area, and daylight distribution inside will result.
Chapter
protractor.
III
will
mask
shading
discuss sun chart and
With these tools one can appropriately
design
shading devices for different orientations.
1.3
Choice of Materials
The
choice
significant
of
and Colors
building materials
colors
and
holds
importance in the reduction of solar heat gains
through opaque walls and roof.
In
hot,
preferrable
humid
for
climates,
low-mass
construction
because
buildings
residential
is
the
overheating problem only occurs during the daytime when most
of
the family has gone out for work, school,
High-mass
construction
is
not
16
applicable
shopping, etc.
to
hot,
humid
climates because high air temperatures (usually greater than
0
78
is released from the mass during the night time,
therefore,
The building would then
when most of the family is at home.
need cooling rather than heating.
still
daytime,
the
in
The heat absorbed
daytime.
the
during
sink
heat
mass enough to allow it to serve as a
the
cool
to
impossible
and high humidities at night make- it
F)
where
In a region
reinforced concrete construction has dominated, by reason of
its
durability, the easiest way to recuce the concrete mass
(heat storage) is to cover the floor with carpets.
Insulation
the
within
walls and
a
without
space
in
although
adding more insulation will
appreciably reduce the
time temperature, it may also result in a high internal
surface
temperature
Architecture").
techniques
night
3
(Givoni,
is
techniques.
also
are
white
of
good
solar
the
be
at
short
load
colors
White or other light exterior
solar radiation due to
wavelengths.
radiators because all the
These colors
colors
black) have very high emissivities
wavelengths.
must
passive cooling
the most effective and cheapest of
low absorbtivities
their
and
Climate
The R-value of the walls and roof
reflect 80'4-90-4 of the potential
can
"Man,
be employed.
to
Color
control
at
in conjunction with the overall
established
of
taken,
because
air-conditioning
however,
day
greatly
can
Care must be
instantaneous solar heat gain.
reduce
roofs
(whether
(0.9) at
long
Therefore, light colors not only reflect most
radiation, but they also radiate energy to
19
other
objects
cooler
to the night sky.
and
significant load reductions through the use of
shown
has
Givoni4
light-colored
roofs and walls.
Control
Ventilation
1.4
In hot, humid climates ventilation may be a significant
(sensible and latent heat) due to
of heat gains
source
the
high
air temperatures and high humidities which are brought
into
the room by the winds.
be
constructed
hourly
air
humidity
readings.
When
the
the
not
is
to
be
sealed joints at the windows and door frames of
,
ventilated
relative
and
temperature
building
weather
local
to the accesible
shows
which
data,
according
must
The ventilation schedule
wall
weather
must be used to reduce
infiltration
the
heat gains.
2.0
CONVECTIVE COOLING
2.1
Physical
movement
Air
decreasing
skin
the
Effect
cooling
a
not
sensation
the ambient air temperature but by reducing
by
the
temperature, due to heat loss by convection and due to
increased
Theoretically,
cooling
effect
convection
shows
creats
the
compatible
and
the
that
can
be
due
to
Table 2.1 taken
evaporation.
desirable
obtained
range of
with human comfort.
20
wind
greater
the
the air velocity,
higher
(sweat).
moisture
of
evaporation
velocities
increased
from
Olgyay 5
which
are
IMPACT
PROBABLE
VELOCITY
-------------------------------------------------------------Up
to
50 fpm
-
Unnoticed
50
to
100
-
Pleasant
100 to 200
-
Generally
constant
-
200 to 300
pleasant
but
awareness of
air
movement
to annoyingly
drafty
From slightly
causing
drafty
-
300
Above
if
measures
corrective
requires
are to be kept in
work and health
high efficiency
---------------------------------------------
Table 2-1
In
because
convection
the
content
also
air
the hot,
not
only
prone to
air
a
as
cooling
(above 90 F)
temperatures
high
heat loss from the body and
moisture
same time,
building
the
in
additional
is
ambient
high
increased
an
however,
quite ineffective
be
may
velocity
climates,
humid
hot,
ability
suppreses its
from
the surface
air
humid ventilation
increases the
and
causing mold
21
of
structural
to
the
to
skin.
air
medium,
reduce
moisture
pick
At
up
the
moving through the
temperature,
mildew problems.
but
Ventilation
Natural
2.2
total
the
of this technique depends on
effectiveness
The
concept.
ventilation is a time proven cooling
Natural
The most
effects of air movement, temperature,and humidity.
general
method to evaluate its effectiveness is to plot the
monthly
average temperature and humidity on a psychrometric
or
a bioclimatic chart
the
indicates
the required cooling effect.
accomplish
velocity
wind
are
temperatures
when
an
generally
is
ventilation
the
obtained
During the spring and fall
moderate,
to
cooling strategy.
effective
Givoni6
shown
has
need
necessarily
do
windows
inlet
the
that
to face perpendicular to
not
prevailing
the
It may, in fact, be better to have the winds oblique
winds.
to
Indications of
needed during these periods can be
from the bioclimatic chart.
and
used
be
could
ventilation
that
such
are
humidity
temperature
the
during which
periods
procedure
This
(see Chapter III).
the
opening
inlet
because in this
becomes
air
case
turbulant in the room, thereby increasing the air flow along
the
side
walls
distribution
of
and in the corners, causing
the cooling effect.
a
even
more
When fly-screens
are
in
applied
directly to the windows, however, the reduction
internal
air velocity is greater with an oblique than with a
perpendicular
wind.
because theobliquewind
This is
over
the screen and does notcreate an efficient
front
of the window.
Cross-ventilation
should
22
be
addressed
slides
pressure in
as
the
most
type of natural ventilation.
effective
This term refers to
which
are
exposed to both pressure and suction areas of the wind.
The
which the given room has windows
in
conditions
average air velocity in a cross-ventilated room is more than
that
double
in rooms with window openings only toward
the
of
the
the window's position in the section of
the
pressure
area,
external
winds.
or
Regarding
has made the conclusion that the location
room,
Olgyay
inlet
opening
plays
the
major role
in
little effect on it.
outlet
the
A low inlet causes a downward air
pattern and can effectively cool the
flow
of
the
determining
air flow pattern while the location of
internal
has
area
toward the suction
only
occupants of the
room.
2.3
Thermally Induced Ventilation
type
This
effect"
because
it has same effect as the draft caused
the flue of a fireplace.
is
heated
rising
other
(or
it rises due to its lower density
per
Ambient unheated air is pulled in to replace
volume.
air
in
The basic concept is that when air
in a vertical column by solar energy
source),
heat
"chimney
of ventilation is also called the
leaving through the "chimney".
Unlike
unit
the
natural
ventilation, this system does not require a wind flow or any
particular building orientation.
Thermally
serious
induced
limitations.
ventilation, however,
has
several
Abrams and Brock have shown that wind
23
of 3-5 mph are sufficient to entirely
velocities
the "chimney effects".
obtained
in
most
Akridge9 pointed
the
times
when
These wind velocities can usually be
of the regions on earth.
In
addition,
out a more serious problem resulting
that solar energy is most available during
fact
the ambient air temperatures are
when
Therefore,
overpower
a
solar chimney works best during
the
from
those
highest.
those
times
people would perfer to keep the extra heat outside the
building
rather than introducing more to stimulate the
flow.
Fig. 2.4
Typical Wind Pressure Distribution on A House
24
air
Wind Induced Ventilation
2.4
When wind blows towards a structure shown as Figure 2.4
the
side
windward
of
the
wall
a
experiences
The leeward
pressure which pushes the air against the wall.
side,
roof,
and the walls experience a
positive
negative
pressure
which creates a suction on the surface.
The
nature
the
are
pressures
fluctuating
are nonuniform, with the maximum effect
sides
around
pressure
pushes
openings
while
corners and the edges.
the
the
air into the
of
The
structure
and
the
positive
through
the negative pressure pulls the air out
structure through the openings.
the
the
The negative pressure on the roof
of the wind.
suction
turbulent due to
the
of
These two effects work
together in wind induced ventilation.
Wind
induced
natural
ventilation may be applied when
is ineffective for the following reasons:
ventilation
1)
The wind velocity is low.
2)
The
openings
only face one pressure
zone
(either
positive or negative zone).
3)
The limitation of openings for physical
or
security
reasons.
When
velocity is low, many authors believe
size of the outlet to inlet opening ratio is
the
at
wind
3
:1
opening
that
optimized
in order to creat high pressure difference at inlet
and
as such increase the interior
wind
velocity.
This suggestion, however, is somewhat misleading.
According
10
to the research of Harris Sovin in Arizona, the air velocity
is
increased
window
velocity
air
average
size
ventilation
wind velocity
opening.
but only adjacent to the inlet
is
ismaximumwhen
1.25:1.
The use
of
mechanically
can be much more effective when the
is
fairly
in
ratio
outlet-inlet
driven
prevailing
low.
..
..
..
...
'4.
Fig. 2.5
The Effect of Applying Wind-Inducing Devices
26
The
the openings in the building only face one pressure
If
positive
either
zone,
techique
a
2.5
Figure
pressure pattern.
the
change
negative zone,
to
panels
ventilation is to use wind inducing
increase natural
to
or
some
shows
examples of this application in plan.
openings for physical or
Where there is a limitation of
Many desert
form.
inducing
wind
type
of
subject
to
wind scoops are an alternative
reasons,
security
constant prevailing winds.
,and
are
areas
In these areas the winds near the
dense settlements are necessary due to
ground
are sandy
sparse
water resources and defense requirements.
scoops
were therefore built to address these needs, and
catch and funnel
2.5
prevailing winds into the structures.
the ambient air is cool
used
to
cool
at night, ventilation can
the structure or the
has considerable merit in hot,
technique
This
occupants.
dry climates where
daily temperature range is greater than 30*F.
the
of
to
Night Ventilation
When
be
Many wind
The mass
the
the structure is cooled by the lower temperature of
air.
night
When the temperatures begin to rise
next
the
morning, the structure is closed up and remains so until
the
following night.
In
hot,
humid
climates,
temperature amplitudes which are low
the night air temperature is not
cool
the structure.
to
daily
(on the order of
15'F),
however,
low enough
due
(around 78*F) to
Night ventilation in this case may only
be
Since the most effectively
night.
sealed building has at least one
volume of air changing
its
quarter
at
directly
cooling the occupants
of
capable
to
(due
infiltration)
hour, night ventilation does not notably increase
each
(moisture content) in the building, but it does
load
latent
sensible
the
decrease
the
cooling
sensible
a
(causing
load
effect by convection from human body).
2.6
Mechanically Driven Ventilation
mechanically
Although
driven
be grouped into passive cooling techniques because
strictly
energy, it may be called
it uses electrical
case
that no refrigeration is utilized.
uses
a fan, driven by electrical
movement is created
This hybrid system
energy, through which
direct
air
in the desired place.
device
in
These systems can be divided into two
humid climates.
categories:
"passive" in the
fan is a time proven cooling
electric
The
hot,
cannot
ventilation
and indirect systems.
A direct
system
blows the air directly onto the occupants, while an indirect
blows
system
preferable
the air into the space.
when
intermittent
velocities are needed.
constant
A direct
usuage
and
system
maximum
is
air
An indirect system is desirable when
usage,, higher mechanical
efficiency, and
quietness
are at a premium.
When
and
from
prevailing wind speed is low, but air temperature
humidity
conditions would allow for
adequate
cooling
ventilation alone, it is best to use a fan which
28
will
only consume about 20% of the total energy involved in using
even the most efficient of air-conditioning systems.
3.0
EVAPORATIVE COOLING
Evaporative cooling has shown
in
hot,
dry
for evaporation.
has no beneficial
moisture
The principle is that
when
water
it cools the ambient air by capturing the
evaporates,
necessary
climates.
its significant potential
This technique,
heat
unfortunately ,
effect in hot, humid climates, because the
content here is already higher than that which
is
further evaporation would result only
in
comfortable,
and
increased discomfort.
Although this technique cannot be applied in hot, humid
climates
for
sprayers
to
through
to
ventilation
reduce
air, it can be
with
roof
cooling
load
used
the tremendous sensible
11
Roof spraying has been proven, by Bacon,
the roof.
be a very effective cooling system in terms of
reducing
roof
temperatures by as much as 60*F through the use of
4.0
RADIANT ROOF COOLING
This
dissipate
dark,
technique
uses the roof as a large
radiator
building heat to the cold ambient air and to
clear,
night sky.
For normal
it.
to
the
roof materials, radiant
cooling is only effective when the mean relative humidity is
lower
have
than 60%.
Evidently, then, radiant roof cooling
little positive effect in hot, humid climates
mean relative humidity is always 70%-80%.
29
can
where
5.0
EARTH COUPLED COOLING
temperatures
Soil
are
usually cooler
in
and
summer
This
in winter than the associated air temperatures.
warmer
uses
technique
moderate
type of
soil
as insulation and as thermal
mass
the indoor-outdoor temperature diffentials.
to
This
system usually requires that the houses be buried or
at least semiburied.
Although much attention has been given
to this type of construction, the problem of condensation on
the
walls
and the resultant
lack of
ventilation and daylighting, together with high mean
natural
soil
(due to high humidity),
temperature,
density
population
and
land
high
prices
to
(due
high
are
in some developing countries),
all
forces that work against the effectiveness of this technique
in hot, humid climates.
6.0
DETACHED EARTH COUPLED COOLING
the
above
catagories
or
medium
the
different
medium
in terms of the employed energy transfer
water).
is
coupled
ground, as opposed to those using earth
This technique can be divided into two
cooling.
(air
built
structures using this cooling technique are
The
Both work on the principle that
as
circulated through the pipes or tubes buried
ground, the temperature of
the
in
the medium becomes cooler as
the ground temperature is cooler than the air temperature at
6-8
from
ft depth
in summer.
As the air or water is
the ground tubes or pipes,
30
discharged
it can be utilized to
cool
the occupants or the structure.
Akridgea pointed out that the type of system which uses
air
high humidity in hot, humid climates, the pipes usually
cool
only
not
Due to
the cooled air directly to cool the occupants.
uses
the
usually
This type
as a medium shows serious problems.
the air to the dew point temperature and thus
do
air
is
it
is
the pipes are long enough to cool the air
to
saturated,
nearly
The discharged cool
latent load.
any
remove
100.
(
and
humidity)
relative
consequently quite uncomfortable.
if
Even
moisture in
produce condensation
the pipes is
to
therefore prone
is
dispose
of,
and
mildew,
and
bacteria
which
may
creat
difficult
to
mold,
producing
odor
or
health
problems.
water
If
directly.
occupants
transfer
medium,
the
than
the
used to cool the mass rather
usually
is
system
used as the heat
is
Here
the occupants
are
cooled
pumps the water through pipes in the ceiling
which
system
coupling to the mass. This is a closed-loop
radiant
(or
13
and then the ground.
walls)
this
of
type
detached
Akridge has demonstrated
earth-coupled
cooling
by
has
the
that
great
in reducing sensible load in hot, humid climates.
potential
The mean ground temperature is a decisive factor in the
success
of
this
However,
technique.
in some
hot,
when mean ground temperatures are above 72*F,
climates
this technique is evidently of dubious value
use
of
the
water
must be 7-8*F cooler than the desired
31
room
humid
the
since
air
temperature when using cooled interior masses.
DEHUMIDIFICATION
7.0
to reduce the sensible loads, i.e.,
applied
are
temperature
by
in
the
comfort
conditions may still
uncomfortable
pressure
is
in the air.
range
feeling
and
it
vapor
This excessive vapor pressure, caused
must
also be reduced
chemical
desiccants
can be
moisture, thus reducing the latent load.
(because it
to
restore
is
the
used
to
remove
Unfortunately, the
released from the liquification of water vapor and its
heat
absorption
by
desiccants
while
the
sensible
psychrometric
significantly
raises
air
the
That is to say, the latent load is decreased
temperatature.
chart
dehumidification
load is increased.
Fig. 2.6
analysis
typical
performance.
of
shows
a
desiccant
This chart reveals that,
as
is dryed by desiccants, the dry-bulb temperature of the
air
is
raised dramatically.
Some
have
(68-78 *F),
of comfort.
Various
air
reduce
occur due to high
high humidity, is called the latent load
concealed)
to
In hot, humid climates, even when
ambient air temperatures.
the
above
the passive cooling techniques mentioned
of
All
been
passive solar desiccant air-conditioning
proposed, but their commercialization
doubious due to their extremely high cost.
3 2 -a
systems
is
quite
63
80
start
7T 0
140
120
70
640
3
-20
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
so
DRTY-ULl TMERATIR,
Fig. 2.6
.20
-If)
60
70
so
9o
100
110
120
*7
Sorbent Dehumidification on Psychrometric Chart
32 - b
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER II
1.
"Man,Climate
Givoni,
B.,
Science Publishers Ltd.,
2.
V.,
pp. 6 7 - 7
1963);
Science Publishers Ltd.,
4.
Ibid.
5.
V.,
(Princeton University
.
"Man, Climate
Givoni,
B.,
1
(Applied
1976)
Olgyay, "Design with Climate",
Press,
3.
Architecture",
&
Architecture",
&
(Applied
chapter 7.
1976),
Olgyay, "Design with Climate",
(Princeton University
Press, 1963).
6.
"Man, Climate
Givoni,
B.,
Science Publishers Ltd.,
7.
8.
V.,
1963),
J.M.,
Akridge,
Cooling
(College
Climates",
Georgia Institute of Technology,
of
October
Chapter 2.
Ibid
G.,
Wittenberg and W.,
of
(Association
November
J.M.,
Akridge,
1982)-
12.
Passive
Design
in
Architecture,
Collegiate
Schools
of
Architecture,
"Investigation
Hot-Humid
for
Architecture,
"Climate Based
section 4.
1981),
Techniques
Turner,
Passive
Teaching
Cooling",
11.
Hot-Humid
Passive
of
"Investigation
for
Architecture,
10.
(Princeton University
chapter 9.
Press,
1982),
(Applied
15.
chapter
1976),
Olgyay, "Design with Climate",
Techniques
9.
Architecture",
&
Climates",
Georgia Institute of
Ibid.
13.
Ibid.
33
of
Passive
Cooling
(College
Technology,
of
October
CHAPTER III
WEATHER DATA AND DESIGN TOOLS
order
In
to
design
a
with
regard to its passive
architects
must
know
essential,
and how they may be analyzed.
focus
The
weather data, and their
on
data
weather
of
of
types
Taipei,
1.0
WEATHER DATA
1.1
Geogaraphical
time and local
This chapter will
Taiwan will be
design
used
tools.
as
an
method being developed.
position of
a region determines
time.
the
As a result, knowing one's position on
It also
globe is very important for sunshading design.
the
suggests
large
longitude,
and elevation.
addition
to
building
microclimatic
buildings.
latitude,
these parameters
are
121 33 East, and 20 ft respectively.
25 04 North,
prevailing
For Taipei
The
influences.
is defined by 3 parameters:
position
individual
climatic
regional
geographic
In
are
magnetic deviation, and the time lag between solar
sunpath,
the
data
Position
geographical
The
weather
impact on
example to illustrate the analytical
potential,
cooling
especially
what
building,
climate-responsive
regional
site
influences.
winds
has
For
climatic
its
own
influences,
specific
set
of
the
sun
or
example,
may be obstructed by
each
adjacent
high-rise
In urban areas, the microclimatic relationships
34
and often vary from the more
general
relationships,
These
influences.
regional
larger
and
complex
quite
become
must be individually examined at the specific site
however,
and as such,
they are beyond the scope of this thesis.
This
intends to suggest general design solutions based on
thesis
regional statistics for Taipei.
Olgyay
categorized
which
as follows:
affect
elements
comfort
human
1) air temperature, 2)
of
can
the
be
humidity, 3)
radiation.
and 4)
movement,
that the major
out
pointed
enviroment
climatic
air
Weather Data
Essential
1.2
Air Temperature
1.2.1
to
comparison
determining
measured
data
temperature
Air
primarily
important
desired interior air
temperatures
Temperature
the heating and cooling loads.
a standard thermometer is called the
by
Temperature
temperature.
thermometer
the
are
whose
bulb
moving air
is
as
a
by
measured
wet
covered with a
in
for
as
dry-bulb
"special"
wick
and
temperature.
is called the wet-bulb
exposed
to
Knowing
these two temperatures, the moisture content of the
air
or
the relative humidity can be found, and
information,
at
the
from
the dew-point temperature, or that temperature
which the moisture of the air begins to condense out
air
chart.
as it cools, can be derived from
The
this
vapor pressure in the air,
35
a
of
psychrometric
which
influences
and
comfort,
human
in
and
properly
mentioned above, refers to the
moisture
then
can
materials
building
problems
condensation
potential
be
examined,
evaluated.
1.2.2
Humidity
as
Humidity,
in
content
weight
of
water vapor per unit volume of
defined
dry air.
as the ratio
of
(R.H.)
absolute
humidity to the maximum possible moisture
the
Relative
the
humidity
of
is
as
absolute humidity is defined
the air.
actual
content
dry air at a given temperature.
in the air at all times, because air of a higher
can
content
same R.H. does not mean the same moisture
The
hold
temperature
absolute
For example, at a given
more moisture.
air of a low temperature will have a higher
humidity,
value than air of
a higher temperature.
no meaning as an environmental
R.H.
Therefore, R.H. has
index unless it is correlated
with an accompanying dry-bulb temperature.
A
seem
high absolute humidity will make summer temperatures
hotter
surface
always
of
1.2.3
the
higher
reducing
skin.
outside
the evaporation
rate
The vapor pressure in
than inside
load
(see Appendix
from
the
conditioned
This difference is used to calculate
summer.
cooling
by
the
air
is
space
in
the
latent
A).
Air Movement
Wind
is a major cooling influence.
36
Wind direction data
are
locations,
opening
the
helpful
most
in
determining
for determining
the wind intensity is sufficient to cool
whether
direct
and wind-inducing devices which
Wind velocity data are essential
wind.
orientation,
building
the people
inside a building.
Solar Radiation
1.2.4
Solar radiation data indicate the availability of solar
radiation
the
The data can be used to determine
energy.
heat
gain through the fenestration and the conduction
gain
through
heat
of
purpose
the opaque walls or roof for the
cooling load evaluation.
weather bureau, R.O.C.,
central
factors
gain
heat
the
these data have not yet been established by
Since
for 24 Deg.
North
Latitude
in
is used in this thesis in calculating
Fundamentals
solar
a table of clear-sky
ASHRAE
cooling
(see Appendix A).
loads
The
and
west facing facades are shaded in the morning
only
experience the diffuse component of solar radiation in
this
table.
0.125
inch
totally
shaded
greater
precipitation
through
the
a
average
Because the building proposed in this thesis
in summer, it is only
component of solar radiation.
diffuse
their
sheet glass are used to calculate
load.
cooling
is
These half-day heat gain factors
accuracy
rate
of
to the
due
exposed
These factors
high
Taipei where diffuse
dominant.
37
to
cloudiness
radiation
the
show
and
is
Other Helpful Data
1.2.5
to
addition
In
data
weather
the essential regional
mentioned above, there are some other data which are helpful
in passive cooling design.
(due to clouds or air pollution) and
Relative clearness
percipitation rates are helpful
(diffuse or direct),
solar radiation
is unavailable.
data
in predicting the pattern of
when measured radiation
Soil temperatures at different depths
the
earth
coupled or detached earth coupled cooling techniques.
Water
in
helpful
are
Extraordinary or rare phenomena such
proposed in Chapter V.
as
wind-inducing
into
taken
be
must
typhoons
the
typical
hour
to
or sunshading devices, which must be able
(19.2 m/sec).
dynamic
a
over
to
Therefore,
during each
changes
they
throughout
day
a
They are usually recorded as averages of each
10 year period.
analyze
without
These data are, however,
the
they are not very useful
cumbersome
cooling
because
data are most essential
weather
year.
numerous
less
desinging
Hourly Weather Data
Hourly
show
in
account
withstand extremely high wind pressures
1.3
is
impact on the buried cooling reservoir which
flux
heat
the
determining
information is important for
level
table
of
predicting the feasibility
loads in
guides
aid
38
a
computer.
to architects who
to the estimation
buildings.
of
of
too
heating
want
or
As
more
microcomputer
programs
weather data analysis, the potential of
data
for
of
shown
Table 3.1.
1.4
one day for
M.A.H.W.D.
average
data
represent
easier
for
one
for
knowledge
derived
from the
each month.
typical
architects
Although
of
is
hourly
M.A.H.W.D.
day for each month, they
to analyze and
An
Taipei
(M.A.H.W.D.)
are
for
increase.
Monthly Average Hourly Weather Data
weather
by
weather data of
hourly
developed
using hourly weather
climate responsive design will
a
example
in
are
only
are
much
manipulate.
With
of the cooling load calculation methods developed
ASHRAE, we can quickly estimate the cooling load for the
day, and thereby derive an estimate
given
typical
loads
for the whole month, by simply multiplying the
daily cooling load by the number of
monthly
of
the
total
days in that month.
average peaks and lows for outdoor air
temperature
by M.A.H.W.D. can also be used to calculate the
given
The
peak
heating or cooling loads.
In
addition,
relative
benefit
application
of
each
those
it is possible to compare the effect
of various design solutions
of these averages.
solution
proposed
are known,
solutions
through
or
the
Once the benefits and costs
it becomes easier
which
are
both
to
choose
efficient
and
economical.
Even
it
if the computerized weather analysis is available,
is still
very useful for architects to be familiar
39
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made
design,
of
stages
computer
in
preliminary
in order to understand
the
assumptions
M.A.H.W.D. analysis.
these
in
made
Assumptions
programs.
to recognize unless the architect has
difficult
in
the
cause limitations in the analysis
can
programs
during
especially
analysis,
M.A.H.W.D.
are
which
experience
Table 3.2 shows the M.A.H.W.D.
of
August for Taipei.
2.0
DESIGN TOOLS
2.1
Psychrometric
Chart Analysis
psychrometric chart is a graphic representation of
The
air temperature, humidity, and other data that are important
in
responsive
climate
right)
The
(Fig. 3.1)
dry-bulb
(shown by the curved lines that rise from
temperature
to
design.
are
used as a basis
to
determine
left
appropriate
climate responsive design strategies.
Milne
weather
and
"zones"
of
the
proposed a method
analyze
to
They divided the psychrometric
conditions.
into several
center
Givoni
(Fig. 3.2).
chart
The zone which lies in the
is named the "comfort
chart
the
zone".
This
comfort
zone, based on the average American attitude, falls
roughly
between
R.H..
The
comfort
boundaries exclude the "hot-humid" corner of
these
0
the accompanying R.H.)
strategies
0
F to 78 F and 20%. to 80*4
If weather conditions
coordinates.
and
68
fall
(dry-bulb
temperature
outside the "comfort zone",
may be derived from the chart which will
comfort conditions.
41
restore
I
S
a
i
I
L
'U
.3
L
4I
w
L
-C
L
A.-ivnivia"j J.odmio
L
4J.
.C
U
L
4J
is
0
.C
(L
c
N
Lii
Once
chart,
each
the
we
are plotted on
M.A.H.W.D.
a
psychrometric
can realize which strategies are best
month.
for
Fig.3.3 shows Taipei's average monthly weather
conditions
as
individual
points which are connected to form the
curve"
used
plotted
on the psychrmetric chart.
The
8
"climate
for each month, represent readings on a typical
day
taken every 3 hours from lam to 10pm.
From stategies and climate curves shown in Fig. 3.3, we
can
that passive solar heating is
conclude
between late November and the
possible
in
Taipei
March.
Furthermore,
maintain
needed
to
August
conventional
Only
necessary
from May to October
comfort.
for November and April
end
of
ventilation
is
During the day in
dehumidification
and
becomes
July
and
necessary.
do the daytime conditions
fall
naturally within the comfort zone.
2.2
Bioclimatic Chart
Bioclimatic Chart
developed
by
R.H.
by
-feel
its
1963.
The chart
(Fig.
Any
climatic
dry-bulb temperature and
on the chart.
of the chart.
we
in
as the horizontal axis.
determined
plotted
and its analytical method were first
3.4)
was
axis
with dry-bulb temperature as the vertical
constructed
and
Olgyay
Analysis
The comfort
R.H.
can
zone lies in the
If the conditions fall
comfortable in the shade.
condition
be
center
into the comfort zone,
If the condition
falls
outside, corrective measures must be utilized.
In
the
zone
above the comfort zone,
43
different
wind
Givoni's Psychrometric Analysis of Taipei's
M.A.H.W.D
Fig. 3.3
OLGYAY'S B5OCLIMATIC CHART
-Uful
1101
A
100!
a90
9
'e
60
70
MRT
20
73*
so
100
1so
so
RADIATION
4g
PREEZING
20
0oo
LINE
- - - 10
20
-
- - -70-
NO
40
so
-
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Fig. 3.4
tu/hr
so
70
'
so
9
so0
%)
Olgyay's Bioclimatic Chart
44
100
line
shading
The
which shading is
(above
than
efficient
is much more
comfort.
restoring
in
ventilation
the
below
zone
exclude
to
needed
solar radiation) is divided by lines which represent
direct
the
cooling
evaporative
however,
to
zone,
left
In the upper
feeling of comfort.
the
restore
and
needed to offset the high temperatures
are
speeds
quantity
foot
square
solar radiation in Btuh per
of
necessary to counteract the lower dry-bulb temperatures, and
to restore the desired comfort conditions.
by
developed
Conference in
Olgyay's
3.5)
(Fig.
was
Energy
Solar
Aren for the 5th International
The major difference between Aren's and
1980.
charts
Olgyay
zone
bioclimate chart
of
version
new
A
is found
this
In
in the upper left zone.
little help
proposes that moving air is of
cooling, while Aren proposes that it is, in fact, still
in
very
helpful.
The
bioclimatic
analysis
passive
for Taipei
M.A.H.W.D.
we
in
chart
can
heating
Only
naturally
2.3
conventional
during
that from
November
is needed.
December
Between
within the comfort
the
daytime
to
March,
April
be
and
utilized.
conditions
fall
zone.
Monthly Average Hourly Weather Data Chart
Chart)
chart
During the day in July and
dehumidification has to
do
Aren's
this
According to
will restore comfort.
December, ventilation
August
Fig. 3.6.
conclude
the
are plotted on
(M.A.H.W.D.
-
I*-
-
-
_
-7
,
-
..
AREN'S BIOCLIMATIC CHART
110 -3-
20
100
2012
90
70-
\10
0
20-30
w
WIND F06min
255
80 -
800
-
\400
10
mi
200
100
50
COMFORT ZONE
5
SHAOING LINE
I- 70-
60 -
---
5
-
MRT--Ta7
15
40 -
RADIATION Stu/hr sun altitude 45*
FREEZING LINE
30
20 '
t
10
-
II
20
30
40
I
I
v
I
I
50
60
70
80
90
I
I
100'
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)
Fig.
3.5
Aren's Bioclimatic Chart
AREN'S BIOCLIMATIC CHART
120,
1
1
I
1
I
110
100
I
90
4
w
8-
70
60
75
MRT- Ta
100 -
50
125
-ISO
RADIATION 8tu/hr sun altitude 45*
40
FREEZING LINE
30
20
Fig.
0
3.6
I
10
I
20
I
30
60
50
40
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)
Arern's Bioclima-tic
M. A. H. W. D
70
80
90
100
Analysis of Taipei's
_=mw
In
1980,
Novell developed a simple method which
uses
monthly average temperatures for every other hour throughout
the
day
shading
as
a
and
design index
various
to approximate
other
potential
the
need
passive
cooling
strategies.
This method can be refined by supplying
weather
which includes hourly dry-bulb
R.H.,
data
for
more
temperatures,
and wind velocities to form a M.A.H.W.D. Chart.
3.7 shows this chart for Taipei,
Fig.
Taiwan, ROC.
Once the M.A.H.W.D. is analyzed by the psychrometric or
bioclimatic
charts,
the
different climatic needs
can
be
transferred onto a M.A.H.W.D. chart so that the time periods
for
these
different needs can be determined.
Fig. 3.8
or
Fig. 3.9 respectively show the transferred climatic needs on
the
chart
M.A.H.W.D.
biclimatic
analyzed
or
psychrometric
a
chart.
Sun Chart and Shading Mask Protractor
2.4.
2.4.1
Sun Chart
The
sun's
position
at
determined
from the sun chart
and azimuth
( )
on
by a
the
horizon
angle)
and
or
hour
can
its altitude
be
(
)
The sun chart is dependent
position and
varies
with
different
Solar altitude is the vertical angle between the
the
sun's position.
Solar
azimath
is the horizional angle between the sun's
position and true north.
chart:
date
in terms of
(see Fig. 3.10).
geographical
latitudes.
any
(bearing
projected
There are two popular types of
the sky-dome sun chart and the cylindrical
47
sun
sun chart.
Fig.
3,.7
Taipei's M.A.H.W.D. Chart
MONTHLY AVERAGE HOURLY WEATHER DATA CHART
JAN
FED
b 4.1
Tmax.
MAR
(p90)
105.1
0)69
5
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6
Tave.
K
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JUN
DRY-BULB TEMPERATURES, R.H., & WIND SPEEDS
1 AM
2
5'r60
4.0
r
TIME:
-
MAY
01~ 0.1
8.) iX
cb
70.
ri)
0
APR
TAIPEI, TAIWAN R.O.C.
80.o
'7.
(As.5,
4M
7S67
1
80.
1
MONTHLY AVERAGE HOURLY WEATHER DATA CHART
JAN | F
Tave.
TIME:
RO
K41
.|ARAP
MAT
|JUN |JUL
AI,
,VA,0
R w*i
IN*-11et TEMPENATUES,
Comfort Zone
TAIrfn. TAIWAN I..C.
ROOM
.N.,
AM
SEP
0
VI%.%
|
SEC
VAC
VMS
OR
Strategies for restoring comfort
M
SPEESS
WIN@
W
Passive Solar Heating
-4'=i
ix7
l.
ti
AM
-
Natural Ventilation and Mechanical
Ventilation
Z7L
L
Conventional Dehumidification
AM
P
Ia-l
PM-IMI
U
Il-I3 A
PM
-
7~~~~~~
--
Fig. 3.8
0
-7
T
MIlEi~i@!i!
-
-P
- - - -
Human Comfort Needs on the M.A.H.W.D. Chart as
Analyzed by Givoni's Psychrometric Chart
MONTHLY AVERAGE HOURLY WEATHER DATA CHART
JAN
Tave
t13
,"0
TIME:
I - i an
MaN
AP
, .0.'"
', ''"
MATI JUN
4,
" 4
TAIPEI.
TaIwaN A.S.C.
JUt
.
All
SEP
89.*
ICT
Comfort Zone
NOV DEC
GOI
Strategies for restoring comfort
*S.
G
e'av-sits 7mPIaTuIES, B.S.. a wiNe SPill
Passive Solar Heating
t - 3 am
a-a am
3 - s am
50
-
I I - I am
A
o
- 50
I - I aN
_-
a am
am
s-se
i-:i
am
11-1
am
100
Btuh
Btuh
Natural Ventilation and Mechanical
Ventilation
0
-
100
ft/min
100
-
200
ft/min
200
300
ft/min
30-
500
ft/min
Ia- t AN
(wind speeds)
it - 1 101
a-s rm
I- I P
3-sP111
Conventional
I-? P1
Fig. 3.9
Human Comfort Needs on the M.A.H.W.D. Chart as
Analyzed by Aren's Bioclimatic Chart
Dehumidification
of
projection
the
angles
altitude
shown at the
They range from
shown at
are
radii;
They range f rom 0
south
the
center
of
0
meredian.
the chart
horizontal
o
intervals
(Apex).
The
azimath
spaced
-0
0
The observation point is
The elliptical
the chart represent horizontal
by
at the outside circle
(or 360 ) at north meri di an
(Apex).
The
apex.
10 degree intervals by equally
angles
at
10 degree
90 at the center point
to
(Horizon)
a
is
as seen from the
sunpath
are
concentric circles.
(Fig. 3.11)
chart
sun
sky-dome
The
to 180
in
the
curved lines in
projections of the sunpaths.
25* N.
HOURS
EWAS
100
110
120
SUMMER
SOLSTICE
130
40 S
.
Fig. 3.10
WINTER
SOLSTICE
200 _-..L
190
1-- 160
0
SOUT 170
Decli.
nation
+23- 27'
+20'
+15*
+10*
+ 5'
0*0
Solar Altitude and Azimuth
Approx. dates
June 22
May 21, July 24
May 1, Aug. 12
Apr. 16, Aug. 28
Apr. 3, Sept. 10
21, Sept. 23
5'.
Mar. 8, Oct. 6
-10*
Feb. 23, Oct. 20
-15*
Feb. 9, Nov. 3
-20'
Jan. 21, Nov. 22
-23' 27'
Dec. 22
Complete data in Table 169.
-
Fig.
51
3.11
Sky-Dome Sun Chart
sun chart
cylindrical
The
a
(Fig. 3.12) is
vertical
The chart
projection of the sunpath as seen from the earth.
0
constructed with 0 latitude as the horizontal
was
axis
and
0
180
(true
azimuth
point
observation
The
altitude
south)
as
the
vertical
is the intersection of
angles
are shown at
axis.
The
two
axes.
these
10 degree
intervals
lines which are parallel to the horizontal axis.
from
0
at the bottom
azimuth
which
1800
angles
are
at
along
They range
The
(horizon) to the 90 at the top.
are shown at 10 degree intervals
parallel to the vertical
axis.
by
lines
They range
the center to O or 36C? at both sides.
the
by
The
sky valut is plotted on the chart as
from
sunpath
elliptical
curved lines.
points
Two
must
be kept in mind when using
the
sun
chart
are
chart.
First, the azimuth angles shown on the
measured
form true or geographic north which differs, by
constant
angle depending on longitude, from magnetic
as
on a compass.
read
the
chart
Secondly, the times referred to
local
time.
Shading Mask Protractor ,
The
same
on
When Daylight Savings Time is in effect, one
hour should be subtracted from local
2.4.2
north
are solar times, which may differ from the
standard time.
a
effect
of shading devices can be plotted
manner as the sunpath was projected.
shows
shading
which part of the sky vault will
devices are called
the
The diagram that
be obstricted by the
"shading masks".
52
in
Shading
masks
+
23a27
80
70
60
50
-
4.0
30
20
10
AM
0
30
60
120
E
N
Fig.
90
3. 12
Cy1indrical
150
180
S
210
240
270
w
300
330
360
N
Sun Chart
.1
will
change
at different observation points on the
window
(Fig. 3.13),
they are geometric projections and as such, are
independent
of
result,
they
direction
can
be
and exposed orientations.
used
with
equal
As
accuracy
in
a
any
and at any location.
The
shading mask protractor is used to design
the
same
projection
therefore, it
Fig.
3.14
sky-dome
local sun chart
sun
shows
sun
chart,
predict
to
a shading mask
charts.
bearing
masks
for
lines
is titled
shading
angles
vertical
fins.
shows
sun
cyclindrical
The lower part
the
shading
Imaginary
vertical
masks
the
of
lines
vertical
the
chart
shading
showing
curved
determine
overhangs.
of
can
sun
and is used to
mask
shading
masks
for
the
protractor
The curved lines
charts.
determine
the
is used to determine
"profile angles",
3.15
Fig.
protractor
The upper part of
the shading masks for horizontal
shading
the
a particular overhang or vertical fin design.
effect of
showing
the
as
scale
is
to overlay a transparent copy of the
is useful
onto
protractor
and
shading
The protractor
for the periods of overheating.
devices
in
latitude
horizontal
be used
fins.
are
to
Fig.
for
used
to
overhangs.
determine
3.16
the
shows
two
different types of shading masks for a given shading device.
A
set
of
shading
illustrated
by
Olgyay
Architecture
of
shading
devices and
in
1963
their
is
shading
widely
masks
accepted
-
Graphic Standards used them as an illustration
device
design.
These shading
54
masks
however,
..... .....
........ ...
.......
..
..
..
..
.
..
..
..
.
..... .....
.............
......
.....
r~~~~ .......
.....
1 7..
.....
.. . .. .
.....
........
IN
*
.........
.
... . . .
. ..
~.......
........
... .
..
/:::
. ..
......
..... ....
..........
..
.4.
:.
.. .
.
Sy....hdng
Fig.......
./..
.
.
.
.
iffrn
Msk.ih
Obser-.at.......nt
55
.
..
..
........
SHADING
Fig. 3.14
MASK
Sky-Dome Shading Mask Protractor
DROOP LINES
E
N
Fig.
3.15
PROTRACTOR
Cylindrical
FOR A
QUASICENTRODAL
S
Shading Mask
56
PROJECTION
W
Protractor
N
EGGCRATE
VERTICAL
HORIZONTAL
IlI
Iii
..
.I~...........
IT
.
..1
...
... .
.
I
-
.
I.-. .....
\
-...-.-.-
I
'
-- --- --
---
-.-.-....-.-.-.
...
lie
.- .-- -- - .. - ....-......--..
. .
9
Fig. 3.16
Shading Masks for
Sky-Dome and Cyclindrical
the Same Shading Devices
57
6
except
correct.
completely
They are wrong because the
Corrections must be made to represent the real
determined by their relative shading device
periods
Overheated
M.A.H.W.D.
determine
long
sunshine.
path
have the same sunpath but shading is needed
to
in September, but only from lam
need
earth
absorbs heat in summer or becomes cold in winter
thereby
spring.
influences
the
ambient temperatures
in
in
and
and
the
is due to the thermal mass of
This
3pm
months are warmer
while the spring months are colder
shading
which
to
September
For example,
Generally speaking, the fall
March.
chart
in which the sun follows the same
months
and March 21
day
and
before.
mentioned
can also be superimposed on a sun
have different shading needs.
will
plotting
the needed shading masks.
Often,
are
(Fig. 3.17).
can first be analyzed by
on a M.A.H.W.D. chart as
periods
These
need
shading masks
the psychrometric or bioclimatic chart,
on
recorded
then
all
length.
"Shaded" Sun Chart and Shading Devices Design
2.4.3
23
horizontal
fins never have infinite
or the vertical
overhangs
not
are
the egg crate type of shading device,
for
fall
and
or
When shading needs are different but the
sunpaths
seasonally
adjusted
similiar
during
these
months,
shading devices are needed.
Fig.
heavily
3.18
dotted
shows
area
the shading needs
shows
for
perment shading
Taipei,
needs.
the
The
lightly dotted area shows seasonally adjusted shading needs.
58
2
5
4
a
a
Rm
Fig. 3.17
Corrections to Olgyay's Shading Masks
Fig. 3.17
Corrections to Olgyay's Shading Masks
60
25* N.
Fig.
If
sun
3.18
"Shaded"
Sun Chart for
Taipei
the orientation of a window is known,this
"shaded"
chart and shading mask protractor can be used to design
A set
climaticly responsive shading devices for the window.
of examples of this method will
2.5
IV.
Wind Roses
Wind
percent,
roses
induced
in
for a specific area show the frequency
of winds from different compass directions.
are most helpful
wind
be presented in Chapter
They
in passive cooling designs where natural
ventilation is appropriate.
61
In
such
or
cases,
architects
building
can
wind roses to
use
orientation
determine
and in designing the
the
"wind
optimal
inducing"
devices.
In general, the desired summer winds should be utilized
for
cooling,
deflected.
while
the
severe
winter
winds
should
Fig. 3.19 shows the wind roses for Taipei,
be
based
on the weather data for the period 1972-1981.
2.6
Soil Temperature Profile Analysis
In order to determine the applicability of direct earth'
coupled
cooling
strategies,
are
or
earth
coupled
cooling
ground temperature profiles at different depths
essential.
Fig. 3.20 shows
profiles of Taipei
monthly
detached
at
1,
12,
the
ground
and 25 ft.
temperature
in comparison to the
maximum and minimum air temperature.
These
ground
temperatures are calcuated in Appendix C.
Because both the earth coupled cooling and the detached
coupled
earth
surface
room
cooling systems requiere that
temperatures
air temperature
at least 8
(78 F)
F lower than
in summer
the
the
interior
desired
in order to cool,
it
can be seen that these strategies do not apply to Taipei.
2.7
Cooling Load Calculations
Summer
grouped
loads.
be
into
cooling
two
loads
in hot, humid climates
catagories:
sensible
loads
and
can
be
latent
Sensible cooling load is the rate at which heat must
removed from the space to maintain room air
temperature
N
I
JAN
APR
FEB
MAY
MAR
JUN
Fig. 3.19
Wind Roses of Taipei,
1972-81
63
for the Time Period:
J UL
0 CT
N
AUG
NOV
SEP
DEC
Fig. 3.19
Wind Roses of Taipei,
1972-81
64
for the Time Period:
Latent
a constant value (usually 78OF for residences).
at
from
removed
be
i.e.,
air,
dry
the space to maintain room
at constant value
humidity
of
must
load is the rate at which moisture of the air
cooling
50% R.H.
absolute
air
pound
(usually 72 grains in one
at 78 0 F).
loads
These cooling
not only affected by the external heat gains determined
are
the weather conditions and envelop design
by
control
heat
but they are also influenced by internal
strategies),
such as the heat released from occupants, lights,
gains
equipments, etc.
mechnical
major
the
(load
Table 3.3 shows
(see Fig. 3.21)
cooling load equations developed by 1981
ASHRAE
Fundmentals.
90--
70 -
soit(15 f t)
\
-m
Illir~ffite~iT
3
a.
soift)
\
60 NIair(min)
JAN
FEB 'MAR
'APR 'MAY 'JUN 'JUL
'AUG 'SEP
TIME IN MONTHS
Fig. 3.20
or
Ground Temperature Profiles for Taipei
BUILDING HEAT LOSS/GAIN-HEAT GAIN IN SUMMER
The major heat gain factors in summer are depicted below
o(RADIiTion HEAT'N
>n
TNiodua cM
.
in DTUH- IFLUe.1veD
&Y WuL.Lin& Oft450-
TATIof Ar-o So4islo)
c (Con Ouc-rton
H4EAT GcAin TH~odou
OLASS In
STUH)
.
........
............
.......
.............
............
.
-.
...
...
..
..
...
...
..
..
..
..
.....
.
.1.
..
........
.
......
...
..
I...
....
..
...
...
..
..
..
.
....
..
....
.....
....
..
I..
..
...
..
..
....
...
.
..
...
..
...
.....
......
..
..
...
.....
.....
..
..
...
..........
................
.....................
...........
..
.....
.....
....
...
..
.....................
..
.......
.
...
...
......
.......
..
..
..
....
.........
..
........
Cz orivccTlofl Heorcg#qin 1:Fzom__j
. ...
.........
.. ... ......
......
..... .
.
....
.. .........
....
. . .....
...
. .......
..... .. ................
..........
.. ......
. .. ..
.. ..
.. .....
.
.....
..........
.........
.
..
......
....................
.......
.. ...............
Hm
mecHf;nicAt i;rio
F-L.
E-auwniEnT in aTuHi)
-Rom
-rgic;;L
K&TUr~N)
OGCUP'RATS
HET
FRo
socupArts
BTUH)
Fig.
3.21
Building Heat Gains in
66
Summer
i
cGili
in
Description
Basic Cooling Load Equations
-------------------------------------------------------------U: Overall coefficient of
Q = U * A * CLTD
1)
in
heat transmission
Btuh / sqft-F
A: Area of wall, roof, or
glass surface in sqft
CLTD: Cooling load temperF
ature difference in
Tsol-air)
(Tair
-------------------------------------------------------------A: Area of openings in
Q = A * S.C. * SHGF
2)
sqft
S.C.: Shading coefficient (no
un i ts)
SHGF: Solar heat gain factor
in Btuh/sqft
-------------------------------------------------------------W: Lighting, electrical,
Q = 3.4 * W
3)
and mechanical equipenergy in
ment total
watts
----------------------------------------------------------Infilitration
4)
5)
CFM:
Venntilation and
Infiltration air,
cubit feet per minute
T: Inside-ouside air
temperature difference
F
in
air
Inside-outside
W:
Q1 atent
differratio
humidity
=1.10 * CFM * T
difference,
air
dry
H2o/1b
lb
-------------------------------------------------------------Occupants
Qsensible
=1.10 * CFM *
225 *
(number
of
occupants)
= 225 *
(number
of
occupants)
Qsensible =
Qlantent
T
Table
67
3.3
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER III
1.
-
Society
ASHRAE Fundamentals, Published by the American
of
Heating,
Conditioning
Air
and
Refrigeration
Engineers, 1977.
Givoni,
B.,
2.
(Applied
and Architecture",
Publishers,
1973),
(Princeton University
chapter 2.
Design",
Proceedings
Internal
Solar
19-22,
B.,
and
the American Section
of
Energy
Volume
Society,
5.2,
Solar
Novell,
October
Passive Cooling Strategies Based on Monthly Average
Beach
Olgyay, "Design with Climate",
Press,
1973),
1981,
Passive and
pp. 3 9
Heating,
2
-396 .
(Princeton University
chapter 7.
ASHRAE Fundamentals, Published by the American
of
the
"A Simple Design Method for Shading Devices
Hybrid Cooling Conference, Miami
V.,
of
1980, pp 1202-1206.
Temperature", Passive Cooling, International
7.
1976),
E.,, Arens, "A New Bioclimatic Chart for Passive
4.
6.
ed.,
2nd
London,
Ltd.,
Olgyay, "design with Climate",
Press,
5.
Science
Climate
16.
chapter
V.,
"Man,
Refrigeration
Engineers, 1977; chapter 25.
68
and
Society
Air-Conditioning
CHAPTER
IV
DESIGN ISSUE AND PASSIVE SOLUTIONS
1.0
DESIGN ISSUE
density of
population
The
population in
world
third
is usually higher than that of the united States.
countries
due
Therefore,
the limitation of
to
space,
multi-family
.
housing units are very popular and quite necessary
The five-story walk-up apartment is expecially dominant
in
Taiwan.
People
usually
use the
first
as
shopping area with a sheltered walkway in
commercial
reason of high percipitation rates).
(by
floor
a
front
The shopping area
is
divided by the building bays, and the owners always live
in
the
apartment
directly above.
of
The prototype
this
multifamily residence is depicted in Fig. 4.1.
usually
prototype housing designs, however, are
These
established by manufacturers rather than by achitects, as is
shown
this
Any rational
their similarity.
by
design change
type of housing reveals several difficulties with
in
the
original prototype.
The
a
popular prototype always uses the 4.5m -
division unit.
6m bay as
Each unit has its own stairway leading up
to
the upper floors, and the housing unit above in this bay
is
always
arrangement
very uncomfortable on account of the
which
impedes
natural
ventilation.
"narrow-bay" type also produces another problem.
69
narrow-bay
This
People can
I
.
*.w..
TYPICAL FL. PLAN
..- w~ i.
,.F
92999ww
XM
.
I....
~
I
.17-I
-:1..
5
~uJ~
SECOND
FL. PLAN
II
I
I
X X.M9R.
I
GROUND
Fig. 4.1
FL.
PLAN
Fig. 4.2
The Prototype of
Present Multifamily
Residence in Taipei
70
Privacy Interruptions
in Contemporary Building
Designs
at
a given bay unit,
afford to buy the 5 floors of
rarely
least two families have to share each bay.
occupancy
one
the
private
double
causes great inconvenience because there is
stairway in each unit.
private
when
This
so,
family
Interruptions
has to go through
the
only
happen
other
family's
living space in order to use the stairway
(see Fig.
4.2).
According
attempt
but
rather
to
scope of this thesis, there
suggest an acceptable
problems.
configuration,
and
would
the
comfort
during
cooling
techniques.
eliminate
the
very
(outward
features
architectural
but
accept
design
1
small
solution
also
hot
but
greatly increase
summer by
circulation
the
in
the
balcony,
feeling
of
passive
for
allowing
or
to
construction
popular
At the same time, this
present
no
convince
changes
appearence,
meter narrow
is
this prototype
This solution would not only
to
manufacturer
etc.),
the
made to change the overall design of
existing
the
to
change
would
arrangement
plan
problems.
The
design
allowing
following
will
sections
introduce
a
series
solutions which include climate responsive
for
the
maximum benefit
from
of
features
proposed
passive
cooling techniques.
2.0
PLAN REARRANGEMENT
The
outward
newly designed plan
(Fig. 4.3) does not change the
appearance or the construction configuration
71
(same
TYPICAL FL. PLAN
SECOND
FL. PLAN
...................
....
......
. .....
..........
....
......
.....
.......
-
.....
.............
.....
..........
........
...............
...
... ....
..........
....
...
..
....
..
....
..
..
. ...
... ..
...
..
..
.
..
. ....
...
.
. ..
.
.
..............
..
..
.
..
...
.
..
..
.
..
...
.
.
.
..
....
..
.
..
..
..
....
.
.
...
.
..
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.
.
..
..
..
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..
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.
..
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..
.
. .
...
....
.................
.
.
..
.
.
..
..
..
...
..
..
..-. ..
.....
..
..
..
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..
.
.
.
..
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.
.
..
.
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....
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...
......
....
-...
-P;v
SHOP
...
...
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..
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i..
T ......
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.
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.
..
...
...
....
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..
.
..
.......
................
..............
GROUND
Fig. 4.3
FL. PLAN
A New Design
72
Proposal
.......... ....
................
............
........
...........
........
...
....
...... ..
.....
....
....
.......
.....
.....
...
xo::
Soo
..
......
..
300
. ........ ....
.......
......
. ............
500
...
.
.
. . . .. . . ..
.. . . .. . .
A
:.:.:.
.. . .
500
. ..
X -:x
X.
.. .. ..
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. .
.. . . . . . . . . . . ..
..
..
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R...........
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. ...............................................
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500
1150 cm
r-4
CL
c
W
al
LL
bay
distance typ. 5 meter).
stairways, it uses stairways which are mutually
distributed
shared
retain the same popularly accepted pattern
The other floors of
street
shops.
change
dramatically
which
are
increases
two
from
bays wide.
the natural
of
however,
to
units
This new arrangement
not
cross-ventilation through this
only
unit,
extra circulation area and
unit
area
by a typical family remains the same as before.
The
interruption
owned
apartments,
narrow, one bay units
but, also eliminates the waste of
its
The shopping area on the
by B families and 4 shops.
floor
first
Rather, than using individually
of family privacy.
The total
new design simply removes the upper unit of each family, and
puts the two units together on the same floor
The
example referred to in this thesis is a design for
a 6-person extended family, as is
culture.
tecniques
divided
the usual
case in Chinese
proposed
cooling
can also be applied to other multifamily
housing
The
same
types which accomodate
The
(see Fig. 4.4
principle
of
the
different family sizes.
rearranged plan, nearly without corridor space, is
into
two zones:
are in one zone;
living, dining,
and kitchen
bedrooms are in the other.
areas
This arangement
creates the greatest potential of using cross-ventilation to
cool
the occupants.
74
Fig. 4.4
A Design Concept for Preserving the Present
Floor Area Per Family
1.9
M-1
I.LCM
PL>WOOP
ft&EEL.AA;ULATIO
AzgArct
\.GM
INTERIORI Y/
Fig. 4.5
EXTERIOR
1Aj
An External Wall
e1ca.
Section
75
.
3.0
LOAD CONTROL
3.1
Orientation
As mentioned
II,
it is best to control
the building toward true south.
orienting
to
in chaper
encourage
however,
natural
ventilation
difficult
the
building,
due to the prevailing wind direction which
during the spring or fall when natural
most
essential for restoring comfort.
induced
It is
through
east
sun by
is from
ventilation
is
Ventilation must
be
by special wind-inducing devices which will provide
cross-ventilation.
In
urban areas, a building's orientation is
decided
by
the site and it's relation to the street.
orientation
Different
generally
happen
may
sun
control
Any
as
Taipei.
solutions and wind-inducing
devices
in
such
a
region
must therefore be individually designed for a specific site.
These
will
discussed in section 3.2 and
be
of
6.2
this
chapter.
3.2
Window Design
Window
areas
approximately
(see
Fig.
radiation
assuring
the
4.5).
on
both
sides
of
same to assure proper
The total
the
building
cross-ventilation
areas are minimized
to
reduce
and conduction heat gains while at the same
good
ventilation
and
are
daylighting.
time
External
louvered blinds are applied over the windows in the bedroom.
They
are also put on the lower parts of the windows in
the
living, dining and kitchen rooms to further reduce radiation
76
heat
The living room, dining room and kitchen
gains.
are
unobstructed so that the difuse component of sunlight can be
brought in for daylighting.
3.3
Sunshading Design
As
chart
know
discussed
in
Chapter
III, section 2.4,
with
sun
and a determination of the overheated periods we
can
which parts of the year the windows should be
totally
And by this method we know which part of the
shaded.
vault should not be seen from any point on the window.
this
optimal
a
is overlain by
shading
different directions we can
facing
protractor
chart
sun
"shaded"
design
sky
Once
mask
the
shading devices.
One point should be noted, that windows in this type of
building
overhangs
the
in
facing
with
prototype of
front
any
already
direction
approximately a 60
have
profile angle,
the unit has a traditional
of the window.
horizontal
because
1 meter balcony
This balcony is the overhang
for
the windows on the floor below. Eight differently orientated
shading devices for north-south, east-west, NE-SW, and NW-SE
oriented
buildings
are shown repectively in Figs. 4.8, 4.9,
4.12, & 4.13
4.0
CHOICE OF MATERIALS AND COLORS
The
floor),
amount
and
of
doors
insulation
must
conduction coolig load.
walls,
calculated
be
Wall
in the
to
roof
(top
reduce
the
insulation should be placed as
77
close to the outside surface as possible rather than against
the
inside surface as is common practice in cold
This
configuration is best in hot, humid climates,
the
because
insulation so placed can eliminate the accumulation
excessive
time.
of
climates.
conduction and radiation heat gain during the day
Vapor barriers must be applied to the outside surface
insulation to prevent moisture built-up within it,
eliminate condensation problems.
wall
section
of
a typical
Fig.
4.5
south-facing
residential
partitions
such
as
wood studs with plywood sheathing than
mass
such
its
section
with
high
in
1.3).
radiation
loads.
louvered blinds can be used to efficiently
reduce
of
and
conduction
radiation heat gain by reflection.
rough
that
construction
glazing is preferable to single glazing because
reduction
External
light
unit.
as concrete or bricks as is usually the case
Double
the
are better made of
(see Chapter II,
Taiwan
and to
shows an external
Interior
of
of
external
wall
surfaces
Givoni
have
pointed
lower
out
surface
resistance values than smooth ones, i.e. the conduction load
is
higher
with a rough surface.
This load is
though if the walls are light-colored and well
In
must be painted
urban
darken
insulated.
roof should be covered with white pebbles, and the
The
wall
negligible,
areas
the
material,
light color to reflect the solar gain.
such as Taipei,
light-colored wall,
air pollution
and some
washable
therefore, such as ceramic might well
78
can
easily
surface
be used.
SEALED BUILDING
5.0
The
makes
weatherstripping
cooling
load
from
4.6
joints as shown in Fig.
building well sealed.
the
latent
all
well
as
thereby
be
The sensible as
infilitration
can
reduced.
6.0
VENTILATION
6.1
Ventilation
can
According
to the Aren's bioclimatic
construct
a
shown
to cool
on
the
M.A.H.W.D.
velocities
the occupants inside the building
(Fig.
are
3.6).
wind speeds required for cooling are always above 300
per
minute
analysis.
300
(fpm)
according to
the
biclimatic
During this time, the windows
closed for
1)
ventilation schedule
we
summer time, once the air temperature is above 82*F, the
usual
ft
chart analysis,
The requirement of different wind
chart.
In
Schedule
chart
are
preferrably
be
comfortable
two reasons:
fmp
wind
speed
is
too
high
to
(Olgyay, Design with Climate p.20).
2)
The
outdoor excessive sensible
and
greatly
increase
space if
the building is ventilated.
M.A.H.W.D.
is
heat
load in the
will
internal
the analysis above, the ventialtion schedule on a
From
flow)
the overall cooling
latent
chart
shown in
(when the window should be opened for
Fig 4.7.
79
air
THRESHFOLDS
EXTERIORS
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WEATHERSTRIPPING
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Weatherstripping at Window and Door Frame
80
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6.2
Wind Roses and Design Solutions
From
(see
the
analysis of a regional
Fig. 3.19),
and
(S. S.E.)
The ventilation schedule
(E.S.E.).
south east
Taipei
for
is from east while
is from south, south south east
it
summer
rose
we can conclude that in the spring,
the prevailing wind
winter
wind
tells
fall,
in
the
and east
LIS
that
we need ventilation for over half the year.
Therefore, the E.,
or
induced
S.,
S.S.E.,
and E.S.E. winds must be
allowed to natural ventialtion in
the
spring,
and during summer nights.
fall,
Since
the
building's
uncertain,
the
four
correlated
with
the
orientation
examples
of
in
wind
shading devices
the
inducing
for
city
is
devices,
facades
facing
different orientations are discussed below.
Main Facades Facing North and South
6.2.1
Summer
winds
directly,
ventialation
by
redirected
on
pressure
casement
easily
used
be
but spring and fall
windows which
for
winds
create
a
positive
the
vertical fins
to
help deflect the east prevailing wind into the
(based on the same principle),
typical
be
The railing along
II,Section 2.4).
wide balcony can also be provided with 45
shows
must
the
Im
4.8
natural
the south facade and negative pressure on
(see Chapter
north
can
building
in the spring and fall.
the sunshading and wind-inducing design for
unit plan facing north and south.
84
Fig.
the
'7
3
N.
0
z
(D
z
A
z
i
0
z
lEa
'U
LL
'0
z
3:
PLANS
SHADING MASKS
Fig. 4.8
Sunshading and Wind-inducing Design for
North-South Orientated Buildings
85
SECTIONS
Main Facades Facing East and West
6.2.2
with two differently oriented vertical
Fig. 4.9 shows the optimal
and
fins for sun control.
sun shading fins in east and west
spring
once the shading devices are constructed, the
wall,
winds cannot.
window
the
below
louvers
and
devices
induction
In this case the vertical fins in the
(see Fig.
with movable insulation
on the east
sill
side
inducing
wind
railing are used as the major
balcony
east
the
winds can still penetrate the building, while
fall
summer
wall
solutions can be introduced on the east side
Two
applied
are
wall
wind
for
4.10).
Fig. 4.11 shows a different sun shading devices on east
windows which cannot control
side
fins
vertical
little
can
enter
sun control,
wind inducing device.
directly.
looses
a
is, nonetheless,
a
it
Although
in Fig. 4.9.
of over-all
bit
good
very
shown
the sun as efficiently as
it
In summer, the winds can
be
inside
with the same principle as discussed before.
always
advisable
to
have
winds
In spring and fall
oblique vertical
fins
induced
It
in
is
the
railing to help induce winds in each case.
6.2.3
Main Facades Facing North-West and South-East
After sunshading vertical
unit as shown
ventiation.
by vertical
fins are constructed for this
in Fig. 4.12, summer winds can provide natural
Spring and fall
winds
(from E.)
must be induced
fins in the railing and cross-ventilation can be
86
N
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U* IL
I-
0
z
U
U,-
0
z
n. N.
LI
l
0
z
'U
'U
0
z
SHADING MASKS
Fig. 4.9
PLANS
Sunshading and Wind-inducing Design for
East-West Orientated Buildings
87
SECT IONS
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Fig. 4.10
Movable Insulation with Louvers below The
Window Sill
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....
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..
....
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....
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................
................
..............
........
...
......
A Second Option +or Sunshading and
Fig.
4.11
Orientated Buildings
in
East-West
Design
88
......
Wind-Inducing
/
W.n.
z
0
a
'5
a
z
W-N.
0
Z
Ia
a
0L
z
I'.
SHADING MASKS
Fig. 4.12
PLANS
SEC TIO N S
Sunshading and Wind-Inducing Design for NE-SW
Orientated Buildings
89
accomplished
through the louvers with movealble
below the window sill
6.2.4
(see Fig.
insulation
4.10).
Main Facades Facing North-West and South-East
The
cannot
devices
vertical
same
problem
ventilate
in
wind
the building with- the optimal
(Fig. 4.13).
fins
occurs due to the east
the
which
sunshading
The same solution as above which uses
railing and
insulation under the window sill,
90
louvers
with
movable
must also be applied here.
N
/
SO N.
z
an
a
0
z
-0
a
a
0
0
z
SHADING
Fig. 4.13
MASKS
PLANS
SECTIONS
Sunshading and Wind-inducing Design for NW-SE
Buildings
Orientated
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER IV
1.
B.,
Givoni ,
(Applied
"Man, Climate and Architecture",
Science
Publishers,
Ltd.,
2nd
London,
ed.
,
1976),
chapter 7.
2.
E.,, Arens, "A
New Bioclimatic
Chart for Passive
the American Section
of
Design",
Proceedings
Internal
Solar Energy Society, Vol.
1980.
92
9.2, October
Solar
of
the
19-22,
CHAPTER V
LOW COST COOLING USING ANNUAL STORAGE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
the basic climate types, hot,
0f all
the
difficult
most
difficulty
is
humidities
during
ones
to deal with
the summer season.
cooling
techniques
daytime
in
can
and
high
An analysis of
both
be used to
not
and August in such a
July
passive
reveals that
and bioclimatic charts
This
passively.
to the high air temperatures
due
psychrometric
humid climates are
cool
during
region
climate
the
as
Taipei.
In
at
in
a 300 ft/min wind speed to maintain comfort,
least
windows
of a structure are better
chapter
IV.
conventional
to
When
left closed as
ventilation
is
not
the
discussed
appropriate,
dehumidifiers or air conditioning systems must
applied to reduce the sensible and latent
be
require
real applications, when weather conditions
loads in order
maintain comfort.
In
technique
this
will
conventional
2.0
be
an
alternative
introduced
to
cooling
low-cost
replace
the
high-cost
dehumidifier or air-conditioning systems.
SUMMER COOLING LOAD
The
unit
section,
of
summer cooling load for a 6-person extended family
the aforementioned multifamily
residences
facing
1
235
255
360
360
255
1
235
300
300
t
------------------ ----
.
X Xe .....
XX
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e-v
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00
500
500
I
I
Fig. 5.1
300
-I
1150
I
1
500
I
500
1150 cm
Typical
Unit Plan Facing South and Its Summer
Load
Taipei
in
in
0
..... ...
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....
.....
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...
In
. .....
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.
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.
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......
.
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.....
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......................................
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...
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........
. .. . . . . .
.... .............................................
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.. . . . . . .
.. .
MR ,
**,* ,**
. . . . .
. . . .. .
.
......
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...
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...
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V .*. . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . ..
. .
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I
4
(Fig. 5.1)
or north
south
,
Appendix
(fig. 4.18) are calculated
or
and shown in Fig. 5.1.
The external heat gains are minimized by several
1)
double
glazing,
walls
opaque
4.16),
5)
(Fig.
4.16),
are
(Fig.
2)
7)
louvered blinds,
external
4.15),
R-10 insulated
4)
direct sun shading. 6)
R-11
doors
(Fig.
sealed window or door frame
light color surfaces.
The
That is to say, the wind is
closed.
means:
3)
cooling
to only accounts for the periods when the
referred
in
load
windows
insufficient
or
unappropriate, during these periods, to be used as a cooling
The loads must be extracted by a
source.
system,
mechanical
air-conditioning
which
such
system,
as a
or,
properly
dehumidifier,
conventional
better still,
sized
the new
system
discussed below.
is
HEAT PUMPS
3.0
a device which extracts heat energy from
A heat pump is
a source at a low temperature and adds this extracted energy
to
a source at a high temperature.
sources
can
worthwhile
this
be
If charge and discharge
found, the heat pump applications
can
be
because the amount of energy required to operate
system
is
only a fraction of the
total
heating
or
cooling energy provided.
Heat pumps can be used to heat or cool
to
serve
been
other
in
as a domestic hot water
the building, or
(DHW) heater.
They
wide-spread case in Japan, the United States,
countries
in
the world due to
95
the
convenience
have
and
of
w
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switching
to
building,
and
term
either
or
heating
modes
cooling
due to their competitive initial
durability,
in
the
long
cost,
easy installation, and the low
operating
energy
operating
costs.
The
energy
of
ratio
of
input
(q)
a heat pump.
(heat)
is the basic measure of
This ratio
i.e. COP= Q/q.
performance),
have a COP greater than
must
extracted
named
is
(Q)
the
"COP"
to
effectiveness
(coefficient
of
To be effective, a heat
pump
1, and the higher the COP
the
more effective it will be, and the more costs wil l be saved.
mode,
and
the heat pump function, during
general,
In
energy is rejected as waste.
this
by-product,
higher temperature energy as a
produces
If
waste.
utilized
as a
the so called "waste"
"useful"
heating
During t he
mode, the by-product of lower temperature energy
as
the cooling
energy
energy, the COP of
is rejected
were
fully
a heat pump could
be imagined as having twice its previous value.
hot, humid climates, latent loads are as
In
problem
as
sensible
dehumidification
removing
latent
sensible load
their
techniques
Although
may
loads, they will
appear to be
in
this case because
as sensible loads.
97
a
desi cc ant
passi ve
increase
eventually
(as discussed in Chapter II).
superiority
latent as well
loads.
ser i ous
in
the
Heat pumps show
they
can
remove
4.0
HEAT PUMP, DHW, AND SEASONAL COOLING RESERVIOR
4.1
Domestic Hot Water Heater
are
There
many
different
ways to
heat
occupants, such as propane heaters, electrical
plate
solar
collectors,
or heat pumps.
DHW
for
the
heaters, flat
The
most
energy
consumptive device among this list is the electrical heater,
although they are both
second,
the
propane heater;
used.
The
performance of flat
whether
by active or passive means
in
shown
Fig.
solar
(Thermo-siphon principle
attention
have drawn much
in
little
water
heating
due
to
the
accompany the collector for cloudy days.
has
which
a
high
percent
of
precipitation rate like Taipei,
cloudy
are
choice
a
high
definitely superior to solar water heaters
independent of cloudiness.
cost and a
in
constant
It is also a better
than an electric or gas heater due to its much lower
operating
marketed
and
region
solar collectors have a real
case because of the lower initial
performance
days,
In a
gas
Heat pump DHW heaters, though they use electric
limitation.
energy,
temperatures
A back-up system which uses electricity or
required.
this
recently.
Difuse solar radiation in cloudy days can contribute
gains.
must
collectors,
they depend significantly on the direct solar heat
However,
very
5.2),
plate
widely
energy input.
Akridge pointed out that
recently
heat pump DHW heaters require only 35-50'4 as
energy imput as required by conventional
much
electric DHW heater
and can be purchased for $550-650 U.S. dollars.
Since the heat pump DHW units are very small and easily
98
moved,
it
is
possible
occupied
spaces.
unit
not
to
to locate
units
within
This economy makes it possible
only
meet the DHW needs,
sensible and latent cooling as a
In
the
but
the
for
also
the
provide
side benefit.
the summer, the air in the room needs to be
cooled
and
dried.
the
energy removed from the space being cooled and add this
energy
to
however,
water
DHW.
a
fall,
and
seasons,
winter
water heat pump which extracts the
water
useful.
during
In the spring,
takes
the air does not need to be cooled or dried,
to
from
An air to water heat pump is useful and
resource
If
the cooled water can be stored
removed
heat
and add this heat to
the
up
and a
DHW
is
gradually
these seasons, a huge cooling resource can be formed
at the end of spring which can then be used as a
"free-gift"
sensible cooling medium in summer.
4.2
Seasonal
4.2.1
Cooling Reservoir and Sensible Cooling
Seasonal
Cooling Reservoir
The concept of coupling seasonal
a
cooling reservoir with
water to water heat pump DHW heater shows its great merit
in
storing
the
by-product
"waste"
cooled
energy
utilizing
this
The
critical problems with this application
this
most
energy to cool the building in the
summer.
are
how
"cooled" energy can be stored and kept cooled and
how
big volume this reservoir should be.
reservoir
heat
and
pump
would
DHW
One could imagine this
be very large because the water
heater
keeps
99
extracting
heat
to
from
water
this
reservoir, and if the reservoir is not big enough,
it will
very soon
freeze and thereby tremendously reduce the heat pump
COP.
4.2.2
Reservoir Material
The
material of this reservoir should have a high heat
capacity
in order to reduce the reservoir volume. It should
be easily accesible and cheap for the sake of
also
In
feasibility.
addition,
it
economic
have
should
a
low
deterioration and corrosion rate to insure durability.
Akridge
experimented
used
with
buried
pipes
water
the underground soil
underground
and
reservoir.
This approach proved successful
a
as
cooling
in Georgia with
on the ground surface due to the low mean ground
insulation
This strategy, however, can not be applied to
temperatures.
Taipei where the mean ground temperature is too high and the
land usuage is very limited due to extremely high
land price
Some phase change
resulting from a high population density.
materials have very high heat capacity.
But, unfortunately,
they
Among
are
too
expensive for this use.
materials such as rock, soil,
accessible
has
the highest heat capacity
has
high
Moreover, it
humid
climate.
means
that
comparison,
(66 Btu/cuft-OF).
Water also
energy
is the cheapest material
in hot,
The low deterioration and
is
water
transfer
corrosion
rate
From
this
the
best
it is easy to operate and maintain.
it
easily
sand, etc.,
conductivity which means it can
effectively.
many
concluded that the water
100
is
material
4.2.3
for the seasonal cooling reservoir mentioned above.
Reservoir's Volume and Location
The
volume
the two units of typical
the
11,310
cuft,
construction
volume is
approximately
volume
reservoir
(tank)
in
location
underground.
additional
of
40'.
of
two
is
about
typical
unit's
B .
this
reservoir
is
This
preferably
which surrounds it can be
used
as
insulation and the construction of this reservoir
serve
as
a
floating
(Fig.5.3).
Thus,
without
construction
cost,
this
reservoir
6-person family design in this
Appendix
The soil
is
heater.
(including the circulation area).
calculated
The
cooling
total volume of a cooling reservoir
thesis,
can
this
by the extraction rate of DHW heat pump
determined
For
of
foundation
much
floating
of
the
increase
building
in
initial
foundation
cooling
can provide sensible cooling for two families
in
summer.
4.2.4
The Amount of
Insulation
must
Insulation
be added to the cooling reservoir
order to reduce heat gains from surroundings.
insulation
If
The amount of
approximately R-50 in ceiling and in
walls.
horizontally extended R-15 insulation is applied to
edge of
the
is
in
the
the building as shown in Fig. 5.4, the insulation in
walls can be reduced from R-50 to R-20.
the mass of
soil
It is
because
can provide another R-15 insulation for the
101
---
Fig. 5.3
Cooling Reservoir as A Floating Fundation for
Buildings
102
R 50
R 20
R 30
R 15
R 15
NO
INSULATION
R 15
Fig.
5.4
The Insulation
Reservoir
Effect of
103
Soil
Mass around The
heat flux reduction from the external air temperature.
The
at
because of the low water
all
mass between
table
needs no
insulation
table of Taipei
The thermal
below ground surface.
meters
soil
bottom floor of the reservoir
which is
gradients of
the
the bottom of the reservoir and the water
Fig. 5.5) can serve as a perfect insulation
(see
40
in
great heat gain from mean ground water temperature
reducing
0
(73
soil
The
F).
directly
fluctuates
temperature
according
to
next
to
the
reservoir
stored
the
water
temperature.
of
Details
walls
of
the
in
Fig.
5.6.
Charge and Discharge Periods
4.2.5
If
for
in ceiling and
and horizontally extended insulation at the edge
reservoir,
are shown
insulation
DHW
we keep extracting heat from the cooling
needs
calculations
potential
sensible
from Oct.-May.
in
It can been seen
Appendix B that the total
reservoir
from
stored
the
cooling
at the end of these eight months can displace the
cooling
(June-Sept.),
load
whenever
for
the
other
ventilation
is
an
four
months
unappropriate
cooling strategy.
Therefore,
May
charge periods should be from Oct.
to
which theoretically reduce the water temperature in the
cooling
the
the
reservoir from 70OF to 40OF
(below which the COP of
heat pump would decrease significantly).
periods
should
be from July to Sept.
104
which
The discharge
theoretically
Fi
g. 5. 5
The Insulation
Effect of Soil
Mass below The
Reservoir
COOL~P~J(d ~4~\IOI~
F
~
~O
POL~.e~
PoY
AueW
F.-I 19 PokY97YEluE
f_-0
.i
As..
U.'
*
*
.~iit~i
*
*1
m
-
-.
.
[w.K
H':
Fig. 5.6
....
m
Horizontally Extended Insulation Detail at The
Building Edges
105
water
the
increase
(above
temperature from 40'F to 70 'F
Thus,
the water cannot be used as a cooling medium).
which
a yearly cycle of this system is established.
During
summer the water-to-water
the
heat
exchanger
should be replaced by an air-to-water heat exchanger for the
heat pump DHW heater to reduce the latent cooling
same
load
of the apartment which is to be discussed later.
Sensible Cooling -
4.2.6
Radiant Panel
recent years, radiant panel
In
System
received
ceilings have
attention and have been widely applied as a heating or
much
system
cooling
in
various
types of
ASHRAE
buildings.
proclaims that comfort levels in this system are better than
It is
experienced in any other conditioning systems.
those
because the cooling load in the building is treated directly
by the large area of radiant heat sink.
This system usually consists of serpentine copper coils
to
bonded
the ceilings.
On a cooling cycle,
chilled
the
the
from the cooling reservoir is circulated through
water
ceiling coils.
The ceiling panels, being cooled, serve as a
sink
radiation
which
absorbs
sensible
the
from
heat
conditioned space.
The temperature of the chilled water circulated through
the
coils
must be above the dew-point temperature
the
of
conditioned space in order to prevent condensation problems.
If
the
typical
interior
condition is 78 0F with 50.
RH
as
residence, the temperature of the circulated
106
for
a
water
the
must be above 58 F which is the dew-point temperature of
as read on a psychrometric chart
space
the
system proposed
four-pipe
58 OF,
the supplied water is below
of
temperature
If
(see Fig. 5.7).
by Obrecht as shown in Fig.
a
5.8
be used to control condensation without sacrificing any
can
cooling capacity.
water flow rate will
The
This
system.
The higher the flow
the cooling potential
greater
the
panel
radiant
low-mass
temperature
resulting
a lower mean
in
in
rate,
would
of the panel
due to the low rise
is
phenomenon
of a
affect cooling potential
water
outlet
water
be.
temperature
Obrecht indicates
which provides a higher cooling capacity.
the water quantity circulated through radiant cooling panels
is
based on a 50F rise in water temperature.
usually
high-mass
radiant
influenced
however,
of
the
tested
as
is
panels
This means that
by a change in flow rates.
potential
rate does not affect the cooling
flow
water
system
temperature
surface
the
Akridge,
panel
For
by
not
the
of
this high-mass panel system.
Fig.
ceiling
5.9
shows
panels
mentioned
applied
above.
determined
the
The
detail of
to
one
of
type
radiant
the
typical
family
distance
between
the
design
pipes
by the cooling load and are sized by the
is
method
developed by Obrecht.
4.3
Heat Pump
and Latent Cooling
In
humid climates the summer
hot,
107
latent
load
is
the
a
4
no""owm
Fig. 5.7
x
The Dew-Point Temperature of A Typical
Conditioned Space on A Psychrometic Chart
BUILDING
HOT WATER SUPPLY
HOT WATER
PERIMETER
RETURN
CEILING PANEL
Fig. 5.8
Radiant Panel Condensation Control with A
Four-Pipe System
108
WOV 09
fo
PLYvLOOV
AcouLtTic,
frLE
-1~~-~
0
Fig. 5.9
2,C4
.r
CoggL -rum
Detail
of Ceiling Panels for
radiant Cooling
COMPRESSOR
CONDENSER
WARN MOIST
AIR IN
DRY HOT AIR
OUT
-EXPANSION VALVE
Fig. 5.10
Basic Components of A Conventional Dehumidifier
109
ffEAMt
EP1Ef.GLA4tP ix70AT10 Q
1. & C.M
dV
CC-ALR&
most difficult problem to deal
with.
Although the dessicant
dehumidification technique may appear passive, it
raising
sensible
the
mentioned above
A
than
1).
but
applicable
as
mechanical dehumidifier
is
also
is
very
(COP less
It has the same problem of removing latent
sensible heat.
The heat removed as
heat
latent
by the evaporator is added back to the outlet air at
and
condenser,
5.10
is not
on account of high energy consumption
increasing
energy
and
to hot humid climates.
(Fig. 2.6),
conventional
inefficient
load
results in
thus the sensible load
is increased.
Fig.
shows the component layout and basic operating mode of
conventional dehumidifiers.
Before
removing
discussing
load,
latent
minimized by a well
infiltration
the
load
techniques
itself
must
first
for
be
sealed building in terms of reducing the
Heat pump DHW Heater and Dehumidification
A
as
effective
rate.
4.3.1
than
more
conventional
that of
sensible
removed
waste
water source heat pump has a higher COP
a dehumidifier and removes latent heat as well
heat.
from
The basic concept is
the air
that
the
heat
at the evaporator is carried away
as
by water circulated at the condenser to the discharge
well
(Fig. 5.11).
heat
exchanger
removed
A heat pump DHW heater
shows
its
great merit
with an air-water
because
the
from the air is added to the DHW and as such
wasted, but rather is fully utilized(Fig. 5.12).
110
heat
is not
4j
DEHUMI.DIFI ED
AIR
EVAPORATOR
Fig. 5.11
Water Source Heat Pump
CONDENSOR
DEHUMI DIF ED
AIR
EVAPORATOR
Fig.
5.12
Conventional
Heat Pump DHW Heater
111
Run-around
4.3.2
Coil
A run-around coil proposed by Akridge will increase the
system's
efficiency and its latent cooling capacity.
shows the basic run-around cycle.
5.13
between
sides
The
two
of
precool
Water is circulated
air-water heat exchangers located at the
the mechanical system's evaporator
in which air
coil
first
Fig.
(cooling coil).
is circulated is
the
called
and the last one is called the reheat coil.
coil
As air
both
is induced and first cooled by the precool
coil,
the lesser amont of heat in the air is left for the system's
coil
cooling
to
performance.
added
air is condensed and
cooled
system's
at
coil,
back to the chilled air at the reheat
decreasing
latent
After
the
increasing
the
the sensible heat removed from the precool coil
evaporator,
is
thus
carry,
thus
the sensible cooling capacity and increasing the
cooling capacity.
the case in which sensible load can be carried
For
by
the cooling reservoir with the radiant panel cooling system,
the
run-around
system
less
to
coil
should be added to a
pump
DHW
bias the system towards more latent cooling
and
sensible
heat
cooling, thus again, improving the
system's
efficiency.
Figure
run-around
4.4
4.4.1
Overall
5.14
coil
shows
a
heat
pump
DHW
proposed by Akridge, the COP of
Cooling Strategies
Heat Pump Operation Schedule
112
heater
with
this system
FREON-TO-WATER
CONDE N SQR
RUN-AROUND
COILS
DEHUMI DLFI ED
Al R
EYAPORATOR
Fig. 5.13
Water Source Heat Pump with A Run-Around Coil
.RUN -AROUND
COILS
DEHUMIDIFI ED
Al R
__v_
EVAPORATOR
VALVE
Fig. 5.14
Heat Pump DHW Heater with A Run-Around Coil
113
During the seasons when cooling is not needed, the heat
pump
DHW
is
heater
exchanger
and
to
with a water
operated
water
the heat extracted from the cooling
heat
reservoir
is utilized to meet the daily DHW needs.
The average COP is
approximately
the heat pump
DHW
run-around coil
heat
heater
is
heat
air
however,
to water
The latent heat extracted from the air
the
summer,
In summer,
operated with an
exchanger.
to
3.5.
it
DHW.
is
As for the sensible
carried by the cooling
cooling
is
used
load
capacity stored
in
in
the
cooling reservoir.
This
heat
mechanical
pumps.
exchanger
Taipei
Oct.
include
It consists of only one heat
automatically
determines
system does not
or
manually
whether
should be
controled
an air to water
in
operation.
pump
with
Generally
is
to water
an
which
heat
for
speaking,
operated
and the air to water heat exchanger
to May,
different
humidistat
or water
water to water heat exchanger
the
two
is
from
operated
from June to Sept..
In June and Sept. when the latent heat load
enough
to
use
water
extract
air
4.4.2
in
heat pump
for
from
an
air to water heat exchanger
to water heat exchanger mode.
heat
dehumidification,
from the cooling
Reservoir
to
a
reservoir rather than from the
Temperature Profile
114
mode
This system would then
order to meet the daily DHW needs.
Annual
the
controlled humidistat would switch the system
automatically
operation
the
is not high
An
"cool"
MIT
project using phase change material
in a radiant ceiling showed the average
difference
between
the
room
air and
the
to
store
temperature
radiant
panel
0
ceiling
surface
typical
room
water,
from
the cooling reservoir
for
the
and
a
chilled
circulated
ceiling, should not exceed 70 OF
radiant panel
the
That means,
condition with 78OF and 50% RH,
pumped
through
is approximately 8 F.
(780F-830F) in order to insure its cooling capability.
If the water temperature in the reservoir goes below 40
F,
COP
the
the heat pump
of
heater
decrease
will
for
the
the above analysis, it can be concluded that
the
This situation should be avoided
significantly.
sake of
DHW
energy conservation.
From
water
temperature in the cooling reservoir should be in the
range
between
reservoir
thesis.
temperature profile for the typical
in
calculations
needs
more
profile is derived from the
This
Appendix B,
september
is
calculations
yearly
design
in this
heat
and is determined by
and sensible cooling discharge.
cooling
the
Fig. 5.15 shows
40OF and 70 0F.
exchange
the
Note that the
DHW
2.75%
capacity left in the reservoir at the end
to
account
for
the
inaccuracy
of
of
hand
and to assure this system's capability to meet
the summer cooling load.
4.4.3
Mechanical
Figs.
5.16
Loops
and 5.17 respectively show the
loops which are involved in the mechanical
115
mechanical
systems in summer
70
~
~~
~~~
~~
TiF)
60
=
=
I.
5
=
TIME IN MONTHS
Fig.
5.15
Annual
Cooling
Reservoir Temperature
MAIN
Profile
SUPPLY
I PUMP
Farm
EXPANSION VALVE
Fig.
5.16
Mechanical
Operation
Loops for Non-Cooling
1 16
Season
MAIN SUPPLY
-EXANSION
VALVE
TWO PIPE
HUMI DI STAT
CONTROL
VALVE
Fig. 5.17
Mechancial
Loops for
Cooling Season Operation
i
Fig. 5.18
The Perspective of
Cooling
Reservoir
Appl ication
117
and
in non-cooling seasons.
5.0
ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS
5.1
Initial
Cost
There
cooling
of
are
3
major
costs involved
in
the
proposed
technique: the cost of cooling reservoir, the
heat
pump
mechanical
DHW heater, and the
equipment
such
cost
as piping,
of
cost
miscellaneous
pumps,
motor,
heat
exchangers, controls and sensors, etc..
The cost of
because
pump
no
DHW
sophisticated devices are involved.
heater
($550-650
DHW
U.S.
system
benefit
heat
miscellaneous mechanical equipment
can
be purchased at
dollars),
of
The
very
heat
low
price
and is much cheaper than a
solar
($2500-3500 U.S. dollars).
a
is small
As far as the
side
its cooling capacity is concerned, the cost of a
pump
DHW
heater
is
much
air-conditioning
conventional
less
than
that
system plus any
of
DHW
a
heater
(solar heater, electrical heater, or gas propane heater).
Among
of
the 3 major costs, the dominant one is the
a cooling reservoir.
its
size
However,
presented
shown
and
because
Its relatively high cost is due to
large
the
amount
reservoir
of
sized
insulation
for
two
needed.
families
in this thesis is used as the floating foundation
in the building construction as depicted in Fig. 5.3,
the
initial
the
cost
only
the
cost
construction cost of
it is almost the same
of other types of foundations.
a small
There
as
is,
then,
increase in overall construction costs.
From
116
the analysis above, a conclusion can be drawn that the extra
cost
initial
assuming
this
of
low cost
cooling
insulation
is
reservoir
materials
low
fairly
can be used
for
the
is
the
pump
DHW
reservoir.
5.2
Energy Savings
Domestic Hot Water Saving
5.2.1
The
most
popular
type.
gas-propane
If
heater
DHW
in
Taipei
it is replaced by a heat
heater with an average COP of 3.5 in non-cooling seasons and
(with run-around coil),
5.0 in summer
the annual
cost saving
for the typical 6-person extended family's demand for DHW is
U.s.
$148
original
dollars,
system.
58%
approprixmately
less
the
than
This result is derived in Appendix D.
Summer Air-Conditioning Saving
5.2.2
An
cooling
ability
to
is
side benefit of using the
heater.
the
provide
sensible as
well
as
heat
latent
pump
The sensible and latent cooling capacity
regarded
as a
"free
gift"
from applying
this
DHW
can
system.
be
Large
energy or cost saving in cooling can be obtained because the
conventional
of 2.0 for this typical
Taipei
as calculated
operating cost
water
system is not in use.
cost of using air-conditioning system with a
total
COP
air-conditioning
pump
family in $127
in Appendix D.
U.S. dollars
in
because only the
is used for cooling when
119
typical
That means, this total
is almost saved in one year
energy
The
the
low-cost
cooling technique is applied.
Total
5.2.3
After
Yearly Saving
we
add
the
savings from the
air-conditioning systems, the total
a
DHW
heater
saving in energy cost of
6-person extended family is $275 U.S. dollars
dollars)
If
for
each year.
we
know
and
precisely the total
initial
($9890 N.T.
investment,
(which
depends on many different parameters, and as such is
beyond
the scope of this thesis) and present discount rate,
the pay-back period can be derived.
5.3
Perspective
The
sized
cooling reservoir presented in this thesis is only
for two family's cooling loads
used
structurally
regarded
as
before.
floor
the
floating foundation,
If the whole apartment
technique,
below
second
a
having very little initial
shopping
added
as
(Fig. 5.3).
area)
cost
is
can
be
it
as
(not including
needs to be cooled by
As it
explained
the
this
first
cooling
an additional reservoir of the same size must be
the first one
one however,
(Fig. 5.18).
The cost of
the
is much greater than the first one from
construction point of view because it does not function
as a structural
component.
120
REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER V
1.
J.M.,
Akridge,
Techniques
for
Architecture,
"Investigation
(College
Climates",
Hot-Humid
Georgia Institute of
Cooling
Passive
of
Technology),
of
chapter
8.
2.
Ibid.
3.
Obrecht,
Malvern et.
Panel
al.,"Radiant
Painstaking Design Brings Maximum Comfort",
1973.
Ibid.
5.
J.M.,
Akridge,
Techniques
for
Architecture,
"Investigation
Hot-Humid
Georgia
of
Climates",
Passing
Ibid.
121
Cooling
(College
Institute of Technology),
7.
6.
Heat, Piping
45, no.10, September
and Air-Conditioning, Vol
4.
Ceilings
of
chapter
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1.0
CONCLUSIONS
Passive cooling in hot, humid climates has proven to be
the
most
building
Most of
design.
discussed
techniques
in
issue
difficult
the available
in Chapter
not applicable to these climates.
II,
the
natural
effective
passive
cooling
section 3.0 -7.0,
are
Convective cooling is the
only technique which can provide comfort
If
positive
environmentally
in spring and fall.
is
not
due to the prevailing wind pressure pattern;
the
devices presented in Chapter IV, section
3.0
wind-inducing
ventilation through the
building
are necessarily applied.
In summer, however, convective cooling is inappropriate
and
by
daytime due to extremely high air
the
during
relative humidities.
mechanical
systems
temperatures
The building must then be
systems such as conventional
cooled
air-conditioning
or preferably the low-cost cooling system presented
in Chapter V.
Summer
good
cooling loads can first be greatly reduced by a
building envelope design.
in Chapter
mentioned
optimal
shading
reflective,
The load control
strategies
II such as a south-facing orientation,
design,
external
louvered
blinds.
light-colored surfaces, appropriate amounts
insulation, and a well
of
sealed building are all compulsory to
122
maximum
the
conduction,
The
reduction
been
they
be
heat
gains
by
convection,
and radiation.
local
have
of
design
weather data and the general
presented in Chapter
understood
and
III.
tools
It is necessary
used by architects
in
that
order
to
achieve a climatically responsive building design.
The
proposed
also solves the problem of
in
layout
in Chapter
IV
similar
appeareance
outward
only
and
it
privacy interruption as it exists
popular 5-story walk-up apartments of
the
not
maximum cross-ventilation potential,
the
provides
design
and
Its
Taipei.
makes
construction
it
acceptable to both users and builders.
The
DHW
heater coupled
with
cooling concept for hot, humid climates.
both
seasonal
It can
provide
a summer cooling capability and satisfy the annual
The yearly operating cost of this system
needs.
about
is
The saving
DHW
only
system
air-conditioning
that of a conventional
40%
plus a propane DHW heater.
U.S.
a
reservoir appears to have considerable potential as
cooling
a
pump
heat
is approximately $230
dollars per year for the 6-person extended family unit
referred
to
significant
in
value
this
of
thesis.
This
applying
this
shows
savings
the
cooling
low-cost
technique.
The concept of using a radiant panel
sensible
cooling
conditioning
of
is
also
better
system as is indicated
Fundmentals.
than
ceiling to provide
any
other
in the ASHRAE
Handbook
This superiority is due to the fact
123
space
that
cooling load in the building is dealt with directly and
the
locally by the large area of radiant heat sink.
greatly
dependent
reservoir.
40%
of
is
a
cost
the initial
family unit volume.
a fairly high initial
of
cooling
the
This large
volume
would
cost if the reservoir is not
as a floating foundation or if the insulation material
very expensive.
More information about the real
is necessary before a final
reservoir
cost of
evaluation of
the
feasibility of this system can be made.
economical
RECOMMENDATIONS
2.0
It
is
presented
recommended
by
bioclimatic
based
on
Givoni's
to
that the
human
psychrometric
chart be re-evaluated.
comfort
chart
analysis
and
Aren's
The current analysis is
the average experiences of Americans who live
temperate climates.
of
upon
also
The reservoir's volume for each family is about
the
indicate
used
of the proposed system, however, is
economy
The
in
This analysis has a dubious application
people living in other climate types.
The re-evaluation
this analysis should be based directly on the experiences
of people
It
living
is
in
hot,
recommended
humid climates.
that
a
computer
simulation
established
for a more uniform and precise method of
performance
analysis.
full
model
scale
predicted
performance,
system
In addition, the construction of
is encouraged to evaluate
to
determine
problems, and to establish the limits of
124
the
be
a
computer
implementation
feasibility.
is recommended that heat pumps run by gas or
It
fuels
fossil
strategy
replace
to
This
of electrically run heat pumps.
types
contemporary
developed
extensively
be
other
promises a great, even if temporary, reduction
operating
fossil
costs because of the lower price of
In Taipei,
fuels.
so
electricity,
the
gas and other
gas is 60%4 that of
the price of
given
that
of
amount
same
of
energy
consumption, operating costs should be similarly reduced.
It
recommended
is
that
in
the proposed
thermostats,
humidistats,
involved
and
developed
countries
cost.
It
also
coil
on
and
developed
made
is
techniques,
overall
by
that
furthermore,
heater
and
route
the
latent
and increasing the COP of the heat pump.
the
to
aid
issues.
examining
colors
smoke.
to
of
potential
tests
in the
design
wind-inducing
of
qualitative
The qualitative issues
The model
a sharp color
is best
the
made
constrast with
The quantitative tests should measure the
125
be
cooling
convective
white smoke blown by
air flow.
render
the
further
be
optimizing
towards
from
initial
can
be
prevailing
to illustrate the wind pressure patterns and to
winds
the
imported
further recommended that wind tunnel
quantitative
tested
be
These tests should be concerned with
devices.
and
etc.
4-pipe control valves,
the heat pump DHW
establish
to
as
recommended,
evaluated
cooling potenitial
It
low-cost cooling systems such
in order to reduce the
is
equipment
mechanical
produced locally rather than
foreign
run-around
the
in
the
mark
dark
white
relative
at
air
speeds
the
concomitant
positions
tested
different
outdoor
should
points where ventilation
positions inside buildings
versus
The
air speeds at same height.
be on
the
is needed.
126
human
level
and
at
the
APPENDIX A
COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS
1.0
SOL-AIR TEMPERATURE
2.0
U-VALUES AND AREAS OF EXTERNAL WALLS, DOORS,
AND WINDOWS
3.0
4.0
COOLING LOAD IN JUNE
3.1
Sensible Load
3.2
Latent Load
COOLING LOAD IN COOLING SEASONS
127
APPENDIX A
COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS
1.0
SOL-AIR TEMPERATURE
through the external walls and roof
"sol-air
temperature".
relate to the concept of
The sol-air
temperature
air temperature corrected to account for
outdoor
energy
gains
cooling load resulting from conduction heat
The
abosrbed
Fundamentals
in
the
developes
external surfaces.
a method to calculate
is
the
solar
ASHRAE
The
the
the
sol-air
temperature as shown by equation A-1
Tsol-air
Where:
O
= To +
0 *
= absorptance of
It/ho
- tAR/ho
the external
(A-1)
surface for solar
radiation.
It
= total solar radiation incident on the external
surface
ho
(Btu/hr-sqft).
= coefficient of
heat transfer by long wave
radiation and convection at the external
surface
To
(Btu/hr-sqft-0 F).
= outdoor air temperature( F).
= hemispherical
emittance of the external
surface.
128
the difference between the long-wave radiation
AR
incident
sky
surface from the
on the external
and surroundings and the radiation emitted by a
black
at
body
air
outdoor
temperature
(Btu/hr-sqft).
The
sol-air
temperatures
in
Table
A.1
been
have
calculated under the following assumptions:
* AR/ho =
0 for vertical surface.
surface.
= 0.15 for light-colored
ho = 3.5 for
average 6mph wind speeds.
To = obtained from Taipei's
M.A.H.W.D.
It = The half-day heat gains
0.125
inch
facade,
doubled
to
temperatures.
the
diffuse
direct
sheet glass on
obtained
Fundmentals,
beam
(6am-12am) through a
from
CHAPTER
the
west-facing
1977
26,
table
calculate the whole-day
These figures
radiation
ASHRAE
20,
are
sol-air
only account for
gains
because
radiation is totally shaded
the
in
this design.
2.0
U-VALUE AND AREAS OF EXTERNAL WALLS, DOORS, AND WINDOWS
a)
Uwall
= 0.089
(as calculated below)
129
External
Outside surface
2)
Stucco, 1.5 cm
0.10
3)
Plywood, 1.5 cm
0.62
4)
Vapor barrier
5)
Mineral
6)
Air space, 4 cm
7)
Common brick,
8)
Plaster,
9)
Inside surface
Awall
1/R
0.25
(summer)
1)
5.5 cm
fiber,
8.0
1.01
0.44
11 cm
O.10
1.5 cm
0.68
(still air)
11.20
(See Fig. 4.5)
b)
U =
R
Wall Construction
0.089 Btu/
0
sqft-
= 474.54 ft
Uwindow = 0.56
(double pane)
Awindow = 86.62 ft + 71.0 ft
Front Facade
c) Udoor = 0.01
=
157.62 ft
Rear Facade
(insulated R-10 door)
Adoor = 38.74 ft + 38.74 ft = 77.48 ft
Front Facade
Rear Facade
Since the operation schedules of the apartments are all
the
same,
the
heat exchange between the
130
adjacent
family
is not involved in the cooling
is negligible and
units
Such partition walls are therefore considered
calculations.
to be adiabatic.
3.0
COOLING LOAD IN JUNE
3. 1
Sensible Load
CLTD = Taverage solair -
Tinterior
0
=
85.5 -
78 = 7.5
F
1) R-11 External Wall
Q/hr
= U *
A *
= 0.089 *
CLTD
474.54 *
7.5
= 316.8 Btuh
Q/day = 316.8 Btuh *
10 operati on hrs/day
= 3,168 Btu/day
2)
R-10 Door
Q/hr
= U *
A *
= 0.1 *
-
Q/day
CLTD
77.48 *
7.5
581 Btuh
= 58.1
Btu/hr *
10 operation
hrs/day
= 581 Btu/day
3)
Glass
a)
Conduction heat gain:
Q/hr
= U * A * CLTD
= 662 Btuh
Q/day = 662 Btuh *
10 operation hrs/day
= 6,620 Btu/day
b)
load
Radiation heat gains:
131
#
with external
Q/day = A *
=
louver
SC *
(157.62
*
SHGF
21.52)
-
ft *
(0.85 *
179 Btu/ft half-day *
0.15) *
= 5,469 Btu/day
#
without external
louver
Q/day = A *
SHGF
SC *
*
= 21.52 ft
*
(0.89
*
0.88)
half-day *
179 Btu/ft
2
= 5,762 Btu/day
4)
Infiltration
Q/hr
=
1.10 *
CFM *
T
(8,630 *
= 1.10 *
0.5) *
(85.5
-
78)
= 593.3 Btuh
0/day = 593.3 Btuh *
10 operation hrs/day
= 5,933 Btu/day
5)
Occupants
Q/day = 225 Btu/person *
*
3 people
10 operation hrs/day
= 6,750 Btu/day
6)
Kitchen
Q/day =
18,600 Btu/day *
10 operation hrs
24 hrs/day
= 7,750 Btu/day
7)
Refrigerator
Q/day = 3.4 *
= 3.4 *
*
W
(1.4
0.88
kw/day *
10 operation hrs
132
1,000 w/kw)
2
24 hrs/day
= 7,083 Btu/day
8)
T.V.
Q/day = 3.4 *
W
= 3.4 Btu/w *
*
(1.4 kw/day *
1,000 w/kw)
2 hrs
6 hrs/day
= 1,586 Btu/day
9)
Laundry
Q/day = 3.4 *
W
(0.3 kw/day *
= 3.4 Btu/w *
1,000 w/kw)
= 1,020 Btu/day
10) Lights
Q/day = 3.4 *
w
(1.2 kw/day *
= 3.4 Btu/w *
1,000 w/kw)
= 4,080 Btu/day
11)
Heat loss from DHW
Q/day = U *
A *
= 0.09 *
(R-11 insulation)
T
-
(79 + 60 + 79)
2
36.4 *
78
= 1,025 Btu/day
Total
= 56,827 Btu/day
Monthly Total
= 56,827 *
30
= 1,704,810 Btu/month
3.2
Latent Load
1)
Infiltration
H/hr
= 4,840 * CFM * W
= 4,840 Btu/min *
-
2,834 Btu/hr
133
(8,630 / 2)
60
*
(129 - 72)
7,000
2)
People
H/day = 229 Btuh/person *
3 people *
10 hrs/day
= 6,750 Btu/day
Total
4.0
= 35,090 Btu/day
COOLING LOAD IN COOLING SEASONS
Using the same heat gain equations, the cooling
July, August,
are shown in
and September, can be calculated.
Table A.2.
134
load in
The results
Tair
It
Btu/
Hour
( F)
Tsol- Tair
air
It
September
August
.July
June
Month
Tsol- rair
air
Btu/
F)j( F)
( ft-
It
Btu/
F)
( ft- F) ( F)
( F)
0
0
79.-9
79.0
79-
Tsol- Tair
air
( ft- F) ( F)
( F)
79.9
77-4
7
0
_6.4
75.7
0
_757_
78.2
75.7
0
75.7
79.2
76.5
0
76.5
??.3
82.2
84.6
86.0
86.7
10
19
26
31
??-?
_81.0
8._.7
87.
37
34
88.4
87.9
86.8
_854
7-76
76.5
79.9
79.3
2- 3am
3- 4am
76.1
75.8
0
0
76.1
75.8
78.8
78.3
0
0
78.8
78.3
79.o
78.6
0
0
_Z9_.0 .6._
78.6 76.2
5am 75.6
0
_75.6
7.9
0
??-9
78.3
0
78.3
5- 6am
75.6
0
75.6
78.0
0
78.0
78.2
0
6- 7am
76.6
7
79.0
6
79.3
79.1
2
7- 8am
8- 9am
9-10am
10-11am
11-12am
78.8
82.0
84.4
85.8
86.3
18
26
32
36
39
79.6
83.1
85.8
87.3
88.0
81.7
85.3
88.0
12- 1pm
1- 2pm
2- 3pm
3- 4pm
4- 5pm
5- 6pm
6- 7pm
7- 8pm
8- 9pm
9-10pm
10-llpm
11-12pm
86.5
85.9
84.9
83.6
82.6
81.5
80.4
79.7
79.1
70.6
78.1
77.6
.43
39
36
32
26
18
7
0
0
0
0
0
88.3
87.6
86.4
85.0
83.7
82.3
80.7
79.7
79.1
78.6
78.1
??.6
90.6
90.
89.4
88.3
87.2
86.4
84.1
83.2
8
2.6
81.9
81.2
80.5
10 Hour
Average
TABLE
85.8
F
7
1.6
5.
87.4
88.9
.5
82.5
86.4
89.4
91.2
92.2
43
.7
92.4
9
92.0
8.4
90.9
7.4
89.7
88.3 8
87.2 84.7
84.4 84.4
83.2 82.6
*82.6 81.9
81.9 81.4
81.2 80.9
80.5 80.3
7
90.5
36
32
26
18
6
0
0
0
0
0
16 Hour
Average
87.2
F
A-1
135
1524
30
35
82.2
86.0
88.7
90.4
91.1
41
91.5 86.8
90.9 86.4
89.9__85.5_
88.7 84.3
87. _2._
85.3 81.3
84.5 80.2
82.6 79.6
81.9 79.0
81.4 78.
78._1_
80.
80.3 77.7-
35
30
24_
15
2
0
0
0
0
0
16 Hour
Average
air
00
0
0
18
26
32
Btu/
( ft- F) ( F)
77-4
76.9
76.5
.76.9
Tsol-
0
0
12- 1am
1- 2am
4-
It
86.5
F
2
26
_
10 Hour
Average
76.2
.19_._81
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
81.7
80.2
79.6
.79.0
78.5
12_.1
77.L
85.8
_
Load Source
August
Sept.
5608
1029
3126
12,710
11,721
6708
5469
5406
5008
4247
5762
5698
5280
4474
59)3
28,340
11,185
47,736
10,315
47,736
6012
24,365
6750
6750
13,050
13,050
13 00
11050
6750
7750
12,400
12,
4
00
77 50
Q = 3.4W
= 3.4W
7083
1586
11,333
4760
11,)33
4760
708)
1586
Q = 3.4W
Q = 2.4W
1020
1020
1020
1020
4080
10,200
10,200
4080
Q = A(S.C.)SHGF
external
Q = A(S.C.)SHGF
louver
_________
W/exteknal
louver
CoolingLoad B-tu/
July
6081
1116
3168
581
Conduction-
Radi-
June
Q = UA(CLTD)
Q = UA(CLTD)
Q = UA(CLTD)
Wall
Door
C #4
aill
Hourly Cooling
Load Equation
66201
589
''ationi
ainWithout
_________
Sensible
Latent
[nfil-
tration
Occupants
a
Sensible
Latent
Refrigerator
S
T.V.
Q = 225 * persons
Q = 225 * persons
-
Kitchen
$ r
Q = 1.10(CFM)zT
Q = 4840(CFM,) W
Laundry
Lights
Heat' loss from DHW Tank Q = UAnT
Daily Total
(one family)
Sensible
Latent
Monthly Total
Sensible 11,704,810
6750
1025
1906
1906
1025
56,827
35,090
96,865
60,786
93,630
60,786
54,450
3,002,815
2,902,530
1,633,500
1,884,366 1 1,844,366
933,450
(one family)
Latent
Summer Total
(one family)
Sensible
Latent
Monthly Total
Sensible
(two family)
Latent
Summer Total
Sensible
18,487, 310
(two family)
Latent
11,509,764
11,052,700
31,115
9,243,655
5,754,882
13,409,6201
2,105,400
TABLE A-2
136
6,005,630
3,768
2
_5,805,060
3,627,000
,768,7321
1,866,900
APPENDIX B
HEAT EXCHANGE AND TEMPERATURE PROFILE
OF THE COOLING RESERVOIR
1.0
GENERAL CONCEPTS
2.0
HEAT EXCHANGE
2.1
The Heat Extracted from the Reservoir to Meet
DHW
Needs
2.2
The Heat Absorbed from the Cooling Load of the
Room
2.3
The
Heat
Transferred
into
the
Reservoir
from
Surroundings
3.0
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE RESULTING FROM HEAT EXCHANGES
4.0
HEAT EXCHANGES AND TEMPERATURE PROFILE FOR A 2-FAMILY
SIZED COOLING RESERVOIR
137
APPENDIX B
1.0
THE GENERAL CONCEPTS
The
main
energy
exchanges involved
in
the
cooling
reservoir are described below.
(Qe) -
the energy extracted from the reservoir-
1)
heat the DHW (negative value).2)
the
the
walls and ceilings of
-
(positive value).
3)
the
(Qe)
energy transferred from the surroundings
through
energy
(Qs)
reservoir
the
(0s)
absorbed
from
the
during
room
(positive value).
discharge periods
to
-
the
(Qa)
The net monthly energy input or output depends upon the
total
value of Qe, Qs and Qa, i.e.
Qnet = Qe + Qs + Qa.
value of Qnet is positive, the temperature of the
the
would
increase
due
to
energy input.
the
negative, then the temperature of
If
If
tank
is
Onet
the tank would decrease.
2.0
HEAT EXCHANGE
2.1
The Heat Extracted from the Reservoir to Meet DHW Needs
Non-Cooling Seasons
2.1.1
In
the
a
non-cooling seasons, the DHW needs are supplied
by
extraction of energy from the cooling reservoir through
water
source heat pump.
The energy extracted
month can be estimated by equation B-1.
138
for
each
Qe = Trise
Trise
Where:
*Vt
C
*
C
*
( COPw
COPw +1
100 *
98
) * D
(B-1)
Temperature rise in DHW tank in a day
=
= Specific heat of
water
1 Btu/1b F
Water density 62.44 lb/cuft
Vt = Volume of
the tank
100 = 2% heat loss to surrounding
98
COPw = The coefficient of performance of a water
source heat pump
COPw
Copw+1 = Ratio of heat exchange between cool source
and hot source
since
COPw
Energy Output
=
=
Energy Extracted
Energy Input
Energy Extracted
+ Energy Input
-
Energy Input *
(COPw +
1)
then
Energy Extracted from Cool Source
Energy Output to Hot Source
example,
For
reservoir
for
the
energy
extracted
(Qe)
Vt =
COPw
COPw +
from
a 6-person extended family to heat DHW in
tyical month is calculated using equation B-1.
Where:
=
120 U.S. gallons
139
1
the
a
= 16.042 cuft for 6-person needs
T =
0
60 F in
general
case
COPw= 3.5 for common water source heat pump
D = 30 days in a month
Qe = 60 0F/day *
1 Btu/lb- F *
16.042 cuft *
*
100 *
98
62.44 lb/cuft
*
3.5
3.5 +
30 days/month
1
= 1,430,946 Btu/month
For two families, Qe =
1,430,946 *
2
= 2,861,893 Btu/month
2.1.2
Cooling Seasons
In
summer
the latent heat in the air
DHW needs can not be entirely supplied with this
due
to a lack of
can
be
system
latent load, then the remaining portion of
needs must be supplied by the extraction of heat from
these
the
,
into DHW by a heat pump with a run-around coil.
transferred
If
time
cooling
from
the
reservoir.
The energy
(Qe) extracted
monthly
reservoir can be derived by equation B-2 for
the
summer season.
Qe=
(Trise *
*
(
C *
COPw)
*
Vt *
100) 98
(Hl
*
COPa + 1)
COPa
*D
(B-
COPw + 1
Where:
Hl = Daily latent load in summer
COPa= The coefficient of
performance of
aair-to-water heat pump
140
an
2)
If the latent load were 35,090 Btu/day in June, for the
same 6-person family referred to above, and a heat pump with
a
run-around
extracted
-
(COPa = 5),
were used
from the cooling reservoir
using eqation
Qe =
coil
then
the
energy
(Qe) can be derived by
B-2
(60 *
(35,090 *
1 *
62.44 *
6/5)
*
16.042 *
3.5
*
3.5 + 1
100/98)
30
= 448,426 Btu/month
For two families, Qe = 448,426 *
2
= 896,852
2.2 Heat Absorbed from the Cooling Load of the Room
In
the
the summer when chilled water is circulated through
ceiling
absorbed
by
coils
this
of
the
water
conditioned
is
space,
circulated
back
reservoir.
Thus it becomes a heat input into the
reservoir.
The
total amount of
this heat
(Qa)
the
into
conditioned
space.
Ga = Monthly Total
2.3
i.e.
Cooling Load
(B-3)
Heat Transferred into the Reservoir from the
Surroundings
141
the
cooling
for
month is equal to the monthly total sensible cooling
the
heat
each
load of
The total
monthly energy transferred
into the reservoir
from the surroundings can be approximated by
(Qs)
equation
B-4
Qs = U *
(Tair -
A *
Where:
U
Twa)
*
24 *
D
(B-4)
U-value of the walls and ceiling of reservoir
=
A= Surface area of walls and ceiling
of reservoir
Tair
=
Outdoor monthly average air temperature
Twa
=
The monthly average water temperature in the
reservoir
24 = Total hours in
a day
D = The number of days in that month
example, in November where Tair = 68.11 0 F,
For
=
Twa
64.11
transferred
F,
U = 0.02, and A = 2,035 sqft,
amd
the
if
energy
(Qin) can be calculated using
from surroundings
equation B-3:
Qin = U *
= 0.02 *
=
3.0
(Tair
A *
-
2,035 *
Twa)
(68.11
24 *D
*
-
64.11) *
24 *
30
117,216 Btu/month
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
("T) RESULTING FROM ENERGY
EXCHANGES
The
temperature
rise
or
fall
in the
water
of
the
reservoir for each month can be determined by equation B-5:
142
Q
C * 3 *
T=
Where:
(B-5)
V
Q = Monthly energy input
(positive value) or
output
(Btu/month)
(negative value) to the reservoir
C = Specific heat of water
(1 Btu/lb-F)
= Water density
(62.44 lb/cuft)
V = Reservoir volume
(cuft)
For example, if the net energy exchange (Qnet) in March
-2,491,076
is
extracted
(negative value means
Btu/month
out of the reservoir),
energy
and the reservoir's volume
(*T)
11,309.5 cuft, then the temperature difference
is
is
can
be calculated using equation B-4:
0
T
=
-2,491,076
1 * 62.44 * 11,309.5
The
negative
=
value
-3.53
( F)
T
of
means
that
the
water
temperature has decreased.
4.0
ANNUAL HEAT EXCHANGES AND TEMPERATURE PROFILE OF
A COOLING RESERVOIR FOR TWO FAMILIES
The procedure to approximate monthly heat exchanges and
temperature
difference
of
a cooling
is
reservoir
shown
below:
1)
Find
the
cooling
initial water temperature
reservoir
(Ti)
at the beginning of
143
the
in
the
month
which
is
equal
to the final
water temperature
of
last month.
2)
Calculate
the total
from
cooling reservoir using equation B-i
the
non-cooling
seasons.
3)
monthly energy extracted
seasons
and equation B-2
in
(Qe)
in
cooling
(negative value)
Calculate the total monthly energy absorbed
conditioned room ,
from
the
which
is
into
the reservoir, using equation B-3.
(Qa)
transferred
(positive
value)
4)
Calculate the initial estimated net energy exchange
for that month
(Qi)
by adding Qe and Qa.
i.e. Qi
=
Qe + Qa
5)
calculate the initial
water
(
initial
for that month, resulting
Ti)
estimated
equation B-5.
6)
Calculate
temperature
net
That
the
energy
the
from
exchange
using
is, substitute Onet for Q.
estimated
monthly
(Twa) by dividing
this result to Ti.
7)
temperature difference of the
i.e.
average
Ti by 2 and
Twa = Ti
+
water
adding
(Ti/2)
Find the monthly average air temperature
(Tair)
from the weather data.
8)
Calculate the total
monthly energy transferred into
the reservoir from sourrounding
(Qs) using equation
B-4.
9)
Calculate the net monthly energy exchange
(Qnet) of
the reservoir by adding Qi
Onet = Qi
+
Qs
144
and Qs.
i.e.
10.)
Calculate the net water temperature difference
for
that month using equation B-5.
(
Tnet)
Substitute Qnet for
0.
11.)
Add Ti
and
T.
of the month
The final
water temperature at the
(Tf) can then be obtained.
Tf = Ti
Table
Note
the
profile
charge
energy
by the
calculated
is from October
cycle
capability
The
of
and
potential
cooling
the
water
and 40 F
for
the
system respectively.
The insulation
to the reservoir is R-50 both in the
applied
in the ceiling.
The left cooling potential
the discharge periods
the end of
and
May
June to September.
from
reservoir's volume is 11309.9 cubic ft.
amount
procedures.
above
to
and
exchanges
is calculated for two 6-person family units.
B-1
Table
and
Tnet.
annual
efficiency of the mechanical
The
+
range in the reservoir is between 70 F
temperature
the
the
is
cycle
discharge
for
gives
B-i
temperature
end
walls
at
(Qleft)
(Sept.)
can be estimated by
/
62.44 x
equation B-5 where:
T
i.e.
= Q /
( 70
-
Qleft
Divide
C
.V
Qleft
69.20 )
=
( 1 x
1309.5 )
508439
this remaining cooling potential
(Qleft) by the
total
summer sensible cooling loads, and we can conclude how
much
more
percentage
of
cooling
145
capability
which
this
low-cost system can provide for.
This percentage is derived below:
%
=
Qremain /
=
=
508439 / 3409620 + 6005630 + 5805060 + 3267000
(Sept)
(August)
(July)
(June)
0.6275
=
508439 / 18487310
=
2.75%
summer sensible cooling load
total
I
_____________
\a
1
2
n Ti
Qe
.3
Btu/
Btu/
S(
F)
Qinet
Qa
( Month)
(Month)
5
6
Ti
Twa
8
7
TairTair
Btu/
Btu/
( F)
( Month)
( F) ( F) ( F)
Oct0.0 -2,9W,400
0
-2,957,400 -4.18 67.91_75.
Nov66.1.-2,862,000
0
-2,862,000 -4.05 64.11 68.1 4.O+
Dec66.24-2,957,400
0
-2,957,400 -4.18 60.15 62.E 2.65+
Jar58.7-2,975,.400
0
-2,975,400 -4.18 56.08 60.(
Fet54.1 -2,671,20
0
-2,617,200 -3.78
0
-2,957,400 -4.18 48.60 64. (15.4+
ar5 0.69-2, 97,400
52.26 60.
7.41+
8.24+
0 _-2,862,000 -4.05:45-14 71.426.26+
lay 4.21-27,400
0
Aug 56.47
0
Sep
+3.7C(42.23 80.
11
Tnet Tf
Btu/
( Month) ( F) ( F)
224 ,078-2,733,322-3.87L6.1)
117,216-2,744,784-3.82.24
80,244-2,877,158-4.078.17
E4.04.1
225,367-2,44_58X)-3.4 50.6
466,324 -2,491,076-3 5347.17
769,523 2,092,477-2.96.+4.21
74.17 1,089,230 3,611,330 y5.11 6.55
98.50(50.80 8.3M.00
999 266,7,004,896*9.9256.47
5,805,060 5,805,060 +8.22 60. 5883.422.82
691,007 6,496,067.9.20 55.67
+6,005,630>6,005,630 --
.67 -1,110,180 3,267,00021,756,82C 3.05(67.20,80. *13,30
TABLE
10
-2,957,400 -4.18 42.12 75.433. 2-1,007,745 -1, 949, 655-276 1.44
Jun 44.14 + 885,720 i3,409,620 2,522,100
0
(Month)
Qnet
118,8222, 838,
Apr+77 -2,862,000
Jul+6.55
QS
9
B
146
389, 4
2,546,563* .6159.28
APPENDIX C
GROUND TEMPERATURE AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS
ground temperature at any depth and at any time of
The
the year can be predicted by equation C-1
1/2
(7r/3650<)
-x
T(xt) = Tm *
Where:
As *
e
COs 360 *
365
(t
-
to
-
1/2
(365))
- * o(
x
2
)
T(x,t) = Ground temperature at depth x
(ft) and day t
(0F)
Tm = Annual
mean ground temperature
As = Annual
surface temperature amplitude
C = Ground diffusivity
t
eF)
(x=0)
( F)
(sqft/day)
= Day of the year
to = Day of minimum surface temperature
The ground temperatures in Table C have been calculated
on the basis of the following parameters:
Tm = 73.1
0
F
(From Central
As = 12.77 0F
0( = 0.6
147
Weather Bureau
R.O.C.)
APPENDIX D
ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS
1.0
DHW SAVING
1.1
Annual
DHW Energy Needs
1.2
Annual
Operating Cost of a Propane DHW Heater
1.3
Annual
Operating Cost of a Heat Pump DHW Heater
1.3.1
Energy Consumption in Non-Cooling Seasons
1.3.2
Energy Consumption in Cooling Seasons
1.3.3
Annual
1.3.4
Annual Operating Cost
Annual
DHW Savings
1.4
2.0
Energy Comsumption
COOLING SYSTEM SAVINGS
2.1
Operating Cost of an Air-conditioning System
(COP = 2)
2.2
Operating Cost of the Proposed Low-Cost Cooling
system
2.3
3.0
Cooling System Savings
Annual
TOTAL ANNUAL OPERATING COST SAVINGS
the Old System
3.1
Annual
Operating Cost of
3.2
Annual
Operating Cost of the Newly Proposed System
3.3
Total
Annual Savings in Amount and as a Percentage
of
the Former Operating Cost.
148
1.0
DHW SAVINGS
1.1
Annual
For
U.S.
DHW Energy Needs
a
typical
gallons per day
6-person family, the DHW needs are
(20 gallons per person).
The rise
water temperature is generaly assumed to be 60 (F.
yearly
DHW
energy needs
120
in
The total
(Qn) can be estimated by
equation
D-1
On = C
Where
*
V *
T *
100 *
98
D
(D-1)
C = specific heat of
y
(1 Btu/lb-0 F)
water
= Water density
(62.44 lb/cuft)
V = Tank volume
(120 gallons =
16.042 cuft)
T = Water temperature rise for each day
(60 F/day)
100
98 = Number of days when the systems is in
operation
D = 2%
Therefore On =
heat loss
1 Btu/lb-'F *
*
=
(365 days/year)
60OF/day *
62.44 lb/cuft *
16.042 cuft
100/98 *
365 days/year
(61,320.27 Btu/day) *
365 days/year
= 22,384,090 Btu/year
1.2
Annual
Operating Cost of
For an 80*. efficient
of
gas
can
a Propane DHW Heater
propane DHW heater,
one cubic foot
provide 800 Btu of heat, that means,
149
1
cubic
meter
can
Taipei
cost
28,252 Btu.
provide
is $11.21
(C),
The current gas
N.T. dollars per cubic meter.
therefore of
a propane DHW heater
price
The
in
annual
is derived
as
shown below:
Q
Cgas =
*
$11.21
Btu/m
28,252 Btu/m
= 22,384,090 *
28,252
= 8,882 N.T.
= 247 U.S.
1.3
Annual
1.3.1
a)
$11.21
dollars
dollars
Operating Cost of
Non-Cooling Seasons
a Heat Pump DHW Heater
(from October to May)
consumption by a water source Heat pump with
Energy
an
average COP 3.5.
Q = QDHW/8 months
COPw + 1
Where:
QDHW/8 months = The DHW needs for 8 months
COPw = Average COP of a water source heat pump
= 3.5
The
Total
DHW
energy
needs
equation D-2
150
can
be
derived
using
QDHW/8 months = C *
V *
*
T *
100 *
243 day/months
98
=
1 *
62.44 *
16.042 *
= 14,902,284 Btu/ 8
60 *
100 *243
98
months
Therefore
Q =
14,902,284
/
(3.5 +
1)
= 3,311,619 Btu/8 months..........(1)
b)
Energy consumption by a water pump with 0.1 horsepower
(hp)
per hour can be calculated using equation D-1
Qwp = 0.1 hp *
Where:
D *
745.7 w/hp *3.412 Btu/w
D :
Total
water
days in operation
pump
operating hours can be
estimated
equation D-2
Hop =
where:
(D-1)
Water pump operating hours
Hop
The
Hop/day *
(D-2)
DHW needs
PHLD *(COPW +1
COPW
PHLD : Peak hourly latent load
COPw : COP of a water source heat pump
151
(3.5)
by
Peak hourly latent load can be approximated below:
PHLD
=
latent Load in July
16 Operating hrs/day * 31 days/month
=
1,884,366 = 3,799.125
16 * 31
=
4,000 Btu/hr
(for a factor of savings)
the daily operating hours can be calculated
Therefore,
using equation D-2
Hop/day =
61,329 Btu/day
DHW needs/day =
PHLD *COPw
+ 1
4,000*
3.5 + I
3.5
COPW
= 11.9 Hrs = 12 Hrs
The energy consumption by a water pump
in these periods
would then be derived using equation D-1
Qwp = 0.1 hp *
*
12 hrs/day *
745.7 w/hp *
243 days/8 months
3.412 Btu/w
= 741,962 Btu................(2)
As a result, the total
(1) and
i.e.
energy consumption in the sum of
(2)
Qnc
=
(1)
+
(2)
= 3,311,619 + 741,926
= 4,053,545 Btu.............(3)
1.3.2
Energy Consumption
In Cooling Systems
Sept.)
152
(From June
to
1)
June
Energy consumption by a heat pump with run-around
a)
(COPa = 5)
coil
Q
= monthly latent
Copa
load =
1,052,700
b
= 210,540..........------------- (4)
b) Energy consumption by a water source heat pump
(COPw = 3.5)
Q = monthly DHW needs
COPw + 1
monthly
-
c)
latent load
COPw +
CoPa +
COPa/
1
=
=
1,839,788 - 1,263,240
4.5
=
128,121............a
1
576,540
4.5
.......
(5)
Energy consumption by a water pump
can be estimated
Qwp
=
hp/hour)
(o.i
by equation D-3
0.1
hp * Hop/month
Hop
:
* 745.7w/hp
*
(D-3)
Where:
Water pump operating hours
Hop is calculated using equation D-2
Hop =
= 112 hrs
576,548
47000 *
(3.5
+
1)
3.5
153
3.412Btu -
Therefore
Qwp = 0.1 *
112 *
=2S496
The
of
(4),
Btu/month..........(6)
(5),
and
(4)
+
(6)
(5)
= 210,540 +
+
(6)
128,121
+ 28,496
367,157 Btu...........(7)
-
2)
3.412
total energy consumption in June is the sum
Q =
i.e.
745.7 *
July
Energy
consumption
with a run-around coil
by a heat pump
DHW
heater
(COP = 5)
Q = monthly latent load = 1,884,366
COP
5
= 376,873 Btu/month...........(8)
3)
August
With the same procedure as calculations in July,
the
total
energy
consumption is
estimated
to
be
376,873 Btu..(9)
4)
September
With the same procedure as calculations in June,
the
total
energy
consumption is
estimated
to
be
382,233 Btu.. (10)
The total energy consumption for a heat pump DHW heater
in
cooling
(9),
and
season
(10).
(0c) would then be the sum of
i.e.
Qc = 367,157 + 376,873 + 376,873 + 382,233
154'
(7),
(8),
=
1,512,136 Btu
Annual Energy Consumption
1.5.3
(Qt)
This consumption is the sum of Qnc and On
Qt = Qnc + On
= 4,053,545 +
1.3.4
1,512,136 = 5,565,681 Btu
Annual Operating Cost
(Ct-heat pump)
Ct-heat pump = Current electricity price/KW *
-3,412 Btu/KW
Qt
= $2.25 N.T. dollars/KW * 5,565,681 Btu
3,412 Btu/KW
= $3,670 N.t. dollars
= $102
1.4
Annual
U.S. dollars
DHW Savings
annual
The
savings
by substituting a heat
pump
DHW
heater for a gas-propane heater is calculated below:
Csaving = Cgas -
Cheat-pump = 8,882 -
-
5,212 N.T.
-
148 U.s.
3,670
dollars
dollars
Total percentage of operating cost savings, for DHW is shown
below:
$52,12
8,882
= 58.7".
155
2.0
COOLING SYSTEM SAVINGS
2.1
The Operating Cost of an Air-conditioning System
(COP = 2)
This
operating cost
(Cair-conditioning) is
calculated
below
Cair-conditioning = Price of electricity *
Summer Cooling Load (sensible and latent)
COP
= 2.25 N.T. dollar/KW *
3,412 Btu/KW
= $4,945 N.T.
2.2
14,998,537 Btu
2
dollars
The Operating Cost of the Low-Cost Cooling System
circulate
the
chilled water between the cooling reservoir and
the
This
stored
system
radiant panel
Total
only uses a water pump to
ceilings.
energy
consumption
for
this
water
pump
is
estimated to be 405.057 Btu by using equation D-1.
Qwp-cooling
=
=
0.1 hp *
(10 hrs/day * 60 days + 16 hrs/day * 62 days)
(June,Aug.)
(July,Sept.)
* 745.7 w/hp * 3.412 Btu/w
405,057 Btu
The operating cost of this system is estimated below.
156
Cwp-cooling = Price of electricity *
= $2.25 N.T.dollars *
3,412 Btu/KW
Annual
Cooling System Sacings
is
saving
This
405,057 Btu
dollars
= $267 N.T.
2.3
by
derived
Cair-conditioning and Cwp-cooling.
Cs =
Qwp-cooling
Cair-conditioning -
the
difference
between
i.e.
Cwp-cooling
= 4,945 -267
= $4,678 N.T.
dollars
3.0
TOTAL ANNUAL OPERATING COST SAVINGS
3.1
Annual
Operating Cost of the Conventional Systems
(Co)
This cost is the sum of Cgas and Cair-conditioning
i.e.
3.2
Co = Cgas + Cair-conditioning
= 8,882 +
4,945
= $13,827
N.T. dollars
Annual Operating Cost of
the Proposed New Systems
This cost is the sum of Cheat pump and Cup-cooling
i.e.
Cn = Cheat pump + Cwp-cooing
=
3,670 +
267
= $3,937 N.T.
3.3
Total
Annual
dollars
Savings in
Amount
157
(C)
and
in
(Cn)
Percentage
(X)
1) The Amount
C
= co -
Cn =
13,827 -
3,937
= 9,890 N.T. Dollars
= 275 U.S. dollars
2)
The Percentage of the Former Operational
C
*
Co
= 71.5%
100% = 9,890
13,827
158
Cost
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