1
THE COST OF PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY
by
John I. Meyer, Jr.
B.Arch. University of Minnesota
June,1975
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the
Degree of
MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE IN ADVANCED STUDIES
at the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
June,1977
Signature of Author_
_
_
_
_
_
Department of Architecture
Certified by
Timothy
Roteh
ohns*
arch Associate
Accepted by
JUN 7 1977)
Eduardo Catalano,Chairman
Departmental Committee on Graduate Students
2
ABSTRACT
THE COST OF PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY
BY JOHN I.
MEYER
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE MAY 1977 IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE IN ADVANCED STUDIES.
This report evaluates the total cost of passive solar design.
Faced with a barrage of issues dealing with passive solar energy, I found it
difficult to design responsible buildings without a comprehensive understanding
of the amount of money involved, and the value of my architectural preferences.
This report is my attempt to discover the important passive issues, quantify their
impact on building costs, and weigh their compatibility with my aesthetic objectives.
The goal of this report is a complete set of design guidelines which include both
mechanical and aesthetic objectives.
The Introduction explains the measurement techniques for computing mechanical costs.
Chapter I is a reprint of my original framework written six months ago at the
beginning of this report. Chapters II-V are the core of this thesis. They
analyse separately each of my four categories of passive issues: landscape, shapeand orientation, windows, and materials. Chapter VI collects and orders the objectives of the four preceding chapters. Chapter VII demonstrates the use of the
combined objectives in the design of a test case.
Thesis Supervisor:
Title:
Timothy E. Johnson
Research Associate
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I GRATEFULLY ACKNOWLEDGE THE FOLLOWING PERSONS FOR THEIR PERSONAL CONTRIBUTIONS:
TIM JOHNSON
for patience and support
R. BRUNKAN, K. RUBERG, B. FREY, G. TREMBLAY,' C. SLOAN, R. RADVILLE, H. ENGELSBURG, L. RODRIGUES
for reading my work and/or aiding in the production of this report.
IMRE HALASZ
for employment and design criticism
BONNIE BLANCHARD
for typing
CATHY CHUTICH
for not moving out
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page.........................
Abstract...........................
2
Acknowledgements...................
3
Table of Contents...................
4
Introduction.......................
5
..................................
39
Chapter #1:
Initial Framework.......
..................................
......
163
Chapter #2:
Landscape..............
87
..................................
......
16
Chapter #3:
Shape and Orientation...
12
......................................
..
39
Chapter #4:
Windows.................
15
...................................
..
63
Chapter #5:
Materials...............
..
Chapter #6:
Chapter #7:
..
87
Combined Guidelines.....
....
123
Test Case..............
... . 25
Bibliography.......................
.....o s.134
i
____________________
to the desire to optimize the
use of the sun's heat and light.
Active systems, like the
The purpose of this thesis
flat plate collector, are not
Throughout the course of my
is to develop guidelines to be
discussed in this thesis because
used by a design-oriented archi-
it is necessary to develop an
architectural education, I have
understandable framework for the
carried with me the notion that
the creation of beautiful and
ordinary systems of a building
someone out there knew these
economical buildings which
before collectors are nailed to
things; that a quantified under-
operate in close harmony with
the roof.
passive solar energy systems.
of the building below that dic-
passive energy issues was just
tates the number of collectors
another part of ordinary practice.
above.
Mechanical engineers, I supposed,
tect.
They are to be used in
Passive solar design is
here defined as the manipulation
of ordinary building parts to
It is the efficiency
The reader of this report
standing of the full range of
helped architects program sensible buildings.
maximize the advantages, or
need not worry about missing the
minimize the disadvantages, of
"technological boat."
a given sun climate.
and active systems are differ-
architectural/engineering offices,
entiated more by equipment than
I have changed my mind.
The word "solar"'in this
Passive
The equation for
Now after working with large
If I
might briefly mention some work
thesis title will often seem
by approach.
unjustified, as when night-
the absorption of sunlight by a
experiences of the past two
time thermal barriers are ana-
brick is the same used to deter-
years, the reasons for my dis-
lyzed, but all of the follow-
mine the absorption of special
illusionment may become apparent.
ing discussions may be retraced
collector paints.
*Last year I helped design
i
6
6
a transit system for downtown St.
ican architects and has recently
en by well-meaning readers.
Paul which had to thread its way
been published by New York's
They have correctly pointed out
among glass towers S.O.M. had
Museum of Modern Art.
that the scope of this work is
proposed for the coldest large
iting the site with that project's
too large for one person with
city on earth.
chief designer this winter, I was
merely an architectural back-
*I was given charge of the
shocked to find frost on the in-
ground.
design of a prefabricated hous-
side of an exterior wall, and to
that any of the sub-chapters
ing system for Nigeria.
hear him explain that insulation
would be suitable for a more
case I was answerable to a pro-
would have destroyed the integrity
precise and managable report.
moter whose only concern was
of his concrete wall.
that soil pipes align.
In this
No co-
When vis-
These three recent experi-
They have pointed out
I have only one defense
against these most reasonable
ordination of building mechan-
ences have helped convince me that
arguments: whether he choses to
ical systems and local climate
if guidelines for reasonable pas-
ignore the fact or not, when-
desired.
sive design exist they are not
ever an architect picks up a
*I have worked on designs
commonly used and that there is
pencil to design a building he
for three "solar" buildings,
a pressing need for a comprehen-
assumes responsibility for all
all of which were purported to
sive overview of the costs of
passive energy concerns.
be developed with the active
passive solar enengy.
shape he gives his building, the
The
participation of mechanical
landscaping of that building,
engineers.
its openings and materials, all
The most success-
ful of the three has received
There have been many times
have an important impact on the
professional awards from the
during the production of this
energy consumption and mechani-
most fashionable group of Amer-
thesis when I have been browbeat-
cal equipment required.
i
.7
An architect cannot beg off
this work, errors will undoubted-
reader who wants to use the
by simply stating that he is not
ly occur.
conclusions of this report to
a mechanical engineer because
terested only in precision docu-
understand the author's assum-
only architects design buildings.
ments written by eminently qual-
tions, and to trace all numer-
The mechanical engineer's cur-
ified professionals may stop now.
ical information from official
rent role is to make architect-
For those who are less demanding,
to unofficial graphs.
designed buildings habitable.
I would make a suggestion con-
An architectural education
does not presently equip students
with an understanding of the
The reader who is in-
cerning the most useful way to
read this report.
Two types of numerical in-
costs and savings of passive
formation are presented.
energy decisions.
type is the very reliable charts
Therefore,
One
it is necessary for each student
and data extracted from engin-
to equip himself.
eering catalogues.
The first
This reli-
The investigating procedure
of this thesis will follow the
order of the 7 chapters.
*Chapter I will state the
starting point of this investi-
step, which this thesis attempts
able information will always be
gation: my original vague notions
to take, is to collect the full
reproduced in hardline graphs.
that prompted this thesis.
range of passive solar issues
The second type of numerical in-
will also include the building
and test them for an understan-
formation is that which has been
model to be used in the detailed
ding of their impact on overall
processed by the author for his
investigations of the following
building costs.
various purposes.
chapters.
The unoffici-
al information will always be
presented in free-hand graphs.
Because of the scope of
It is important for the
It
*Chapters II-V are the core
of this report.
Each of these
chapters will be devoted to a
i8
category of passive energy is-
*Chapter VI combines the ob-
significant savings have been
sues: II Landscape, III Windows,
jectives of all the chapters in-
achieved and if so, at what
IV Shape and Orientation, V
to one quantified set of guide-
cost to the quality of the envi-
Materials.
lines.
Each chapter will present
At this point, I can
state with some degree of confi-
the complete list of issues in-
dence whether window area is a
cluded in that category, known
more important concern than a
to the author.
Chapter V, for
onment created.
building's orientation, or whe-
All results of the tests
ther sunscreens are a better in-
performed throughout this thesis
terial" issues: insulation,
vestment than an extra inch of
should be easily understood by
mass, color, and texture.
insulation.
an American businessman.
example,
is
composed of 4 "ma-
A numerical means of mea-
*Chapter VII is a test case
The
savings produced by the proper
to see if these nine months of
use of passive energy principals,
work have produced reliable tools
therefore, will be translated in-
of various manipulations are
for the proper use of passive
to per cent reductions from a
calculated and the issues of
solar energy.
each chapter are ranked accor-
ter, the redesign of a building
ding to their impact on an over-
presently under construction in
all building budget.
the Boston area will be taken to
mercial building projects are
a sufficient stage of completion
"set up" to pay for themselves
touch each issue will also be
where the architect, developer,
in a period of five years.
discussed and combined with
and mechanical engineer of the
other words, in order to comfort-
the mechanical objectives.
real project can judge if any
ably cover financing costs,
suring the importance of each
issue will be proposed.
Costs
My aesthetic values that
In this final chap-
building's total construction
cost.
Today most blue chip com-
In
-
9
4.
the income from a building must
nique, the per cent load reduc-
match its first cost and oper-
tion is multiplied by the pro-
ating cost within five years of
per percentage on Chart 1.1.
its completion.
For example, if a special type
Therefore, five
of sunscreen reduces apartment
years of energy reductions must
be added to the first cost re-
J" covr-
cooling loads by 10%, the "price
would be filled in as
ductions in mechanical equip-
tag"
ment in order to determine the
follows:
advantage of any energy conserving technique.
The price of energy is
These "price tags" are intended to give a quick represen-
rising faster than inflation,
building's total cost produced
but for the purpose of the mea-
by a particular construction
surements in this thesis, it is
method or material.
only assumed to keep pace with
inflation.
The savings produced by
c~9~7 1Ze~vcr1o&)
tation of the reduction of a
In order to quantify the
percent of savings to be listed
on the "price tag," a listing of
each correct building technique
average mechanical and annual
will be graphically displayed
energy costs for the Boston area
tiplied by $.80/$35 because that
throughout this report by the
is necessary (Chart 1.1).
is the ratio of annual square
use of "price tags":
To enter the percent savings
of some energy conserving tech-
The energy savings is mul-
foot energy costs related to
square foot construction costs.
10
i
r(arpr1
Thus all savings are reduced to
the first cost figures easily
'/',
6L~r
&:
C4207r
comprehended by a businessman.
6oM
eoe
In order to avoid the problem of producing a cookbook of
ideas with no clear understanding of their relative importance
all of the experiments in this
thesis are
related to one spe-
cific location (Boston).
01{
The
model building type is a five
I~2W
story, 70 foot deep building.
It costs $35 per square foot
and is constructed as illustra-
While the use of such a
specific model
limits
50w
LW%~&
ted in Figure 1.2.
ccpmotw
Ale
~62%
its ap-
25D
1
Z
plication to the Boston area,
/0%
one case is clearly presented.
Once the technique for calculating costs is understood,
4
'I
*'
~
OF
WtJ~7()j~fl~
~J~I .4*'gei~,
II
a
11
o.f7
charts may be reconstructed to
0-
suit other climates and construc-
e..
-
-.
tion methods.
Op1qaWV A JP
0
x''wM
I!
00 Z " rLAu/? F044S4 --'I
10 o
SiM-Lr~te
-.-
Offices and apartments are
both designated for testing
because they are logical choices
for the test case location, and
because these two uses point
out the differences between
heavily populated interior cli-
-
mates and less populated housing
situations.
oy
cisigned for the final chapter of
this thesis.
A visually sensi-
tive site on the edge of Boston's
r
p
-
A test case is to be de-
-
og
~-ir
3
i
North End has been purposely
chosen to demonstrate that energy conscious design need not
overwhelm its surroundings.
12
14
Starting Point
Development of Objectives
Soft and Hard
Chapter Summary
15
Human Objectives
Energy Objectives
15
First Framework
I
14
14
I
spaces created.
opaque cubes.
Such ungoverned
solutions are a waste of everyone's time.
Pooling the information
The hard dollar and cents
I've gathered during five years
Architecture is an ambiva-
issues discussed in this report
of doing architecture, I begin
lent pursuit of economy and com-
all have soft implications. The
this report by patching together
modity.
artistic use of natural lighting,
the pieces of my own knowledge
That a blind pursuit of en-
concerning the role of passive
ergy efficiency results in human
bound to the heat loss and gain
energy in the world of archi-
"disasters" is a well documented
of a building.
tecture.
fact.
I found that I could group
For this reason, it is
for instance, is inextricably
The framework I am now at-
impossible to write a set of en-
tempting to develop and illus-
those pieces of information into
ergy objectives without taking
trate will include both the hard
four distinct categories:
human concerns into account.
and soft issues of passive solar
1)
Landscaping
2)
Shape and Orientation
I have postulated the following
3)
Windows
two-part list of ordered objec-
4)
Materials
tives.
After some soul searching,
design.
Chapter I will be the state-
I have evaluated these four cat-
ment of my initial framework.
egories with a group of objec--
This beginning framework is the
tives that deal with either the
The straight optimization of
ordering of information acquired
economy of building operation or
energy efficiency will lead only
through personal experience.
the human desirability of the
to the design of well-insulated
The middle chapters (Chapters II
15
I
-V) will be critical analysis
style options
dering passive energy issues.
of the individual pieces of my
initial framework.
Chapter VI
This should readjust and expand
will be the restructuring of
several times during the course
2)
the framework in light of new
and quantified information.
represents my first stab at or-
Minimize construction
costs
of my study.
Especially note-
worthy will be the adjusted,
Finally, Chapter VII will be a
3)
Minimize operation costs
quantified frameworks appearing
test case pitting this new
6)
Maximize building util-
after the completion of my theo-
approach against the approach
ity and flexibility
retical investigation (Chapter
taken for the recent develop-
VI) and again after completion of
ment of a Boston property.
the test problem (Chapter VII).
Using my own experience and
my nine ordered objectives, I may
1)
Adequate and delight-
ful natural lighting
now propose to order the importance of the four categories that
4)
Pleasing appearance
include all the problems of pas-
5)
Adequate indoor-
sive solar energy.
outdoor connections
7)
Positive community
impact
This ordering,
1)
shape and orientation
2)
windows
8)
Pleasing views
3)
landscaping
9)
Adequate range of life-
4)
materials,
2
L
A
N
D
S
C
A
P
E
17
17
II
LANDSCAPING
19
19
COST ISSUES
MODELS AND MEASUREMENT
21
Growing Things
24
Ground Covers
26
Surrounding Objects
31
Buried Buildings
35
PERSONAL OBJECTIVES
36
HARD AND SOFT GUIDELINES
II
II
IA
18
LANDSCAPING
pact on building costs.
I was disappointed to find
It is
important that landscape issues
so little mechanical savings at
be understood, however, be-
stake by the manipulation of
cause designers must realize
different parts of a building's
where constraints do not exist
landscape.
as well as where they do.
I wanted to lead
off with a category offering
the opportunity for major mechanical savings.
In my mind, the way buildings fit into their site preceeds any discussion of the
buildings themselves.
It is,
therefore, most natural to begin this analysis by discussing landscaping, despite its
small effect on mechanical requirements.
Of the four categories of
passive solar issues, 'landscaping' has the smallest im-
19
II
19
II
COST ISSUES
3.
Partially or Completely
energy consumption.
considered important in this
Buried Buildings
sent peak loads under worst con-
discussion:
Buried buildings would seem
ditions and are used to determine
Growing Things
to offer economies because
installation capacity.
Trees, ivies, and var-
they are nestled in the
ious ground covers are
constant moderate tempera-
wall
those pieces of the
tures of sub-grade earth.
known 'book values' or the pro-
Three landscape issues are
1.
plant world that affect
a building's mechanical
operation and installa-
2.
MODEL AND MEASUREMENTS
The-
1000 square feet of
tion costs.
Surrounding Objects
will serve as a model.
charts are either well-
The method of evaluation is
*Average Sun Gains are
charted in dozens of publications. 1
*Heat Loss is the product of
a wall's conductance (book value)
are those objects near
the comparative analysis of the
and the difference between the
a building which re-
'wall charts' which have been con-
temperatures it divides.
flect or intercept
structed for display in the fol-
suffients amounts of
lowine Dazes.
heat and light to
effect energy consumption.
1.
All of the numbers in the
ducts of simple calculations.
space used throughout this report
'Surrounding Objects'
Others pre-
Some of these
-charts deal with average temperatures and may be used to compare
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals is used in this report.
*Infiltration is the amount
of heat required to warm or cool
replacement air which leaks
through skin cracks or is me-
20
II
2.
chanically exhausted.
In the
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
N
118
162
224
306
406
484*
422
322
232
166
122
98
NNE
123
200
300
400
550
700*
550
400
300
200
123
100
NE
127
225
422
654
813
894*
821
656
416
226
132
103
ENE
265
439
691
911
1043
1108*
1041
903
666
431
260
205
E
508
715
961
1115
1173
1200*1 1163
1090
920
694
504
430
~air must be replaced per hour
Office space
will require a full air change.
*Sun Waste is the amount of
extra sun heat which would over-
828
1011
1182
1218.t
1191
1179
1 1 7 5t
118 8
1131
971
815
748
SE
1174
1285
1318*
1199
1068
1007
1047
1163
1266
1234
1151
1104
SSE
1490
1509*
1376
1081
848
761
831
1049
1326
1454
1462
1430
S
1630**
1626 t
1384 t
978
712
622
694
942
134 4k
1566t
1596
SSW
1490
1509*
1370
1081
848
761
831
1049
1326
1454
1462
1430
SW
ESE
heat a winter room and would
have to be exhausted.
In this
model the building's mass has
more heat storage capacity than
average daily sunheat.
There-
fore no sunheat is presumed to
be wasted.
&-r
SOLAR HEAT GAIN FACTORS FOR 40*N LATITUDE, WHOLE DAY TOTALS
Bu/ft 2 /day (Values for 21st of each month)
assumed model, 1/2 of the room's
in apartments.
')U J
-U21
t
+
1482+
1174
1285
1318*
1199
1068
1007
1047
1163
1266
1234
1151
1104
WSW
828
1011
1182
1218*'
1 19 .1k
1179
1175t
1 1 8 8t
1131
971
815
748
W
508
715
961
1115
1173
1200*
1163
1090
920
694
504
430
WNW
265
439
691
911
1043
1108*
1041
903
666
431
260
205
821
656
416
226
132
103
NW
127
225
422
658
813
894*
NNW
123
200
300
400
550
700*
550
400
300
200
123
100
HOR
706
1092
1528
1924
12166
2242*
2148
1890
1476
1070
706
564
*month of highest gain for given orientation(s)
orientation(s) of highest gain in given month
SOURCE: ASH RAE, Handbook of Fundamentals, 1970; Koolshade Corporation.
21
21
II
Growing Things
possible by the use of decid-
Trees
uous sunscreens.
When windows are shielded
Chart 2.2 shows
the load reductions for offices.
Energy and installation cost
from sun rays by trees, air
monly installed and may be easily
replaced. 10 year old trees have
been legitimately used for calculating first costs as well as
conditioning costs are reduced.
reductions are obtained by mul-
operating costs b'eaanseethey may
Most deciduous trees posi-
tiplying the load reductions by
be considered a permanent building
tioned between windows and the
the percentage of a building's
part.
sun will reduce direct interior
first cost listed in Chapter I.
sunshine by 50%.1 Chart 2.1 shows
Cost reductions are listed in
only the lower 2 floors of the 5
the load reductions for each
price tag 2.1
story model building.
Most 10 year old trees
apartment orientation made
1. Olgyay, Victor,Design with
Climate.
10 year old trees will shade
Hence cost
reductions for the model will
operate at 85% of the efficiency
2
They are comof mature trees.
be 2/5 of the reductions in the
2.
the real savings possible by the
Ibid.
chart above.
Price tag 2.lb shows
use of deciduous trees.
II
22
AV..
4/
To-rall
23
23
II
II
A Stand of Trees (Forest)-
machines.
sunlight is twice as intense as
in winter when trees are leafless.] Deciduous trees immediately outside windows keep lighting
levels constant year round.
Lighting bills will be slightly
increased by halving available
A stand of trees, a group
summer sunlight.
Price tag 2.3
of closely spaced mature trees,
presents the lighting disadvan-
decreases ground temperatures
tages of the use of deciduous sun-
10*F on 90* days.
Actual reductions for the 5
screens for a 70 foot deep build-
time climate of an entire neigh-
story model would be 2/5 of the
ing.
borhood.or district may be com-
percentages listed because only
pletely altered by the presence.
2/3 of a 5 story building will
of trees.
be beneath a tree stand.
The summer-
Price tag 2.2 lists
the mechanical cost reductions
produced by building beneath
the canopy of a forest.
Residen-
Trees and Natural Lighting
Deciduous trees positioned
between the sun and windows re-
tial cooling costs are eliminated
duce natural lighting up to 50%.
while office cooling must only
[No additional lighting fixtures
accommodate the internal loads
are made necessary by this sun-
produced by people, lights, and
screening effect because summer
MMMMMM
II
24
2L1
II
included because they result
ground cover increases the amount
from a special condition.
of winter sunheat through a
building's windows by 60%.
1ea,
Chart 2.4 compares a building
with grass beneath its windows
to a building with white paving
positioned to reflect sunheat
into its interior.
Again, these numbers apply only
*
to the lower 2 floors of the model
model structure.
The lighting penalty for the
If
ivy is
allowed to
grow over windows dur-
use of trees is small and only
ing the cooling season
slightly affects building opera-
its use will reduce
tion.
costs in the same proportion
Tree Conclusion
as the use of deciduous trees.
The following price tag
kxLLrF4c 14F1TctrZ~T
7-
IVY
Lxutv-
r
OPaiou0
/,
r
To~st- 2-'
If ivy is to be cleared
"
Y A 1uA
/-/
O
-
O
0
Since all energy advantages
lists the cost advantages of
from summer windows no mech-
of reflecting winter sunheat are
planting 10 year old deciduous
anical reductions will result
offset by the disadvantages
trees between summer sunshine
from its use.
of
and windows.
Ground Covers and Reflected Heat
a deciduous tree shade over
(Lighting penal-
summer reflected sunheat,
ties are included.) The advan-
White paving reflects 80%
the reflective ground cover is
tages of building beneath the
of the sun's light and heat while
assumed in the above price tag.
canopy of a forest are not
grass reflects only 20%.
White
25
II
Reflective ground covers
do not effect office operation
because additional reflected
sunheat is insignificant beside
internal office loads.
Ground Cover and Lighting
Reflecting light into windows has no appreciable effect on
the energy bill of apartments for
the following reason: Daytime lighting accounts for only 10% of a
domestic lighting bill, and lighting accounts for only 10% of the
total domestic energy bill.
flected lighting, therefore,
Re-
CuMer 2.4 -
"000r e'00ww.
26
II
could at most reduce a domestic
Surrounding Objects
Surrounding objects can
energy bill by .3%.
office energy bills may be
steal light and sunshine from
significantly reduced by the
a building and considerably in-
use of reflective ground cover.
crease heating requirements.
Daytime lighting accounts for 80%
however,
of an office lighting bill, and
are positioned to reflect sun-
lighting represents 50% of an
light onto a building, reductions
office's total energy bill.
in
Since
externally reflected light on a
30% glass wall supplies up to 20%
If,
surrounding buildings
lighting and heating costs
will result.
Mechanical loads before and
The energy reductions in
of interior lighting, the use of
after the construction of
the first price tag above are
reflective surfaces beneath
reflecting and obstructing build-
correct when unobstructed build-
windows produces a 10% reduction
ings are compared in charts 2.5
ings are equipped with sun shades.
in office energy needs.
and 2.6
If windows are unshaded, no energy
The cost of these
load changes are presented in
will be saved on the annual
the following price tags.
basis because summer cooling
load increases will balance
winter heat reductions.
10r osrr
0
0
0
0
27
II
These reductions are
quite high, but they represent
theoretical maximums and not
ordinary conditions.
All win-
dows are assumed to receive
80% additional sunshine from
reflection or to
lose all
direct sunshine by obstruction.
Normally a small proportion of a building's windows
receive reflective sunshine.
Only that small proportion of
the listed reduction may be realized.
While it
is
more common for
large portions of a building to
be obstructed, it is usually
difficult to move an urban
structure completely out of the
shadow of surrounding buildings.
mow
2
TT
CUAer
Z.1 F
29
mmmmmmwmmmmm
30
31
II
Cuoer ,
Buried Buildings
Four feet below the surface,
earth holds a constant temperature of 55*F.
The walls of a
buried building separate a smaller
temperature differential and
therefore have smaller heat
losses.
All the heating and
cooling loads through a square
foot of above grade wall have
been compared to the mechanical
loads of a square foot of subgrade wall.
space is
The below grade
credited with a sky-
light area of 30% of its
area.
wall
The cost of the load
.*
-
Ate
tmW
ka~
II
32
differences have been computed
in price tag 2.10.
Average load differences
have been used to calculate
energy reductions.
The load
difference during worst conditions are multiplied by installation costs for the first cost
reductions.
v -r
2.1o
t.ftov (,aoog-
A Fou
A subgrade wall in
- el~
Boston
is normally $1.00 per square foot
less expensive to build because it
lacks exterior finishes.
The
$1.00 per square foot reduction
reduces project first costs 1%
II
33
but excavation increases first
cost 2 1/2%.
Since forming below 8 .feet
of depth is economically prohibitive, the advantages of building below grade applies to only
one fifth of the model 5 story
building.
1/5 of all subgrade
mechanical reductions are insignificant.
If a building is flattened
into a one story subgrade building
the larger roof surface would
lose enough heat to off-set
the advantages of building into
the earth.
Covering the roof with
earth will increase structural
costs tremendously.
Finally, only functions
which do not require a view may
be buried.
If one side of
a building is buried and the other
left exposed only 1/2 of the
q.Jt
-Of
c.p
vc&~~o-
II
34
mechanical advantages of
tag 2.8 may be realized.
Burying a building into
the constant temperature of the
earth does not offer great mechanical advantages.
Designers
may bury buildings for many
reasons, but the major reduction
of mechanical costs should not be
one of them.
Price tag 2.11 lists
the
total 5 year cost of burying
the first floor of the 5 story
building.
11
rav.
op ~
V
&
'9
~
AI7vmiIwZ
,ono
O
35
II
Landscape and the Author's
Personal Aesthetic Guidelines
The guidelines developed
in this section are subjective
and personal.
Lest important
aesthetic concerns become
subjected to energy objectives,
aesthetic values related to the
subject matter of this chapter
will be listed and discussed.
If readers find this type
of discussion useless, they are
encouraged to proceed to the
next mechanical section.
I
suggest the reading of these
sections.
They are brief
and offer insights into the
test design of the final chapter.
36
II
Landscaping and Natural Light
My intention is
to use the
glare.
I am not interested in
eliminating glare (at times. it is
Views
In each dwelling unit
richest natural lighting pallet
very beautiful), but merely to
or work group, occupants must
within the limits of painful
control its most relentless forms.
have access to short views,
Trees are useful in the control
long views, and multi-directional
spaces should be cave-like and
of relentless glare, because they
views.
some should sparkle in dazzling
intercept 50% of direct sun rays.
used to compose short views,
Trees replace views of blank sky
and frame the longer ones.
glare and pitch blackness.
Some
A full range of lighting
light.
experiences should be available
with their beautifully changing
to each member of a family unit
forms.
and to each member of a working
Indoor-Outdoor Connection
unit.
This lighting intention,
Landscaping should be
HARD AND SOFT GUIDELINES
Each occupant of a housing
The mechanical reductions
of this chapter are substantial
When
unit or working group should have
only for special cases.
access to visual and physical
a large reflective building is
function (living room, kitchen,
contact to the surrounding land-
built next door, for instance,
coffee lounge, etc.) should be
scape.
entirely grayed out or glared
me occurs when 1/3 of my cone of
The more reliable landscaping
out.
vision can be directed through
techniques like using trees
a window to the landscape outside.
for sun screening are found
source that contrasts strongly
Physical contact occurs when the
to have minor impact on me-
with its surroundings or
exterior landscape moves into
chanical economy.
with the field form which it
a building and a door is provided
however,
should be limited by
the following constraint.
Glare is
is viewed.
No
defined as a light
Large patches of
unobstructed sky always produce
This visual contact for
at that -point.
heating costs drop considerably.
It is for this reason
that soft concerns have priority
37
II
C1g
er
. 1/
APARTMENT
loeo 691PUA0P2
OFFICE
4-,
0
0)
tdo
n
(4J
~JU)
4)
Ln
2
fivC,
V# IvoiV
gte-.
vt
aWA-
L1w
07
(00Rr
~r19
eo
IVrecmoseF
w
6erWer
4
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(U 44I
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U)
b)
4
a) L) U
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>W>
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Lf~)0)U)
4-4w
*Technique for including operation in first cost.
See Chapter I for explanation.
0#
Va
~52*~
'ftXi
AeMVe:sVACiTevwfI
V*-
'->
-1 U
U)
OFFICE
41,
*rm $4
'->
'i-I
(
Cfl
>
Vo -H (a
Cd4-4 U)
~
72
47'?
3)-
of
ore2~
.7
38
in the following list of combined
guidelines.
Combined Guidelines
1.
SOFT GUIDELINES
The following is
list
Allow landscape to flow
through walls where out-
an ordered
door connection is
of soft guidelines for the
use of landscaping:
desirable.
2.
1. Allow landscape to flow
compose short views
and frame long views.
through walls where
outdoor connection is
3.
Use deciduous trees for
sun screens.
desirable.
2. Use landscaping to compose
Use landscaping to
4.
Screen natural light
short views and frame
through deciduous trees
long views.
and ivy.
3. Screen natural light
through deciduous trees
and ivy.
/
39
3
S
H
A
P
E
&
0
R
E
N
T
A
T
40
III
III. SHAPE AND ORIENTATION
42
COST ISSUES
1) Shape
a) heating loads
b) lighting
2) Orientation
a) plan
b) section
3) Crenelation
43
MODELS AND MEASUREMENT
57
PERSONAL ISSUES
1) Natural Light
2) Appearance
3) Indoor-Outdoor Connection
4) Views
60
PERSONAL GUIDELINES
61
HARD GUIDELINES
62
COMBINED GUIDELINES
41
41
III
Ill
III.
Shape and Orientation
Second:
I will propose the proper
This chapter discusses the eco-
methods of measuring the
nomics inherent in the overall
relative importance of
shape and orientation of a struc-
these -issues.
ture.
It will also deal with
Third:
I will analyze the human
the human implications of these
impact of decisions
economic form generators.
involving manipulations
This analysis will be presented
of a building's shape and
in the following manner.
direction.
First:
I will identify what I
Fourth:
Finally, I will combine
consider to be the full
my economic and human
set of issues that relate
objectives in one list
the shape and orientation
of guidelines.
of a building to its
first cost and operation
cost.
142
III
A.
Shape and Lighting
COST ISSUES
The following is the list
Electric lighting costs
of issues which relate shape
increase with the depth of a
and orientation to mechanical
building.
The relationship of orientation
to lighting installations is not
an issue.
3)
costs.
1)
Crenelationw
2) Orientation
The heat flowing from the
Shape
sun can be more effectively received by a building facing the
sun in
both plan and section.
The carving of a building's
exterior into patterns of solid and
void has three economic implications.
A4
The
increases initial..construction costs.
All the heat which a building
loses goes through its skin.
.Additional surface material
Orientation and Lighting
.The first and operating
smaller its skin, the smaller the
Lighting levels vary in
costs of heating and cool-
mechanical systems and energy bills
intensity for different orienta-
ing are increased propor-
Besides the reductions in mechan-
tions on clear days, but during
ical systems, a smaller surface
worst conditions (heavy clouds)
offers considerable savings in
all orientations receive identi-
materials and labor.
cal amounts of natural light.
tionally with the amount of
additional skin area.
.Natural lighting may be
increased when cavities
are cut into building volume.
*Tessellation;bumps;surface
deformation.
III
43
MODELS AND MEASUREMENT
CLur 3.
--
MOPE4.
W1a) Ak
o
£t
009
i
10W
4a' F r,- OP
rP:
In this section, equations
and models are proposed for the
proper measurement of the value
0. /7
0. M1 ec~b..
-al-
00Z
of each of the preceding issues.
-
1.
-
Shape, Labor and Material Costs
50
6C-V
Coyn
e
lre,
FOAM
04..09-0ux~.
4
0
0.01
The model used in this
report is a $35 per square foot
building with enclosing walls
costing $6 per square foot. Walls
in this case account for about 20%
of a building's first cost.
When an architect uses twice
the material to enclose the same
square footage he increases the
first cost of his building by 17%.
(1.7 million on a 10 million dollar
building.)
hV
I
oOf4
-.
444#?
-
III
M-1c,
44f
-M&
5.1
tR
SO1A
IORS
1lEA T GAIN I-AC
FOR 40'N L 111-1 -DE, %IIOLF DAY
rtu f /dy (%'aluc%
1-c
J
772
118
N
Mar
224
NNE
12
200
1)
NE
127
22 5
4
ENE
'
i
T
May
Jui
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nm
DCC
306
416'
484*
422
322
232
166
122
08
4o
551
700*
550
4t0
3
200
894*
X21
6
I8
1
Ti.
--
SE
SF
Shape, Heating and Cooling
30*4
SS
12
1 :i
(14
1 18*
----
124
1
184
-x
I
1'(
13
lo
103
213 2(
431
----
120
19
4
1344t
1188
4
1
Rx83
4
5
1x'
1.590t
1561
1311
The equipment needed to
123
416
6W
9)13
--
851318*
'!7
Su
1ol
1011 131,*S24
40-50*'304
OT AI S
ht m1iionzth)
Apr
65 4
413 9
for 2 Iht of c
114!5
1482
162'I
measure the effects of a 'buildSW
ing shape' on heating and cooling
1!74
2( 123N9
48
13
,9
3
NW
basic heat loss equation.
11ti3'
11'
I 11,1
127
225
N2
422
2
TooR
11092
658
300
100 15"
15--R
1924
813
894*
700'
lil6 2242*
2
55
414
All residential heating and
cooling loads go through a building's walls.
If the wall
area is doubled, heating and
cooling loads double.
'O1
12o0*
6
1'lrw21
V ovo
()'o
6
4
5
o4
WN"A~~~""
"6 -10 , ,41
is: The ASHRAE Average Sun Table,
one right forefinger, and the
l
nemRCL(
ASneRAn
hhrpo.1 g nobo'.O
nIn
I' it'n [Uh. V)70 Km)!'*had, (
hP(
i
'
430
205
656
416
226
132
400
300
20
123 1
7e
103
Io
i6,4
443u
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5
-rar
eir ':%0>
.-
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2
V.4pz A
CoolLon
1
-
#0.
f4V
56/
AIJ.
Shape and Office Heating and
Cooling
-oum (CiAV/)
-------
__
''Ilei
--j$
/160&Z4
I
""
2e
~'
~o
c~-~/~
-
-k#
X.
,~/'i
'
2~
Office mechanical costs are
"
/
j~
*
~IIf
Z
more complicated to calculate
because not all heating and cool-
-%sEr
0
ing loads flow through the weatherskin.
Additional loads are pro-
duced by machines,
I'xe-fr.
lights,
people, and mechanical ventila-
*o. **
0-
/66
/Zo</
/2.9/ /Z4
/-41
/2',
Z
ZZ/
/f.
20, /
-*
..
*
tion.
Chart 3.3 has been constructed to compare average loads on
offices of the same volume but
with surface areas that differ in
the ratio of 2 to 1.
These aver-
age loads may be compared to
determine energy savings.
*-WA1Urt/
I"
/2
pes
T
/1,4
-
S
/g,
46
<A&r
~4- cxeer
calgwo
tOw&
Chart 3.4 shows the load
differences under worst conditions.
-
f
Since worst conditions dictate
mechanical capacities, these
loads are used to calculate reductions in first costs.
Price tag 3.3 lists the
total reductions produced by
.2.
.
*-------/
halving an office building's
surface area.
m~ce-E
A4
w
'
"~
2elf,
/-0
71
07
47
47
III
III
Lighting Correction
lighting cost difference represents a 5% reduction in office
energy requirements.
area.
Unless
circumstances forbid evening office work, no reduction in lighting installations could be aIf the building with twice
the surface area has a 70 foot
chieved by reducing
a building's
width.
section, as opposed to a 150 foot
deep section in the more compact
building, more of its interior
may be lit with sunlight.
Or
AV
V
eo'
~
-Orientations and Shape
er
~
t-%6.)r
(
Natural light is a valuable
commodity for office buildings,
ixr2
because lighting accounts for
50% of energy costs.
Since a
greater proportion of a narrow
building can be naturally lit,
Shape Conclusions
Price tag 3.5 totals the
a narrow office will have appre-
preceding 'shape cost reductions. I
ciably lower electric bills.
These total percentages were ob-
20% of a 70 foot deep building
tained by multiplying the pro-
cover which is
can be naturally lit through
portions of a building's cost
from the heating standpoint: a
most of the working day, while
required for mechanical equip-
compact building or a building
only 10% of the deeper building
ment and 5 years of energy by
strung out before the southern
may be similarly lit.
the load reductions possible
sun.
The 10%
My purpose here is to dismore desirable
My method of evaluation
48
III
48
III
geometric plan shapes and mechan-
will again involve only: the
decrease the heating loads of
ical
simple heat loss equation and the
Building 2.
rotating a square plan 450.
ASHRAE sun chart.
have a 25% greater maximum load
Assume now that Buildings 1
and 2 in the above illustrations
have floor areas of 1 square foot.
On an average winter day,
Building 2 will
because of its 25% greater surface.
costs; and the effect of
Sun and Plan Shape
Winter sun reaches the
proportion of a building's surThe price tag below indi-
face shown in the illustrations
cates that the most efficient
on the top of the
Building 1 gains 6 BTUH from the
shape for a Boston building
sun proportions are shown below.
sun while losing 20 through its
is the most compact.
walls.
From inspection it is
Building 2 with its larger
obvious that greater amounts
southern exposure gains 8.4 BTUH
of sun are received by various
but loses 28 because of its great-
basic shapes.
er surface.
Checking this observation
The more compact building has
a lower operating cost by 2%.
through sun charts,
In-
winter sun is received by plan
in the south wall of Building 2
e than plan b.
will only
dictate the size of heating equipWorst conditions take place
Though not
staggering, considerable
ciency.
Worst winter conditions
it is found
for example, that 30% more
creasing the proportion of glass
ment.
next page.Summer
energy and first cost savings
Plan Orientation of Compact
Shapes
are made possible by choosing
an efficient
Two aspects of compact plan
at 3 AM on the coldest of winter
shapes are investigated:
nights when no added sunshine can
relationship between different
the
plan shape.
III
49
(Winter)
24
15
45
I22I
Rotation
(Summer)
Building 1 aligns with compass
coordinates while 2 is as nearly
g
opposite as is possible, and aligns
diagonally across longitudinal
lines.
92
III
50
In New England the average
surface of Building 1 received
14.2 BTU's per square foot of
glass per hour during the heating season and 37.5 BTUH during
cooling season.
Building 2 re-
ceives approximately 13.8 BTU's
per square foot per hour in
heating season and 35 BTU's
per square
51
III
foot per hour during cooling
season.
The .4 BTUH per square foot
heating season advantage of 1 over
2 represents a .5% energy reduction for housing, and .25% for
2
On the other hand, the
offices.
10 BTUH per square foot cooling
season advantage of 2 over 1 represents a 3% energy reduction for
housing, and a .3% energy reduction
for offices.
Chart 3.6 shows the first
and operating costs of spinning
a square building 450.
The price tag below shows
that rotating a square building
450 does not affect mechanical
costs.
270 foot deep section
52
III
Orientation in Section
The object of this discussion will be to determine the
amount that a building's first
and operating costs may be
altered by warping- its section
into the direct rays of winter
sunshine.
The means of calculation
will again be the ASHRAE tables
of average sun gains and the
basic heat loss equation.
53
III
operation costs are reduced 4%.
III provides a -3% operating
-4
and -1% first cost savings in
apartments and a -8% operating
and -2% first cost savings in
offices.
Office Lighting
Section Orientation and Heating
The 3 building sections
I.
20% and 25% more sunshine
on the model wall will decrease
shown above contain equal volumes.
heating loads by 10%, and 12%
Buildings I and II have the same
for apartments and 25% and 30%
above grade surface area and.
for offices.
the same heat loss.
The final 'heating' re-
Because
Building III has 10% more surface
sults of warping a building
area above grade, it has a 2%
section to face the winter
greater construction cost as well
sunshine, as shown in my two
as a 10% greater heat loss.
examples, would be the follow-
60% more natural lighting
ing: in apartment buildings,
enters building III than enters
winter sunshine than the conven-
section II affords a 6%
building I.
tional Building I, and Building
operation
office, 7% of an energy bill may
III receives 25% more than
In
Building II receives 20% more
office
savings over I.
buildings
In a 70 foot deep
54
III
be eliminated by the lighting
and price tags 3.8 and 3.9 show
wall would be 2 times the possible
savings created by the reflecting
total reductions translated
gain.
'steps'.
into lst. costs.
is a larger number.
Summer Overload
Now, hcwever, the difference
Even if
the windows were covered with
fully insulated panels at
the 60% glass.wall
night,
facing
south and located in New England
would be a greaterloser than the
If
unshaded from summer
sunshine, II represents a 10%
increase in cooling loads for
. *0 .e saro
lwe
T*oi..
30% glass wall left uncovered.
ea 5eo-
Crenelation is considered
v17.
by many to be the stuff of archi-
apartments and 6% for offices.
tecture.
Energy consumption would rise 3%
It's the ins, the outs,
the zigs and zags, the bumps and
for apartments and 2% for offices.
decoration.
If the southern glazing
is not shaded from the summer
Section Orientation and Glass
sun, no energy or equipment re-
Area
ductions are attainable by the.
Crenelation
The purpose of this next
section is
If glass were to fill twice
to project the cost
of these wall deformations.
warping of a building section.
as much of the south wall (60%),
'Section Orientation' Conclusions
twice as much sun heat could
calculations are: chart
be collected, but the loss
1.1 which lists building
through that same 60% glass
cost proportions,
Chart 3.8 breaks down the
costs of the 2 warped sections,
The tools needed for these
ASHRAE'S
55
III
E'AMP
CIAACT
sunshine chart,
~4
-6~'
and the heat loss
equation.
3r
Crenelation and Heating
Double a building's surface
area and you double its heat load.
This alone would increase yearly
energy demands by 30% for housing and 10% for offices.
The
first cost increases due to the
increased heating loads would
be 3% for housing and 2.5% for
offices.
~2,4
O~~
OZ
III
56
56
Crenelation and Cooling
Discounting Windows
For apartment buildings,
the doubling of a building's surface area would provide a 20% increase in yearly energy consumption
due to added air conditioning
costs.
A.C. first cost increase
due to added surface area would
be 2% for apartments.
In offices, only about 15%
of the cooling load comes through
the wall; the rest is internally
produced by lights, people, and
machines.
One third of the heat
This would increase apartment
loss of a 30% glass building
energy bills 10% and office
escapes through the opaque
bills 5%.
face only increases office energy
portion of the wall.
increase 1% in apartments and
bills 4% due to additional cooling
area is doubled without in-
cost.
creasing window area
Therefore, doubling the sur-
Total project cost would
be increased 1%.
If wall
(Example III) only a 20%
heat load increase results.
First costs would
1.3% in offices.
57
III
Crenelation Conclusions
Wall Costs
PERSONAL GUIDELINES
The guidelines developed
in this selection are subjective
and personal.
Lest important
aesthetic concerns become
In an average 5 story
100,000 square foot building,
wall costs are about 20% of a
total project's cost.
Double
completely subjected to energy
objectives, aesthetic values
related to the subject matter
a building's surface area and
of this chapter will be listed
a project's cost jumps 17%.
and discussed.
If a reader finds this type
of discussion useless s(he) is
encouraged to proceed to the
next mechanical section.
The
WIN
ft -i
III
;g
C;A
author suggests the reading of
reading by natural light be
these sections.
possible in all living and
They are brief
and offer insights into the
working space.
test design of the final chapter.
Shape and Appearance
Shape and Outdoor Connections
Shape and Natural Light
Contact distance, the distance
from a window wall after which
this occupant no longer feels any
sensation of natural light, is
approximately 30 feet in normal
spaces with 8 foot ceilings and
4 foot windows.
Floor to ceiling
glass push that distance back to
perhaps 40 feet.
A person's work-
This occupant becomes well
An architect must deter-
aware of the outside world when
mine whether a building will
about 30% of his cone of vision
ing or living space must never
stand apart from its surround-
can be filled with a view out-
be beyond contact distance.
ings or blend into its 'land-
side.
scape'.
enjoy some outside contact, it's
Comfortable reading can
Inside the building,
Because most people
take place up to 10 feet from a
again the architect must design
important that an architect keep
4 foot window in a room of normal
to allow an occupant to feel
people in
reflectance.
part of a neighborhood, or
of a building.
Overhead windows
are effective at twice that
distance.
It is important that
part of a 'special place'.
the outermost 30 feet
Maximization of an occupant's feeling of possession
59
III
A single view through a
In order to develop long
flat plane of glass, with no
and short views it is often
balcony, nor any part of the
helpful to orient a building
building's exterior visible,
into an adjoining building.
is to be considered insuffi-
Crenelation and Appearance
cient.
Orientation and Appearance
and control over an outside area
The architect must deter-
should be an architect's objec-
mine the formal order of an
tive.
immediate landscape and then
The wall line between out-
either play off or work with
side and inside should become
that order.
blurred where contact is desired.
Orientation and Views
textures which decorate a
Shape and Views
For every living or working
building.
should be provided.
These crenelations
may be as large as a building
group some long, some short
and some multi-directional views
Crenelations are bumps and
W/
wing or as small as a doorknob.
60
III
I
Personal Objectives
The important issue for the
The following is the author's
architect is: Is the existing.
appearance of a proposed
ordered list of personal aesthet-
building's neighborhood
ic objectives which pertain to
worth
building shape and orientation:
reinforcement?
SOFT GUIDELINES
Crenelation and Outdoor Connec-
1.
tions
Provide natural light
'contact' for every
living or working space.
2. Choose shape, orientation and crenelation
Views and Lifestyle
The convolutions of a build-
ing skin are ideal for developing interesting short views.
The architect may perforate
These surface pockets are places
for desired relation-
ship between building
and neighborhood.
3. Use shape to include or
exclude outside space.
4. Vary
and corrugate building edges to
where outdoor guardianship and
allow the outside world in.
living can comfortably take
He may also build solid planes
place.
views:
long
short
multi-directional
that mark a distinct boundary.
61
III
HARD GUIDELINES
APARTMENT
OFFICE
U)
w)U
0
*ehiu
fs
See
>
U)
o
(a2o
zO
WO)f
.(
4-4for
c
includiU)
hapter I for explanation.
*Technique for including operation in first cost.
See Chapter I for explanation.
0z.
U
.(
Lpe)rto
4i
w
ao
z
Un
OwW
zHo
4-4
62
III
COMBINED GUIDELINES
This is the author's list
showing where he feels the soft
guidelines must stand among the
hard.
For every architect there
should be a different set, but
there must be a combined understanding.
1. Contact people with
natural light;
2. Minimize crenelation;
3. Build deliberately for
or against existing
context (shape, orientation, crenelation);
4. Simplify and maximize
building shape;
5. Entrain or expell surrounding landscape;
6. Crenelate walls, not windows;
7. Provide long, short, and
multi-directional views;
8. Warp section to winter sun.
4
w
N
D
S
64
IV
65
Cost Issues
65
Model and Measurements
68
Model Check
68
Common Alternatives
Single Glass
Triple Glass
Reflecting and Heat Absorbing Glass
74
More Difficult Alterations
Shades
Covers
Model Survival
+10%
-10%
79
Lighting Costs
79
Economic Guidelines
80
Personal Guidelines
84
Hard and Soft Guidlines
IV
65
Ae
sulating window covers must be
quantified.
ducts of simple calculations.
*Average Sun Gains are
charted in dozens of publica-
A complete set of 'economic
issues' is listed below.
tions. 1
All
*Heat Loss is the product of
are interrelated, and addressed
The same 1000 square feet of
a wall's conductance (book value)
in the order listed.
space used throughout this report
and the difference between the
Issue #1:
will again serve as a model.
temperatures it divides.
Window Area
The most economical amount
The method of evaluation is
*Infiltration is the amount
of window must be determined.
the comparative analysis of the
of heat required to warm or cool
Issue #2:
'wall charts' which have been con-
replacement air which leaks
structed for display in the fol-
through skin cracks or is me-
layers must be determined.
lowing Dages.
chanically exhausted.
Special reflective and.heat ab-
charts deal with average temper-
assumed model, 1/2 of the room's
sorbing glass must be evaluated
atures and may be used to compare
air must be replaced per hour
for their appropriate use.
energy consumption.
in apartments.
Issue #3:
sent peak loads under worst con-
Window Glass
The proper number of glass
Window Shading
The value of screening windows from summer sun must be
Others pre-
ditions and are used to determine
installation capacity.
calculated.
Issue #4:
Some of these
All of the numbers in the
Window'Covers
The economic impact of in-
wall
charts are either well-'
known 'book values' or the pro-
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals is used for this report.
In the
Office space
will require a full air change.
*Sun Waste is the amount of
extra sun heat which would overheat a winter room and would
have to be exhausted.
In this
model the building's mass has
Ooo
66
IV
CL4x
4-1
OP
6OO
14O)O.k
more heat storage capacity than
average daily sunheat.
There-
fore no sunheat is presumed to
be wasted.
3
WAE
A comparison of
J"
'wall
charts' 4.1 and 4.2 points out
___
--
..
TOTO&
foot of glass operates more
6"0
*
~ -
~_
only one case in which a square
/.o&O
/./
.
__-_/u
27.&
(,,
0
0O
-19,f
economically than a square foot
of wall.
South-facing glass
"Krr
appears to be 'making energy'
during average daily operation.
Real situations, however, of-
'XV4
ten bring enough consecutive
cloudy days to deplete all
'structure stored' heat.
ou
r0
0
It '--r
is because of these worst con-
0
1
rA4
-
-
0
- ,
.
- f2r
Z,
'
ditions that mechanical equip-
ment is designed to handle all
heating without help from the
+
sun.
-
The entirely glass,
south-
.
0
auf. rAa
c
.
o-
,
:
4.
Wo-We
,
67
IV
Cbe2r
-
(.oi,
facing wall would require three
times the mechanical equipment
and therefore would be approximately one-third as economical.
Charts 4.3 and 4.4 show this
first cost relationship on the
following page.
A square foot of double
glass facing any direction in
Boston could be more economically replaced by a square foot of
insulated masonry wall.
The
best window area for a Boston
wall is the smallest area which
can accommodate human needs.
A
wall comprised of 30% window and
70% insulated masonry is the
author's best guess at proper
proportions.
Wall charts 4.5
and 4.6 present the climate related loads on a 30% window wall.
Xiec~
~
~4'r*-4
&an.#,
ji
k
IV
68
cuner
P()LY~
~5:ch2
L)
Double glass was assumed
while searching for an optimal
window area.
That assumption
T
U
A.
/o
.&'
e
/
.
may be tested by exploring
other glass types for some ther-
mal advantage.
er-44a
(CZMA*4W
5
.
-f5 z
7 .7
21-7
2-7
6-mt
-~1 -7-t/i
79~/2
4-4744~
-'jaw -o-
2.7 2.7,
lrtow,!;
Single, triple, and specially treated glass are analyzed
in charts 4.7 and 4.13.
rmorr^),>
&rur4Te.
These
different glass types are found
//
to have no special features
-1
SOM
*>9
which would enlarge the opti-
wa
,
.|
274f
'.|
$
mal window area, but to have
advantages and disadvantages of
'W
their own.
fkJ-Z
$A
"F
Because single glass loses
.
t
T'=fF
c
Con
uM.
-r
F
O
O'F
E
"va,
I I0OF
'vvis
i
|
.
69
IV
more heat in winter and gains
more in summer, it could not
CUW;k
:*~At).
~
,p
possibly increase the 30% glassto-wall area unless its lower
first cost offers greater savings than its
operating dis-
advantages.
Single glass is presently
about $3 cheaper than double
glass per square foot of window.
The cost advantage of using single over double glass is about
$.30 per square foot of floor
space or.9% of overall construction costs.
This apparent econ-
omy is completely outweighed by
er
oiau
5 years of energy costs plus the
-i
necessary installation of a
larger mechanical system.
e yrs
The tag below shows these
savings are fairly constant in
all
directions, but that they
are about 1/2 as significant
in offices whichaare less
affected because they
F4L--M4O*.
-/f.02 Ie-If
Vf"
.
IO,
f
-0,
70
IV
caer
4
T-IfL 1
-
vto
II
require twice as many air chanepo r*
W~r5me
ges.
'uA4M0re.
Single glass is not recom-
/
mended for any permanent build-
W-CA ro< 41
II
r720,Iipt
[M4J0r
fJT1
i
1bThI~
.- a-
75,~4. k
1-?/ i-~; Lbh IL(1131
The use of triple glass in
the model wall is more economical than double glass.
Triple
glass even allows a slight expansion of south-facing glass
area without increasing cost.
1-~
~ol
~1
'4"'-r~ro,
jP
-2
*cft-r
.7
r4i
L
£
/
4'
U
fl.~4!a
ing in the Boston area.
ou-1Mne.
N
a
~
-
J
CL
2S4I
10Lv.
rzt
~~
c~71y
______
.2
I~
2Ib
2.7 ) 2.7 1 2.7
~e~
6)
L4)
1W~7
/40)
IZ
S.5j /o.q ~z
)2-7
I.',
Ie
-Z_
I .
1*
71
IV
r=qo-
Because triple glass is general-
SUMMER
WINTER
Tour-25'F
T,,-10*F
-rTW 75*F
247
247
ly unavailable in operable windows, 30% double glass will re-
20
&"
I2/5
z
main the model standard.
2 / 6 5T
8
.'7
Triple glass is $2.50 more
17
expensive than double glass, or
- 572
239
.7% more costly per square foot
of floor area.
97% 4A/N
/67
- CLEAR
;LASS-
The 3% savings
for apartment buildings and the
247
247
2% savings for office buildings
both justify the use of triple
20
/07 WTVI4
glass.
q7
The only drawbacks to its
'7
use are unavailability in operable windows and lower trans-
--
2/3
86%
AIN -EAT
-52
102
4f/% qA
AQS06I1Nq qi-ASS
mission of light.
The chart below indicates
no preferred orientation for
'N
either apartments or offices.
75
66"''6
52
io
q
17
17
I '(4I
5S
'A/N
- REF4ECTIN4-
CA55
Li
19% A
-52
4/7
72
IV
PERCENTAGE HEAT GAINS THROUGlI VARIOUS
TYPES AND COMBINATIONS OF G LASS
Glass Type
Summer
Winter
97
68
86
41
58
19
83
68
Single Glazing
Clear
Heat-absorbing'
~~b~~W4&
Reflective
4dp
2
Double Glazing
Various types of specially
treated glass are available to
reduce sungains.
The combina-
tion of the most effective of
these special glasses cannot
change the 30% window-to-wall
area of the assumed model.
A
sheet of reflective glass outside of a heat absorbing sheet
cannot economically increase
the area of west-facing office
windows (the most heavily loaded
CIcar outside
Clear inside
Clear outside
Ileat-absorbing inside
52
Clear outside
Reflective inside
50
42
1Ifeat-absorbing outside
Clear insi
42
28
Reflective outside
H eat absorbing insid
1Shading coefficient = 0.50
2
Shading coefficient = 0.35
17
73
IV%,
case).
Specially treated double
glass costs at least $2.00 more
uokeW
per square foot of wall area or
about .6% more per square foot
of floor area.
AVE tv1-
first cost increase, significant
ow
r
After subtracting the .6%
lz
-
-?
c.9
4
Z
economies can be achieved on the
east and west walls of an office
building.
c
IV
74
cost must be subtracted from any
,(4c*? Pvs/#Cc.O'r
in the Boston area.
operating savings calculated.
The physical dimensions of
Insulated window covers are
various sun-shades can be calculated from sun angle charts,
thermal barriers which are placed
changing glass tves or adding
where latitude and time of day
over windows during the heating
layers are those alterations
and year determine sunshade di-
season.
which necessitate the construc-
mensions.
may be closed at night or fixed
tion of sun-screening devices
should have 1 foot overhangs
over windows for the entire heat-
or thermal window covers.
above south-facing 4 foot win-
ing season.
More difficult than merely
Boston, for instance
Assuming insulated covers
dows and 3 feet overhangs above
Although offering signifi-
windows facing southeast and
cost
southwest.
ding's first cost increases .7%
Window shading devices are
cant savings, the sun-shading of
windows does not increase optimal window area.
Shading devices can be free
when adjacent buildings, trees,
or balconies
are available,,
but they can also cost as much
as $4 per square foot.
If shades
are not free, the per cent increase
of a building's first
These interior 'shutters'
recommended for all buildings
W r
5OF
cp,
a
nrewro
AP"nM
t
$2 per square foot, a buil-
with their use.
If covers close
either all windows for 1/2 days
or 1/2 the windows for the entire season, the reductions in
the chart below apply.
Window covers are recommended for apartment buildings in
the Boston area because their
savings average 3% of original
building costs.
75
IV
Covers do not allow an increase of model window area for
any orientation except south.
South facing apartments with
insulated window covers may
have 40% glass walls.
FlYr
TOV4.
t0~.A
Mf5a
#v&PVIVuA
The model has survived the
various tests of alternative
glass types and the construction
of covers and shades.
The 30%
double glass exterior wall is
the most economical possibility
LaI~vt2)
c-oue-,
76
IV
CUer 4-14
within a five year framework.
It is now necessary to understand the penalty for stepping
outside this model.
Adding 10% of window area
to a Boston building wall results in the following cost
increases.
r
(0%I avMduk,
.0
...
........
A tr4~r gra ou
1
-l El(
-A
ACor
Tsussey
-4 I-
-45
7
.g
-Z-"-5
.
-AvoaVW, .
/0%, iauw avqa
Av. wov'.
77
IV
Cuae r4,b
-2uAuL<
OSu 1tee 17 0 :aCVWV
Ih.
LOUt
M
Pat ~
A 20% glass wall is below a
human standard set earlier in
this report.
C.
.Ar..c
J
L
/
It is only men-
tioned here to point out that
0
~7LJiJ k)~vT~.
10% glass wall transferred from
(k0~-r
-4e/
LO~A~
Le'
0
'2
a north wall to a south wall
2
I.5j
-
-~
II
I&I
*/D7to
I.61
I
--
i+
saves 2% of buildine costs.
-2.(
'aner4,'7-
eeuw'
OM4to',-
91/
d~40fC(
6,0, --P54 , -5,70
IV
78
79
IV
hibited, no reduction in office
from discussions of this
lighting installation is possible.
chapter.
Five years of energy reduction is
determine:
the only savings which is pro-
*the most economical size and
in the discussion of window sizes
duced by the use of more day-
type of window.
because the savings produced by
lighting in offices.
*the penalties for departing
the introduction of additional
model shows that if window walls
from that size and type
natural light are insignificant
are increased in area from 30% to
*the special devices which may
beside heating and air condition-
to 40% of a wall, a 10% reduction
be exploited in particular sit-
ing losses.
in daytime lighting costs is pos-
uations.
ArM4.W47r L16WI1r4(
sible.
be quickly read and compared in
Lighting has had no place
A scale
That 10% represents a .4%
These conclusions
(Special devices may
reduction in total 5 year costs.
chart 4.18 on the following
Daytime lighting bills ac-
Heating and air conditioning pen-
page.)
count for only .2% of an apart-
alties for increasing glass areas
ment's five year total costs.
greatly exceed this lighting ad-
The percentage of this amount
vantage.
which may be eliminated by the
the most economical window size,
use of natural lighting has no
therefore, do not include natural
2)
Use summer sun shades.
effect on overall building econ-
lighting considerations.
3)
Use triple glass on
The calculations for
1)
Use double glass in 30%
window walls.
omy.
fixed windows.
The following is made up of
Unless evening work is pro-
the 'window conclusions' drawn
4)
Use winter window covers.
5)
Use reflective and heat
absorbing glass on the
80
IV
north and E/W windows of
offices.
6)
Trade N and E/W glass
for south glass in apartments.
81
IV
j
The guidelines developed in
this section are subjective and
personal.
Lest important aes-
thetic concerns become completely subjected to energy objectives, aesthetic values related
to the subiect matter of this
chapter will be listed and discussed.
suggest a few guidelines:
If the reader finds this
*Every living unit and
pletely glared or glared out.
Glare occurs when one-third of
tve of discussion useless s(he)
working unit should be pro-
a person's 30* cone of vision
is encouraged to proceed to the
vided with a full range of
is 10 times brighter than the
next mechanical section.
natural lighting experiences.
other two-thirds.
Some spaees.-should be dim and-
pite its
cavelike and some should be
be a beautiful sensation.
$%/4flUM
Ibs-r
brilliantly lit.
Window Area & Orientation
Although I'm not prepared
This
variety should be limited
by the following situations.
to assign exact lighting levels
to different room types, I can
Glare, des-
nasty connotations can
Of-
ten, however, it brings only
distraction and discomfort.
*A grayed-out space is very
dim, having a uniform lighting
*No function should be com-
level below 30 foot-candles,
IV
82
82
or below reading level.
*One of an architect's
entire winter or summer.
*If seasonal covers are
2)
The transparency of
formal concerns should be to
to be used, they should not
glass can be contrasted with the
develop a range of beautif-ul
cover all windows, and probably
opaqueness of solid walls.
lighting compositions for dif-
none completely.
ferent units and groups of
very bright situations should be
of opaque building materials can
units.
provided in winter, but some
be used as the setting for glass
should remain.
jewels.
Perhaps fewer
Window Covers
the thermal resistance of a window.
The use of covers, however,
eliminates both natural light-'
ing and outside contact.
Evening window covers are
effective without eliminating
natural light.
Some views are
eliminated but the resulting
interior privacy is often desirable.
Seasonal covers, on the
other hand, take large areas
of window out of a room for an
1 MAP
3)
The husk-like roughness
*The architect should con-
.Covers are used to improve
,
as voids cut into solid walls.
sciously manipulate these deThe use of glass in build-
vices when composing a building.
ings offers architects 3 special
aesthetic devices:
1)
Windows may be designed
Window Covers and Screens
Window covers and screens
IV
A .1
83
give an architect more things
to design.. That's wonderful,
especially if these things can
pay for themselves.
*The architect's task is
Glass should be used to
to deal with window covers and
bring the outside areas of a
screens as Part of his overall
home or office inside.
design, rather than applying
Opaque walls, on the other
them afterwards as a 'technical
hand, are best used to mark
expedience.'
boundaries and secure
privacy.
Special Effects
*One special lighting effect should be built into every
living and working unit.
One
Window Covers
As long as some outside views are maintained,
specially formed opening and
daily shading devices and
spark of colored light should
nighttime window covers need
find its way into each unit.
not seriously detract from
the quality of interior space.
*Seasonal covers, however,
must not completely cut important indoor/outdoor connections
for long periods of time.
_d
mpp - - __
- --- - -
---- ----
-__
dwm
IV
I
--
JQ)1
W-Jf
Views
lighting experiences within each
*A full range of views is
most desirable.
That is:
living or working unit.
2)
Create a variety of
The following chart orders
the cost savings of energy consumption and mechanical installa-
1) Some long views
lighting experiences through-
tion.
2) Some short views
out a building.
chart combines operating costs to
3)
Some multi-direc-C
tional views.
3)
Explore the special
artistic opportunities provided
The final column of the
illustrate the total advantage objectives listed.
by windows: solid-void, transThis range gives an occupant a
sense of place within his immediate and general neighborhood.
parent-opaque, husk-jewel.
4)
desirable.
5)
A full range of views must
Bring outside in.where
Create a full range of
views for each living or working
be provided for each living and
unit: short, long, multidirec-
working unit.
tional.
6)
Design covers and
screens.
7)
The following are my per-
Provide one special ef-
fect per unit.
sonal priorities concerning
the use of windows.
1)
W''MIN. I'll
Create a full range of
Had ObjectJP
r
Hard Objective
WIN
-
IMMMINOWN.
______ -
-
IMF-
IV
85
(J3Ib3~2
~ iS
U157?
-
wy~'6lf<-
q~
(~iI2eLi&Jg~2
APARTMENT
fipftXw7'w
*Technique for including operation in first cost.
See Chapter I for explanation.
OFFICE
IV
86
C00AfW
7)
desired.
8)
The following is my personal stand on where the soft objectives fit into the hard objectives of window efficiency.
1)
Create a full range
of lighting experiences within
each living or working unit.
2)
Use proper amounts
and types of glass.
3)
Create a variety of
lighting experiences at the
building scale.
4)
Designate proper win-
dow covers and screens.
5)
Exploit the special
aesthetic devices provided by
window glass: solid-void, transparent-opaque, husk-jewel.
6)
Trade N and E/W glass
for South Glass in apartments.
Bring outside in where
Provide range of views:
long, short, multi-directional.
9)
Provide one special
effect per unit.
5
M
A
T
E
88
'I
89
Cost issues
89
Insulation
93
Mass
93
Mass and Exterior Climate
103
Mass and Interior Climate
107
Structure and Soil
108
Color and Texture
110
Personal Guidelines
114
Hard and Soft Guidelines
89
'7
building:
investigated for mechanical cost
advantages.
1)
This chapter develops guidelines for the use of building materials in the construction of
beautiful buildings which main-
Insulation --
As much heat
and cold resistance must be
light should be used to decrease
built into exterior walls as a
electrical lighting loads.
building's budget will reasonably allow.
4)
tain economical thermal comfort.
Some desired thermal effects
will work hand-in-hand with desired architectural effects.
Some will work at cross-purposes
and will require a compromise
solution.
This chapter will con-
clude with guidelines for greatest economies of mechanical costs
2)
Mass --
The weight of a
building should be used to regu-
either transferring heat loads
cal costs of the proposed model
should be promoted by the choice
of proper surface textures.
These four issues will now be
to more desirable times of day,
separately analyzed for mechanical
or by blunting the effects of
cost savings.
severe instantaneous changes in
outside temperature.
A wall's insulation is a
3)
Color --
The reflection and
properties of color.
important impact on the mechani-
The reflection and
late interior temperatures by
absorption of light and heat are
The following issues have an
Texture --
absorption of light and sun heat
combined with the author's aesthetic guidelines.
The reflection of interior
The effi-
thermal barrier between outside
temperature and internal comfort.
Insulation
takes on its greatest
cient absorbtion of sun heat into
importance in the winter when aver-
a building's structure should be
age outside temperatures differ
Ow
W 0
90
V
90
V
from interior comfort by 35*.
In-
Rigid insulation must be
It is a good choice because of its
sulation in summer is less impor-
used in the model situation be-
high thermal resistance and low
tant because average outside Bos-
cause it is waterproof and may
cost.
ton temperatures are only a few
be used in the cavity of a ma-
degrees above interior comfort,
sonry wall where moisture will
costs less than two inches, and
collect.
two inches less than three.
1977 BUILDING COST FILE
07200
'JCI
-
EASTERN EDITION
sulation used is 'foamed glass.'
UNIT
DESCRIPTION
.0610
1 INCH WOOD FIBRE BOARDS
.0620 2 INCH WOOD FIBRE BOARDS
.0706 3/4 INCH PARTICLE BOARD, COMPRESSED
.0710
1 INCH PARTICLE BOARD, COMDRESSED
.0720
P INCA PARTICLE BOARn, COMPRESSED
.8101- FOR INTEGRATED VAPOR BARRIER ADD/SF TO
FATL COSTS
.8102 FOR INTEGRAL FOIL BACKING ADD/SF TO
MATL COSTS
.8200 FCR FACTORY PAINTED FINISH ONE SIDE ADD/SF TO
PATL COSTS
.8303 FOR TAPERED TYPE INSULATION, TOTAL AVERAGE OF
THREE INCHES THICK ADD 65 PCT TO TOTAL COSTS
.8304 FOR TAPERED TYPE INSULATION, TOTAL AVERAGE OF
FOUR INCHES THTCK AnD 90 PCT TO TOTAL COSTS
.0100
.0?00
LABOR
MATERIAL
--------------------------------------------
INSULATION
00406 3/4 INCH URETHA-vE
.0410
1 INCH URETHANE
.0414 1-1/2 INCH URETHANE
.0420
2 INCH URETHANE
.0510
1 INCH FOAMED GLASS
*.0514 1-1/2 IVCH FOAMED GLASS
.0520
2 INCH FOAMEQ GLASS
07219
TOTAL
SPRAYED ON INSULATION
POLYSTYRENE FOAM
URETHANE FOAM
.
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
0.39
SF
0.47
0.63
0
,.04
0.21
0.21
0.24
0.24
0.21
0.21
0.18
0.26,
0.390.92
0.24
0.36
0.48
0.11
P.2
0.24
0.21
0.40
0.24
0.33
0.21
0.16
0.12
0.37
0.56
0.05
0.21
0.25
----
0.16
0.31
0.05.
0.08
----
0.08
0.11
----
0.11
0.64
0.46
0.71
0.45
0.18
0.26
0.7
PCT
PCT
SF
SF
The
following calculations will be
INSULATION
-------------------------------------------07200
The type of rigid in-
One inch of foamed glass
91
made to compare the total 5 year
costs of each of these 3 thicknesses.
Figure 5-1 is the wall
chart for the model which uses
2 inches of foamed glass insulation.
Figure 5-2 is the wall
chart of an identical wall except for the use of only 1 inch
of insulation.
The winter heating loads
through these 2 walls are translated into mechanical and energy
costs and compared in the price
tag below.
The initial savings
to a building's budget produced
by using 1 inch of insulation
rather than 2 inches is very
slight (o.15%) and cannot off-set
the mechanical cost advantages
of 2 inch insulation.
92
v
92
V
Noor 1%
Chart 5-2 also shows the thermal load on the model masonry wall
when 3 inches of foamed glass is
placed in the slot between brick
and block.
The 'price tag' below shows
the cost reductions produced by
reduced mechanical equipment and
energy consumption.
The addition-
al cost of the extra inch of insulation is $.10 per square foot
of wall or about .3% of total con-
93
V
struction.
But mechanical
sulation with a greater thermal
In winter, buildings 1 and 2
savings are so low that the small
resistance becomes available,
both have interior temperatures of
cost of a third inch of insula-
than its use would be recommended.
70*F.
tion cannot be justified within
At present, two inches of foamed
each building are 70*F, but build-
five years.
glass would make the best invest-
ing 2 has a much heavier internal
ment.
structure and thus many more 70*
T hoz
All the molecules inside
molecules.
If both of these build-
ings are identically insulated they
Mass creates thermal inertia
or the reluctance of a building's
of heat per hour through their
interior temperature to change
weatherskins.
quickly.
The original model assumption
using 2 inches of foamed glass in-
will lose exactly the same amount
The mass of a building
If the furnaces in both buil-
should be as closely coordinated-
dings are shut down, the temperature
with heating and cooling loads as
ture of building 1 will drop more
initial construction costs and
quickly because each BTU of heat
soil conditions will permit.
lost to the outside represents a
Thermal
larger proportion of its total
inertia may be understood
by the following example:
stored heat.
The greater number of
sulation is economically justified
of 70* molucules in building 2 add
for a project that must pay for
up to a larger amount of stored
itself within a five year period.
heat and give building number 2 a
If any less expensive, rigid in-
larger thermal inertia,.
i..
It is true
V
94
that both buildings will eventu-
Adobe houses in Arizona
in Boston is meaningless.
ally lose all of their heat, but
have nothing to do with Boston.
the time
I point this out because every-
to a New England climate are:
massive building creates oppor-
one has seen amazing diagrams
1)
The summer/fall effect
tunities for savings of both en-
that show walls produced by hum-
2)
Instantaneous loads.
ergy and mechanical equipment.
ble Indians exactly proportioned
Boston's climate offers 3
to permit daytime sunheat to ar-
lag provided by the
opportunities for reducing me-
rive at their interior surface
chanical and energy costs using
in the cool of the night.
massive construction.
Two of these opportunities
The difference between Bos-
The mass issues which relate
In order to investigate the
effects of mass on building mechanical costs, the thermal per-
ton and Arizona is that Boston
formance of three different con-
include a massive building's
has cold winters and unreliable
struction methods will be analyzed.
ability to shift outside climate
sunshine.
The weights of these 3 structures
induced loads to different times
Boston's buildings need a large
of the day when they are more
amount of insulation, a properly
easily handled.
designed wall could never con-
costs of these structural systems
tunity involves another time dis-
duct an exterior sunload through
are comparable, their 5 year costs
placement of loads, but these
itself in a period of 12 hours.
may be compared on the basis of
loads are internally produced by
(Besides, who wants midnight
the cost of their required mechan-
people, lights, and machines.
temperatures at noon in February2)
ical equipment and energy consump-
Timing the heat flow through a
tion.
properly designed exterior wall
these various structural systems
Hvae
The third oppor-
Wi4
Because the walls of
vary in a ratio of 1:2:4.
Assuming the constuction
The
present market costs of
MWOMIN
ON111 h - - --
-
I
95
V
and the penalty for building
heavily on poor soil will be dis-
sible because the room air temper-
cussed later.
ature stays close to the temperThe simplest way to understand the relationship of inter-
ature of the mass.
(See Appendix
A for calculation.)
ior mass-stored heat and outside
temperature is to imagine that
the heat lost through the skin
of a building is directly subtracted from the building's
store of potential heat.
In
fact, some of this heat moves
out of the structure into the
room's air before passing through
the weather skin; this complex relationship may be approximated with a high degree of
accuracy by considering the heat
losses of a building to be
'sucked' directly from the structural mass of that building.
The approximation is made pos-
Reductions in air conditioning costs are the only significant
savings at stake from June through
September.
Nearly all residential
cooling loads occur during this
period.
Residential heating is
occasionally necessary but only
a minute proportion of annual
heating loads occur at this time
and may be disregarded.
Three pieces .of charted information are required in
make this evaluation.
order to
The first
is the model wall chart (5-3)
showing hourly heat gains through
the identical walls. of the three
96
V
structural types.
Chart 5-4 il-
lustrates the response of the interior temperatures of the three
differently weighted structures.
Chart 5-6 is a'federal document
listing outside temperatures for
every 3 hour period for the month
of July.
(3 hour charts for the
other 3 summer/fall months are
available in Appendix B.)
The summer/fall advantage of
a heavy building is that its slower moving internal temperature is
less likely to exceed human comfort before it
is
unloaded by
cooler temperatures that normally
occur during the evening hours.
On an average summer evening,
the
introduction of outside air will
unload the interior mass-stored
heat of all three model structures
in less than 6 hours.
(See Appen-
k
dix C for calculation.)
In order to evaluate the ef-
C4
T
CAP1r
1-0 "
L4W
~1
F04
I
fectiveness of mass, the temperature rise through each day of
the month must be plotted.
Icp F
Some
nights outside temperatures remain high and prevent the structure from unloading its stored
heat, and interior temperature
must rise through another day.
The probability of successive
days of unloaded heat gains will
determine the probability of each
structure s interior temperature
exceeding comfort levels.
If a
severe heat wave forces all 3
structures above comfort levels,
the same amount of energy will
be necessary to bring each back
to 75'F.
*
~v'
All energy savings ar-
guments, therefore, must be based
strictly on the probability of a
Ai(,
om
4PW>
rzM.seu
4
3
INWA
NOONW1
M 0 _10FAMIN
98
V
structure's interior temperature
Cua
5.5-,Aj cOOUK)(
w7
exceeding comfort.
Chart 5-4 is the yardstick
for measuring structure temperature rises.
If daily outdoor
temperature curves for a particu-
lar day are half as high as the
100* F day curve show, than half
of the indoor temperature gains
in Chart 5.4 must be added to
the structure's temperature.
The 3 hour temperature recor-
7d
dings for the entire summer/fall
season have been analyzed and the
gains of each structure's interior temperature have been plotted
to obtain the number of times each
structure will exceed 75*F, the
upper limit of comfort.
Chart 5-6 is a sample of the
3 hour temperature chart for the
month of July.
Those consecutive
3AM
4ae
qgA
It4e
3,iM
W
'P"
/ZnA
n
- -- MWINIA
99
V
-1
days of high evening temperatures
10
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e
6
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71
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13
25
to
These are the critical days
20
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70
77
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69
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Chart 5-7 on
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6
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4
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2
ior temperature gains for each
9
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3
During the
10
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40
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building during 1976, exceeded the
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Considerable
79
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
NATIONAL CLIMATIC CENTER
FEDERAL BUILDING
ASHEVILLE. N.C. 28801
8
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OTHER OSERVATIONAL DATA CONTAINED IN RECOROSON FILE CAN BE FURNISHED AT COST VIA
MICROFitW. MICROFICHE. OR PAPER COPIES OF THE ORIGINAL RECORDS. INQUIRIES AS 10
AVAILABILITY AND COSTS SHOULDBE ADDRESSEOTO: DIRECTOR. NATIONAL CLIMHaIC CENTER.
FEDERAL BUILDING. ASHEVILLE. NORTH CAROLINA 28801.
334
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The heavy building, or plank
3 U
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3 UML
of thermal comfort.
M
I3
133
half the journey to the upper limit
RW
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07
the very heavy building only made
S
10 9
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ture exceeding comfortable temperatures is low.
33
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tures inside the very heavy struc-
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structure during each circled
period of consecutive hot days.
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the following page lists the inter-
0-150
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1 6
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DAY 17
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6720
71
70
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UML
that force interior temperatures
to their maximums.
3
02
UML
cannot be unloaded have been cir-
1
O4Ar 14
7
7
etol
during which structure-stored heat
cled.
-3,1
3ULY i t -
i
c 14
P05ta0E
Alo FEESPalo
U.S. DEPARIREN OF CORRIRCE
210
5
2
100,
V.
mechanical cooling would be required to bring this heavy build-
rearuar
ing back below the line.
-
r
3
--
Building III, the lightest
of the 3 investigated, is assumed
to be an average building with
ut 2p*
average air-conditioning equipment and cooling bills.
Because
of its lower thermal enertia, it
7*4
is most often above the comfort
line.
Chart 5-7 assumes ideal use
of building mass, where occupants
understand that windows should be
7z.1'
?W
kept shut when outside temperatures
are high in order to keep the mass
stored cooling from discharging.
When using these figures, some
) LY -is-
At*
allowance must be made for human
efficiency.
-------
My position is that
people will generally use thermal
storage correctly because their
personal comfort is at stake.
7
C,-
A
101
V
V
During the year analyzed
structure II was 60% less likely
to exceed internal thermal comfort than structure III.
Heating and cooling equip-
When it
did, it required the same energy
ment is adequately sized to pro-
and equipment to bring it back to
tect interior temperature against
desirable temperature.
severe cold snaps in winter and
No reduc-
A mas-
tion in cooling equipment is made
sudden summer heat waves.
possible by the weight of struc-
sive building won't feel the shock
Building I was
which a light weight building will
ture II, but a 60% energy reduc-
structure (III).
tion for air conditioning results
credited with totally eliminating
experience.
from its 60% lower likelihood of
air conditioning and building II
or gains are small enough, no ex-
reaching temperatures that re-
with a 60% reduction in air con-
tra capacity need be added to the
quire cooling.
ditioning energy costs.
equipment required to handle aver-
The price tags below compare
Offices are not included in
If the sudden losses
age loads.
The severe cold snap to be
the heavy and very heavy struc--
the preceding discussion because
tures to the more normal 'light'
their higher internal heat com-
considered is a 10*F drop from
ponent will always demand summer/
10*F to 0*F in 1 hour.
fall air conditioning.
2.9qR 6. 7
6V41~-/D
Offices
will be discussed later in this
chapter when internal office gains
are analyzed.
The heat
wave will be a 5* rise from 95*F
to 100*F in one hour.
Chart 5-8 shows the loads
on the model wall section before
v
102
CUbezr 5.7-- 1"*hiAWOLU7 to~pV
Cun,x 3-
ws4M
and after sudden changes, and the
temperature movements produced
by these 'instantaneous' loads.
rr
The chart shows how little
the thermostat, in a very massive
building will move.
A light build-
.-.
ZOMO__
WM
ing's thermostat drops an appre-
AV.
44.
w4Z
7,1
007re.
ciable 1.5*F during cold snaps
fiear
_________
-~
/.z
-I~
-/.Z
.-
-/4
~ - 0 4~
14
,o7
;!7
,'
________/,Oaf~
vl~7,A
I ~
5,4i~
IoF
W1tw000
Z
103
V
and will require immediate correction.
The price tag above
changes the lighter building for
larger equipment needed to cover
instantaneous loads, and assumes
the heaviest building is totally
unaffected by sudden change.
No energy is considered to
be saved in this situation because
the eventual correction of a .3*F
displacement of the heaviest building's interior temperature takes
as much energy as the correction
of the 1.5*F displacement in the
lighter building.
j'Q40,. 40C(2
In offices, machines, lights
and people produce a great deal of
heat.
A massive building can ab-
sorb a large amount of that heat
before its air temperature becomes
uncomfortable.
The amount of heat
104
V
stored in the mass of a heavy
building may be either used for
evening heating in winter or may
be unloaded during summer offhours by venting interiors with
outside air.
A&.1 oo
7
The amount of heat
that a structure can defray to
Mucreatou
(OthkYn
off hours may be counted as an
T-
energy savings.
Winter mechanical reductions
take two forms:
1)
The structure in all 3 cases
can hold all of the loads available during daytime operation
W
AV.
T
u
C
with the exception of those portions of building III which face
south.
In this case, the light-
Lverg1AT
oryc
weight building must throw away
enough heat to cover 12% of its
24 hour requirement.
2)
Heavy buildings can store so
A,
P
LCA
/
105
V
cA UPov0ft4
much daytime heat that their heat-
work hours to determine how much
ing systems can be run at a con-
of the evening loads may be de-
stant rate throughout the 24-hour
frayed by this free heat.
day, borrowing structure-stored
difference between the free heat
heat at night and building struc-
and the heat load per hour is
cooling loads in 2 ways:
ture-stored heat throughout the
the capacity of the heating sys-
1)
work day, but never passing above
tem each structure would require
ture may be loaded to its thermal
or below the comfort range.
4gev
The
Mass works with summer office
For average conditions, a struc-
capacity during the day and com-
The following price tags
compare the cost of the heating
pletely unloaded by venting it with
their structure-stored heat early
systems required by the three
outside' air during the evening.
in the evening if they attempt to
different structures.
This unloading is easily accomplished
Light buildings will deplete
borrow from their structure-
because the average outside air t.em-
stored heat at the same rate.
0
perature on summer evenings is 65 F
Lighter structures need larger
or lower, and the air film surround-
mechanical systems to deal with
ing interior mass has a very low
the worst conditions which occur
on cold winter nights.
Chart 5-11 shows the loads
on worst winter days during work
hours and after.
The load dif-
r2
Z
-
thermal resistance.
(See Appendix
C for calculation.)
2)
Some days evening temperatures
are too high for a structure to un-
load its heat.
An air conditioning
ferences (bottom column) are
system designed to run at a con-
calculated by dividing 10*F of
stant rate throughout the day may
structure-stored heat by the
106
V
have a smaller capacity in a
0
heavy building because more of
5,~~~~O~*~y-'
-coi~
the cooling load will be trans-
4O1
ferred to less critical times of
the day.
Chart 5.12 lists the
different loads on each of the
~.2
Kz.#
structures after the transfered
5,11
load has been subtracted.
oPI~tL6- LO*~IO
£4~%~t
D1
-
4((
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1/-s
~4'
~1I
-
It
107
'V
The price tags show the related
listed in chart 5-14.
equipment savings assuming 7 con-
building is more expensive than
secutive days during which no un-
the plank building, but the slab
loading can take place.
building increases first costs 6%
The joist
over the plank building.
On site
form work make it difficult to
justify despite its thermal advan-
F3 4,
tages.
A combination of the advan-
64
tages of I and II is possible by
pouring 2 inches of topping over
precast planks.
If this combination
structure is supported by block
walls, it will approach the weight
of I.
The following are the com-
increase first costs by 2%.
bined mechanical savings made
Caw
15.1
possible by building massive office buildings.
The 2 inches of topping will
Nearly 3/4 of the
total savings are due to airconditioning reductions.
The current, in-place costs
of the 3 model structures are
11_4 n~.~Az'C A
I
108
in passive energy flow will be
discussed.
Foundation costs are proportional to loads on poor soil.
If
The color of material will
affect mechanical expenses for
Cc4we 4#JO (AJ&
a~ureAo'n4
Long wave radiation
a building's dead load (struc-
the model building only in the
is heat, not sun-
ture weight) is doubled from II
case of office lighting.
shine.
to I, foundation costs increase
order to prove this the only
infrared wave and
70%.
viable case, the other proper-
is color blind; this
In
ties of color which participate
roperties
Flexicore
It is an
form of heat can be absorbed by a
white surface as easily as by a
black surface.
Since all colors ab-
sorb the same amount of long wave
radiation (90%), color choices are
nottrestricted by ultra red absorbtion or reflection.
-Short vave radiation is
sunshine,
and is greatedly
affected by color
choices.
White
reflects 90% of in-
MEOW
V
109
cident solar radiation while black
its interior surface in a period
the building model because the
absorbs 90%.
of 12 hours.
model's windows are too small to
The model case in this chap-
This is the prin-
cipal behind the adobe house
allow significant amounts of sun-
ter will not be effected by this
where day heat is used to warm
shine to be reflected back outside.
phenomenon because the windows
the cool evenings.
are small allowing for small a-
cold winters, Bostonian walls
mounts of sunshine entry.
require large amounts of insula-
The absorbency
reflection of sunshine back
tion that create transmission
of a surface to
through the windows will take
periods many times greater than
infrared radia-
place.
12 hours.
tion is difficult
Little
Due to the
Exterior wall color in Bos-
- -
ton is the architects prerogative.
to improve by
texturing a sur-
face.
Deformation of a surface at
the atomic scale can produce some
Shiny surfaces
improvement in absorbency, but no
reflect 30% of
texturing at an architectural scale
incident sun-
can improve the heat absorption of
107..
In Boston, the color of a
building's exterior walls should
-
-
shine.
Flat
a surface.
The use of textured
have nothing to do with the amount'
matte finishes
blocks or textured plaster, for in-
of sunheat it can collect.
reflect approx-
-stance, will have no heat absorbing
Sun-
heat on a wall is only useful if
imately 10%.
it travels through that wall to
enon has only a minute affect on
Again, this phenom-
advantages over polished marble.
V
110
purely black or white, the reflectances of all colors lie
between these extremes.
Reductions both in the num-
ber of office lighting fixtures
and the amount of office lighting
4v~~MO A,^E
5.14
shows the reflectances of common
interior finishes.
The price tag below pre-
The guidelines developed in this
energy requirements are the only
sents the savings created by an
section are subjective and person-
important issues that relate
office interior with high surface
al.
color and texture to mechanical
reflectances (.8) as compared
concerns become subjected to energy
costs for our model building.
to average reflectances (.5).
objectives, aesthetic values re-
The lighting requirements
Lest important aesthetic
lated to the subject matter of this
of apartments are too low to al-
chapter will be listed and discussed.
low significant cost reductions
If a reader finds type of dis-
for the use of lighter interior
cussion useless s(he) is encouraged
colors.
to proceed to the next mechanical
Conversely, office
lighting costs are greatly af-
section.
fected by interior reflectiv-
5-.
. -rfG
ity.
Black surfaces reflect 10%
of the light which falls on them.
)
I
t34 SY,'
The author suggests the
reading of these sections.
They
are brief and offer insights into
the test design of the final chapter.
White reflects 90% of incident.
light.
While no interior is
The aesthetic implications of
V
ill
a building's mass, color, and
From the outside, heavy
texture are discussed in terms
within its community.
Is a build-
buildings are perceived as sta-
ing to appear permanent, imper-
ble, per-manent, and part of the
manent, in motion, or stable?
light, their appearance, and in-
continuing order of the world.
of these themes may be reinforced
door/outdoor connecting properties
Lightweight, skeletal buildings,
by the amount of mass presented
on the other hand, are seen as
to a viewer or occupant.
of their relationship to natural
-
impermanent.
Any
The lines of skel-
etal buildings suggest movement
and rarely permit the eye to
focus.
If massive buildInside, the same feelings
ing becomes jus-
are induced from different per-
tified it will
ceptions.
return heavy
The sound of a voice,
the solidity of walls and floor,
positive elements
and the amount of a building's
The mass or weight of a build-
-to an architect's
mass seen around or through the
hands.
windows, tell an occupant that
tional rules will join those stream
the environment is stable or
lines elements developed by our
impermanent.
preceding generation.
It is the designer's obli-
Opaque parts with gravita-
A return to the forms and
ing has a large impact on those
gation to specify his intentions
decorations of Sullivan and Rich-
who see and use that building.
concerning a building's place
ardson does not seem economically
V
112
or culturally possible.
A new
daries between interior space
to reinforce that theme.
order of heavy building must now
and the surrounding landscape.
natural light source will either
be developed with its own full
The exploitation of these two
fill a dazzeling white hall or
range of parts, from the largest
themes is desirable.
completely dominate a dark space
A bright
structural elements to the
with its beam and vista.
smallest decoration.
diverse spaces are created solely
The notion that space can
be more effectively studied or
These
by an architect's color and texture
choices.
appreciated in the absence of
Structures may be massive.and
have the appearance of being rooted
color and textures is here rejected.
Space is the combination
Colors and textures must be
of dimensions with color and tex-
used to create both demarcations
ture.
and connections of the parts of a
Ibuilding
with its surrounding
landscape.
to the earth or lightweight and
The broadest range of light-
floating above their landscape.
ing effects possible should be
The heavier masornry parts of a
presented to an occupant.
building are most effectively
a theme for interior light and
used to continue the out-of-
appearance is developed in ac-
doors inside a building's skin.
cordance with a building's pro-
The lightweight parts of a build-
gram, the architect must explore
ing are best used to mark boun-
all colors, patterns and textures
After
Color and texture must help
V
113
APARTMENT
f
/,ofi
/5
-
OFFICE
4-i
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14
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*Technique for including operation in first cost.
See Chapter I for explanation.
OUc
tyl
:3 co .-ri
5r 4 >
0 44
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4)
4J)
01-57
to
--6
114
V
state the relative importance of
3)
a building to its community and
choices to inhance the theme of
ture to exploit themes of 'root-
the relationship between the
rooting a building into its land-
ing a building into the land-
building and its neighborhood.
scape or the theme of marking a
scape' or 'marking territories.'
boundary.
7)
Use color, mass, and texture
6)
Design color, mass and tex-
Use white surfaces in of-
fices.
8)
Use matte finishes on stor-
age materials.
The following is the ordered
list of hard and soft objectives
discussed in this chapter.
The following is an ordered
list of the author's 'soft' guidelines for the use of materials:
1)
Build as heavily as possible.
2)
Reinforce lighting dynamics
with the extensive use of color.
3)
Design a complete order of
heavy construction.
1)
Reinforce lighting dynamics
with rich color choices.
2)
Design a complete order of
heavy building.
4)
Select color, mass and tex-
ture for the placement of the
proper building within the proper community context.
5)
Place dark interior mass
in winter sunshine.
V
115
V
116
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123
VI
This chapter combines and
orders the guidelines of the preceding chapters.
The hard guidelines are quantified and therefore easily
ranked.
The soft guidelines are
ous techniques of passive solar
evaluated to determine its cumu-
design.
lative effect.
Independence of Hard Objectives
Perhaps the most important
conclusion of this thesis is
bination of the soft guidelines of
that the objectives in Chart 6.1
the preceeding 4 chapters:
can be dealt with independently.
Building shape does not
personal and represent only my
affect optimal window area or
viewpoint.
material choices.
Because people have differ-
Material
choices do not affect building
ent values and personalities,
shape or optimal window area.
readers will disagree with my fi-
Landscaping
nal set. -Never-the-less, I hope
of the other objectives.
they will agree to the necessity
independence allows a designer
of an explicit combined under-
to approach each hard objective
standing of the hard and soft
separately.
issues.
doesn't affect any
This
When totaling combined
sues must be considered.
reductions possible by the vari-
1)
Cost
Keep. living and working
space within 30' of windows.
2)
Provide a full range of
lighting effects in each living
and working unit.
3)
Choose shape, orientation,
and crenelation to fit surrounding
neighborhood.
4)
Reinforce lighting effects
with color and texture choices.
5)
savings, however, the other is-
Chart 6.1 displays the cost
This ordered list is a com-
Vary views: short, long,
multi-directional.
6)
Design complete order of
heavy building.
reductions dealing with the same
7)
Design covers and screens.
mechanical system may not be
8)
Provide one special light-
123b
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*Technique for including operation in first cost.
See Chapter I for explanation.
,
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124
1 24.
VI
VI
ing effect per unit.
6)
Reinforce lighting ef-
fects with color and texture
choices.
The following represents my
personal stand on where the soft
objectives of passive solar design fit into the hard objectives
of mechianical efficiency.
1)
Minimize exterior sur-
face area.
.
2)
Keep living and working
7)
Provide sunshades.
8)
Provide variety of views:
long, short, multi-directional.
9)
Design complete order
of heavy building.
10)
Design covers and screens.
11)
Reduce glass area.
12)
Use high reflectances in
offices.
area within contact distance from
13)
Optimize plan geometry.
windows.
14)
Provide one special
3)
Provide a full range of
lighting effect per unit.
lighting effects in each living
15)
Use interior shutters.
and working unit.
16)
Use reflective glass.
17)
Use light ground covers.
4)
Choose shape, orienta-
tion and crenelation to fit neighforhood setting.
5)
Build as heavily as pos-
sible.
-6) Reinforce light.
VII
VII
125
125
MrC wlrCOo
Chapter VII is the proof of
my work to this point.
I've
se-
lected for a test problem a pro-
omics of the project are typical
used for the report.1
of what American architects will
most likely due to the difference
be faced with in the near future.
in local prices compared to the
The project is
national averages used for the
nanced, 236 housing for the el-
preceeding report.
derly.
cost reductions developed in the
ject presently under construction
in Boston.
My task has been to
government fi-
Architecturally, the problem is especially interesting.
develop my own plans to compare
It is located at the edge of
with those of the project being
Boston's North End among some of
constructed for the purpose of
the finest old brick and stone
estimating the human and economic
buildings in this country and
costs of my sunlight theories.
will be highly visible because
it fronts Boston's new waterfront
park.
report may be increased by 60% for
determining test case savings.
Operating Costs
In this particular case the
community has forced the developer to assume ownership of this
building through the 20 year
mortgage.
The 'five-year energy'
fore be multiplied by 4 for com-
trade-offs I've been investiga-
puting test case savings.
ting in a real situation.
ing units are being built on a
First Costs
The first costs of mechan-
50,000 sq. ft. plot in Boston's
ical equipment for the real pro-
revitalized wharf area.
ject are 60% higher than those
The econ-
All first
savings of this thesis may there-
The project combines all the
One hundred and fifty hous-
This is
1
Chart 1.1 Figure
VII .
UT
1264
T
Program:
120 lbr unit @ 650
78,000
30 2br unit @ 800
24,000
commercial first floor 20,000
community spaces
parking 10%
7,000
15 cars
122,000
Consultants:
Both architect and developer
of the real project have served
as my consultants for this test
case.
Evaluation:
Mechanical costs of my test
project have been compared to
those for the real project.
The
results are listed in the price
tags in the upper right hand
corner of each board.
My soft quidelines are built
VII
into the test project itself.
Each reader must judge whether
the quality of the spaces created is improved or reduced in
comparison to the real project.
127
126
SITE
PARCEL
PASSIVE ENERGY
C2B16
TEST SITE
NORTH ST
BOSTON MA.
fiLtrf
JOHN wMER
THES
SPRN
-n
I129
11
Ii
>1
~ 7;'
~1
PARCEL
C2B
PASSIVE ENERGY
TEST SITE
SITE
GROUND
LEVELPLAN
ST
16oNORTH
BOSTON MA.
JOHNMEYER
THESIS
SPRING77
2
1-50
Ii
/
/
/
I;
/h
PARCEL
PASS IVE ENERGY
C2
TEST SITE
3rd LEVEL
PLAN
16 NORTH ST.
BOSTON MA.
JOHNMEYER
THESIS SPRING-
3
II
PARCEL
C 2B
NERGY
PASSIVE E
TEST SITE
ELEVATION
FACING NW
16 NORTH ST.
BOSTON MA.
JOHN WfME
THE-%
SMICN77
4
175z
PARCEL
PASSIVE ENERGY
CTEST
SITE
SECTION
FACING NW
16 NORTH ST.
BOSTON MA.
JOHNMEYER
THESIS
SPRING77
PARCEL
C2B
PASSIVE ENERGY
TEST SITE
rLI
INSIDE
OUTSIDE
TS
NORTH ST.
BOSTON MA.
JOHNMEYER
THESIS
SPRI
7
134
BIBLIOGRAPHY
COST REFERENCES
DODGE MANUAL: FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PRICING AND SCHEDULING, McGraw-Hill,
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MEANS COST DATA:
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BUILDING COST FILE: UNIT PRICES, EASTERN EDITION, 1977,
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SOLAR ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
SUNSPOTS. Steve Baer, Zomeworks Corporation, Albuquerue
,
NM,
1975.
SOLAR ENERGY THERMAL PROCESSES. John A. Duffie and William Beckman, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 1974.
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John I. Yellott, ASHRAE Journal, December, 1973.
ARCHITECTURE AND ENERGY: OVERVIEW
DIRECT USE OF THE SUN'S ENERGY, Farrington Daniels, Yale University Press, New Haven
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ASHRAE HANDBOOK OF FUNDAMENTALS, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and.
Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc., New York, 1972.
CLIMATE NEAR THE GROUND, Rudolph Geiger, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA,
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DESIGN WITH CLIMATE, Victor Olgyay, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ,
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135
OUROBORUS EAST: ENERGY CONSERVING URBAN DWELLING, University of Minnesota
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ENERGY CONSERVATION IN BUILDING DESIGN, American Institute of Architects, Research
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ENERGY CONSERVATION IN NEW BUILDING DESIGN, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,
and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc., ASHRAE Standard, 90-75, August, 1975.
ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND BUILDING, Philip Steadman, Cambridge University Press,
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ENERGY PRIMER, Portola Institute, Menlo Park, CA, 1974.
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Gary 0. Robinette,
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ARCHITECTURE AND ENERGY: SOLAR
SOLAR ENERGY IN BUILDING DESIGN, Bruce Anderson, Total Environmental Action, Harrisville,
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SOLAR HOME BOOK, Bruce Anderson, Total Environmental Action, Harrisville, New Hampshire,
1977.
SUNLIGHT IN BUILDINGS, r. G. Hopkinson, Editor, Rotterdam, Bouwcentrum International,
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136
ARCHITECTURE AND ENERGY: NATURAL LIGHTING
DAYLIGHTING, R. G. Hopkinson, P. Petherbridge and J. Longmore, Heinemenn, London, 1966.
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THE SAUNDERS HOUSE AND GLARE, John Meyer, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA, May 1976.