History of Psychology
Chapter 11 Behaviorism: After the
Founding
I. Three Stages of Behaviorism

A. Periods
 1. 1913-1930: Watsonian behaviorism


Watson
2. 1930-1960: neobehaviorism

Tolman, Hull, and Skinner


3. 1960-present: sociobehaviorism and
cognitive processes

Bandura and Rotter
Three Stages of Behaviorism

B. 1930-1960: neobehaviorism

a. core of psychology is the study of
learning

b. most behavior can be accounted for
by the laws of conditioning


c. psychology must adopt the principle
of operationism
II. Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

A. Career
 1. studied engineering at
MIT

2. studied psychology at
Harvard: Ph.D. in 1915

3. 1912: studied with Kurt
Koffka
Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

4. graduate school
 a. trained as Titchenerian structuralist
 b. questioned scientific usefulness of
introspection
 c. became acquainted with Watsonian
behaviorism, but later dissatisfied with his
approach

5. Instructor at Nrothwestern U. and later U
of California at Berkeley
Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

B. Purposive behaviorism

1. 1932: Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men

2. Reject introspection and no interest in internal
experiences.

3. Purposive behaviorism:
 Combining the objective study of behavior with the
consideration of purposiveness or goal orientation in
behavior. (all actions were goal-directed)
Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

C. Intervening variables
 1. the initiating cause and the result must be observable
and operationally defined

2. intervening variables
 a. are the actual determinants of behavior
 b. internal process that connect the stimulus situation
with observed response
 c. S-O-R (O: Organism), not S-R
 d. cannot be objectively observed
 e. intervening variable: e.g., Hunger
Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

D. Learning theory
 1. rejected Thorndike’s law of effect
 a. reward has little influence on learning

2. repeated performance of task strengthens
learned relationship between environmental
cues and organism’s expectations
Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

3. cognitive map
 animal establishes a cognitive map (e.g., a
comprehensive picture of the maze)

4. latent learning:
 Learning cannot be observed at the time that
it is occurring
 learning without reinforcement
III. Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952)

A. Hull’s life
 1. U. of Wisconsin: studied
mining engineering before
psychology

2. 1918: Ph.D. from
Wisconsin

3. 1929: research professor at
Yale
Clark Hull (1884-1952)

4. theory of behavior based on Pavlov’s laws
of conditioning
 a. 1943: Principles of Behavior


A comprehensive theoretical framework to
account for all behavior
f. 1952: A Behavior System

Continued to revise his system and
incorporating the results of his research. This
book is the final form of his system
Clark Hull (1884-1952)

B. The spirit of mechanism
 1. Describe human behavior as
 a. mechanistic, robotic
 b. automatic

2. machines could be constructed that
would display human cognitive functions
Clark Hull (1884-1952)

C. Objective methodology & quantification
 1. Objective: experimental methods



2. Quantitative: using the precise math
languages
3. four methods for scientific research
 a. simple observation
 b. systematic controlled observation
 c. experimental testing of hypotheses
Clark Hull (1884-1952)

d. the hypothetico-deductive method





1) establish postulates from which experimentally
testable conclusions can be deduced
2) submit them to experimental test
3) if not supported by experimental evidencethey
must be revised.
4). If supportedincorporated into the body of science.
5). method necessary for psychology to be a science
Clark Hull (1884-1952)

3. primary drives



a. arise from a state of physical need (e.g., food,
water, air)
b. are vital to the organism’s survival
4. secondary drives



a. are learned
b. are situations or environmental stimuli associated
with the reduction of primary drives
c. as a result of the association, become drives
themselves
Clark Hull (1884-1952)

E. Learning


1. has a key role in Hull’s system
2. focuses on principle of reinforcement (Thorndike’s
law of effect)
Clark Hull (1884-1952)



F. S-R connection
1. habit strength
 1) the strength of the S-R connection
 2) is a function of reinforcement
 3) refers to the persistence of the
conditioning
2. learning cannot occur without reinforcement
IV. B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

A. Skinner’s life

1. Born in Pennsylvania

2. Life is a product of past
reinforcements


3. 1925: Hamilton College (NY):
degree in English and desire to be a
writer, no courses in psychology
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

4. read about Pavlov’s and Watson’s work

5. 1931: Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard

6. Taught at the U. of Minnesota and Indiana U.

7. 1953: Science and Human Behavior (basic book
for his approach)

8. 1990 (final article): "Can Psychology Be a Science
of Mind?“
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

B. Operant conditioning
 1. operant behavior
 a. rat presses the bar and then gets food.
 b. this type of behavior is the more
representative of everyday learning

2. the "Skinner box": study the rate of
response
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

3. law of acquisition
 a. key variable: reinforcement

b. practice itself will not increase the arte of
responding

c. practice provides opportunities for
additional reinforcement to occur
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

C. Schedules of reinforcement
 1. reinforcement is necessary in operant
behavior

2. reinforcement schedules: conditions involving
various rates and times of reinforcement
 a. continuous
 b. fixed and variable

c. ratio and interval
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

D. Verbal behavior


1. The verbal behavioral responses can be
reinforced by speech sounds or gestures
2. Parents’ behavior:

Parents give different responses to their child’s
unacceptable words or polite words
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

E. Skinner’s book: Walden Two (1948): A
behaviorist society

1. An attempt to apply his findings to society
as a whole.

2. Assumption: human natures is
machinelike.
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

F. Behavior modification

1. Definition: The use of positive reinforcement to
control or modify the behavior of individuals or
groups.

2. used in a variety of applied settings

3. reinforce desired behavior and not reinforce
undesired behavior

4. punishment is not used
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

G. Applied Animal Psychology: The IQ Zoo


Two Skinner’s students applied operant
conditioning from lab to the real world
They train animals to perform tricks for
state fair and animal shows, and then open
the IQ zoo for tourists.
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

I. Contributions of Skinner’s behaviorism





1. shaped American psychology for 30 years
2. his goal: the improvement of society
3. strength and ramifications of his radical
behaviorism
4. APA: the Distinguished Scientific Contribution
Award (1958); Life time Contribution to Psychology
(1990)
5. 1968: National Medal of Science
V. Social Learning Theories:
The Cognitive Challenge

A reflection of the broader cognitive
movement in psychology as a whole
VI. Albert Bandura (1925 - )

A. Background
 1. Born in Canada

2. 1952: Ph.D. from U. of
Iowa

3. Joined the faculty of
Stanford U.
Albert Bandura (1925 - )

B. Social cognitive theory

1. A less extreme form of behaviorism

2. focus: observation of the behavior of
humans in interaction

3. emphasizes the role of reinforcement in
modifying behavior
Albert Bandura (1925 - )

4. stresses the influence on external
reinforcement schedules of thought process
(e.g., beliefs or expectations)

5. Responses are not automatically triggered
by external stimuli, like a machine;

6. instead reactions to stimuli are selfactivated; the person is consciously aware of
the response.
Albert Bandura (1925 - )

7. reinforcer effective if
 a. person is consciously aware of what is
being reinforced

b. person anticipates the same reinforcer
if the behavior is repeated
Albert Bandura (1925 - )

7. vicarious reinforcement:

a. definition:
 Learning can occur by observing the
behavior of other people, and the
consequences of their behavior, rather
than by always experiencing
reinforcement personally.
Albert Bandura (1925 - )



b. Assumes human capacity to anticipate
consequences we observe in others, even though we
have not experienced them ourselves
c. One can regulate one’s behavior by
 1) imagining consequences of a particular behavior
 2) making a conscious decision to behave or not
d. is like the S-O-R model, with O = cognitive
processes
Albert Bandura (1925 - )

8. cognitive processes distinguish Bandura’s from
Skinner’s views
 a. actual schedule of reinforcement less
important than what the person believes it to be

b. who controls behavior


1) Skinner: whoever controls reinforcers
2) Bandura: whoever controls the models in a
society; we learn through “modeling”
Albert Bandura (1925 - )

C. Self-efficacy


1. Definition: One’s sense of self-esteem and
competence in dealing with life’s problems.
2. Our belief in our level of self-efficacy
influences many aspects of our lives.


3. Low self-efficacy: helpless, hopeless, no
control over their lives, little chance…
Albert Bandura (1925 - )

D. Behavior modification



1. If all behaviors are learned by observing others or
modeling others, then undesirable behaviors can be
relearned in the same way.
2. Bandura’s goal: change or modify socially
undesirable behavior
3. Focus on external aspects of abnormality (i.e., focus
on behavior instead of internal conscious conflict)
Albert Bandura (1925 - )

4. the use of modeling techniques


e.g., being afraid of dogs;
prevention program on radio or TV
(preventing unwanted pregnancies)
5. Behavior therapy

E.g., using in clinical (OCD, sexual dysfunctions,
phobias, or some from of anxiety), business, or
classroom
Albert Bandura (1925 - )

E. Comment


1. criticisms
 a. Traditional behaviorists criticized that cognitive
processes do not cause behavior
2. positive aspects of Bandura’s social cognitive theory




a. consistent with the functionalism of American psychology
b. objective
c. responsive to current Zeitgeist (cognitive)
d. applicable to practical problems
VII. Julian Rotter (1916 - )

A. Background
 1. Grew up in New York.

2. His family lived
comfortably until his father
list his business in 1929 (in
his age of 13)
VII. Julian Rotter (1916 - )

3. Wanted to become a psychologist but
major in chemistry at Brooklyn College

4. met Adler and switched to psychology

5. 1941: Ph.D. from Indiana U.

6. Worked at a State mental hospital, and
then Ohio State U. (until 1963), and then U.
of Connecticut
Julian Rotter (1916 - )

B. Cognitive processes

1. 1947: the first to use the term "social
learning theory"

2. cognitive approach to behaviorism

3. invokes the existence of subjective
experiences
Julian Rotter (1916 - )

4. criticized Skinner for studying single
subjects in isolation; Rotter studied
human subjects in social interaction

5. relies on rigorous, well-controlled lab
research
Julian Rotter (1916 - )

6. deals with cognitive processes more
extensively than Bandura

a. Behavior is determined by both external
stimuli and the reinforcement they
provide, but the influence of these two
factors is mediated by our cognitive
processes
Julian Rotter (1916 - )

C. Locus of control


1. beliefs about the source of one’s
reinforcements
2. internal versus external locus of control

Internal locus of control is the belief that
reinforcement depends on one’s own behavior;
external locus of control is the belief that
reinforcement depends on outside forces.
Julian Rotter (1916 - )

3. Internal locus of control:

physically & mentally healthier, perceived greater
freedom of choice…

4. Is learned in childhood from parents’ behavior

5. Locus of Control measure: 23 forced-choice


many of the unhappy things in peoples’ lives are
partly due to bad luck
People’s misfortunes result from the mistakes they
make
Julian Rotter (1916 - )

D. Comment


Rotter’s social learning theory have attracted
people who agree on the importance of
cognitive variables in influencing behavior.
Locus of control: one of the most studies
variables in psychology
VIII. The Fate of Behaviorism

Few scholars at major university now call
themselves behaviorists in the traditional
sense. However, behaviorism invoking the
internal cognitive processes is still growing