ALTERNATIVE MEANS OF SHELTER DELIVERY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:
A Cooperative Approach
by
Felton L.
Lamb Jr.
B. Arch. University of Arkansas
1976
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE STUDIES
at the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
May 14, 1982
Felton L. Lamb Jr.
1982
Signature of Author
Department of Architecture
May 14, 1982
Certified by
Dr. Eric Dluhosch
Associate Professor of Building Technology
Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by
Professor N. John Habraken
Chairman, Departmental Committee on Graduate Students
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
JUN 2 1982
ALTERNATIVE MEANS OF SHELTER DELIVERY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:
A Cooperative Approach
by
Felton L. Lamb Jr.
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN
ARCHITECTURE
STUDIES
A B S T R A C T
Since the beginning of time man has struggled to provide for
The needs of
three basic human needs; food, clothing and shelter.
the majority population in the area of shelter in our era has been
situation
must
improve
if
the
neglected
for
too
long.
This
The
geographical
location
of the world is to be assured.
stability
where the need is the greatest occurs most frequently in the less
These areas have not participated
developed areas of the world.
profited from the rapid advancement that was effective in changing
the social and economic conditions of the more developed world.
This thesis will examine the needs for shelter in developing
to solutions for
countries and generate some possible approaches
there will be an overview of the shelter
First,
shelter needs.
it
will
Next,
requirements that are facing the developing world.
look at those groups who are presently working in the development of
by which to judge their
criteria
and develop
shelter delivery,
This will be followed by a proposed strategy for one
performance.
solution through the formation of shelter delivery cooperatives.
-2-
be
will
production
shelter
cooperative
for
rationale
The
This will be
discussed in terms of its advantages and disadvantage.
followed by a determination of how cooperatives may be organized
that already
existing governing structures
to the
with regard
and
systems
the
possible
An examination of
shelter.
provides
efforts
methods of construction that are best suited to cooperative
A case study of a construction delivery
will be then presented.
system employed in the Ivory Coast will give a real-world context
against which to view the proposed method of resolving shelter
The conclusion will summarize the topic and give some future
needs.
trends.
Thesis Supervisor:
Title:
Dr. Eric Dluhosch
Associate Professor of Building Technology
-3-
Table of Contents
-4-
...
...
...
. .. ...
ABSTRACT ....... T.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT................. the
INTRODUCTION...................
CHAPTER ONE ....................
...
....
....
.....
&..
Background Information on the Ivory Coast. . . .
CHAPTER TWO....................
The Ivory Coast Case......
CHAPTER THREE..................
Introduction..............
...
Traditional Sector........
Private Sector............
National Sector...........
...
.
.
.
...
.2
.6
.13
.14
.22
.23
.53
.54
.56
.62
.67
.73
.82
CHAPTER FOUR...................
.83
What is a housing delivery system..
What is the historical structure of a co opera tiye .85
.88
Plans for cooperative formation.........
.92
What role can cooperatives play.........
Development of a cooperative shelter del ivery
system................................ ............94
Vertical and horizontal organization of
International Sector......
cooperative (TSO) ......................
Planning of a 'housing cooperative.......
Funding Aspects.........................
Formation process and interm demonstrati0 n
Cooperative training and education......
Self-help construction...................
Additional aspect of management and
administration........................
The legal framework.....................
Housing for the lowest income groups....
CONCLUSION .................... ..............
APPENDIX.....................................
REFERENCES...................................
BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................
-5-
.. 95
.101
.108
.109
.112
.114
.115
.116
.121
.127
.131
.145
.147
Acknowledgement
-6-
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr.
Eric
Dluhosch, my thesis advisor.
His guidance, wisdom, and
patience were a source of inspiration during the troublesome phase of the thesis preparation.
His energy has been
consistant throughout the organization and execution of my
research and academic experience at M.I.T.
I would like to thank Dr.
Edward
Robins and
Dr.
Richard
Robinson
for
their
insight
and
knowledge
as
readers.
I also appreciate the information and documentation
received from the staff
and members of the U.S.
Housing
and Urban Development.
To my S.M. Arch. S. classmates I owe a special thanks,
for their constructive criticisms and friendship.
To all
my other friends who have been supportative in a time when
I had little
to give or share, for this has taught me the
true meaning of friendship, many thanks.
It is with special joy that I thank my parents, for
their many kind and up-lifting words in my times of need
but, most of all thanks for their love.
-7-
Introduction
-8-
I NTRODUCT
HOW IS
ION
HOUSING PROVIDED?
The question of how shelter
Throughout
problem.
the
problem
However,
needed
construct
approach
it
The
shelter
a single
resources
and
of
history
by
is provided
man
has
the use
of
his
acquire
own
materials,
shelter
in
a
has not been very effective
appear
to
have
increasing
attempted
much
chance
of
complexity of the
produce
effort.
manner.
dwelling
in
and
the plans,
the past,
success
solve
the skills
modern
in
to
individual
individual seldom has all
to
is an age old
nor does
the
makes
This
future.
the
indi-
vidual even less effective in providing his own shelter.
It is important to understand that, to a great extent,
man has been
shelter
since
constructing
providing
the
the
resources
beginning
through
of
collective
-9-
and building
history.
rather
Man
than
his own
has
been
individual
efforts.
This is
time
again.
that
are
a process
This
present
fact
even
is
that has been tested time and
evident
in
the
in
brief
the
many
history of
examples
the
U.S.
of history we can see
that
(e.g., barn raising and community construction)
Thus,
through an
analysis
the most effective way that mankind has found to deal with
many
problems
together
that
and
it
launch
had
a
to
face
was
united
effort
together
they
to
and
is
attain
to
group
a desired
goal.
When
the
people
abilities
join
and
strengths
of
are
every
able
to
maximize
individual
more
effectively than each individual could for himself or herself without
the
knowledgeable
are either supported by the other members of
the group or
find roles compatible with the overall aims
of a common
goal.
group.
This
Those
is
the
that
are
weaker
organizational
the structural formation of the cooperative.
-10-
or
basis
less
for
This form of organization
The major problem with
into
the
shelter
cooperatives
munity
have
special
the implementation
delivery
have
long
skills
betterment
of
to
the
system
usually
The individual
economy.
has existed for many centuries.
is
operated
of this concept
that
those
outside
members of any given
contributed
the
what
production
entire
we
of
community.
the
market
rural
might
shelter
For
previous
com-
consider
for
example,
the
there
were people who specialized in applying the wall finishing
while
others
thatch.
Still
wove
the
roof
with
others constructed
the application of the mud infill
of
these tasks required
different
either
palm
fronds
or
the bamboo armature
which would follow.
skills and
for
Each
this simple
division of labor let each person make his or her contribution in such a manner enabling each to offer the community their
full potential.
By allowing this mechanism to
operate, the community received the maximum benefits and
-11-
the
individual
tion.
This
enjoyed
thesis
the
is
an
greatest
sense
attempt
to
of
satisfac-
demonstrate
the
implementation of a cooperative shelter delivery system in
the context
of a developing
country,
the
Ivory Coast.
I
selected the Ivory Coast not only because it is typical of
several
"developing"
West
African
Countries,
but
also
because of my first hand experience living and working in
the country for two years.
-12-
Chapter one
-13-
C H A P T E R
O N E
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE IVORY COAST:
The
textual
thesis.
following
information
background
The
for
the
information
(1)Location
and
is
grouped
is a country located on
Liberia
to
give
a con-
portion
,into
four
(2)Historical
of
the
sections:
information,
(4)Cultural and social conditions.
Location and climate:
by
remaining
climate,
(3)Economic data, and,
bounded
is provided
on
The Republic
of the
Ivory Coast
the west coast of Africa.
the
west,
Guinea,
Mali
It
and
is
Upper
Volta to the north, Ghana to the east, and to the south by
the Gulf of
miles,
country
equator.
the
Guinea.
which
is
The
tropical
is
The total
slightly
located
terrain
rain
land area
larger
than
60
approximately
has
two
forest
-14-
distinct
which
is
of
124,503
New
square
Mexico.
north
types;
dominate
of
First,
in
The
the
is
the
southern
half of the country.
Second,
is
the savanna
or
grasslands which are prevalent in the northern half of the
The
country.
temperatures
1030F)
climate
is
ranging
hot
from
and
humid,
140
with
39 0 c
to
slight
(570
to
the 1975 official government census
the
(see map on page 21)
According
to
Ivory Coast has a population of 5.5 million
sources
state
Abidjan
the
eight
million
as
capital
city
has
being
a
population of over a million people.
(though other
more
popula-
tion
neighboring
20%
coun-
is
constituted
tries.
There
expatriate community population
community
there
has
doubled
were
only
since
25,000.
is
accurate).
metropolitan
The
majority
of the population live in the rural areas.
when
a
by
also
The
workers
a
countries
Ivorian
large
from
French
fact this
independence
population
small in comparison to other West African countries.
-15-
(68%)
Of the total
(50,000) , and in
the
area
is
Though
the
infant
expectancy
critical
mortality
increasing
problem for
rate
is
population
the Ivory
decreasing
does
Coast as
not
it
and
life
present
does for
a
some
other African countries.
Historical information:
colony
from,
gained
independence.
was elected
1893
until
president.
The Ivory Coast was a French
August
1960
At that time
He has
when
it
officially
Felix Houphouet-Boigny
served
since
then without
formal opposition, until the election of 1981
when other
candidates were first allowed to campaign against him.
The political
stability of the country
than many other African countries.
is
far greater
This stability
is
due
to a great extent to the president's ability in creating a
strong sense of national unity among the 66 ethnic groups.
In
the
1977
Houphouet-Boigny
government
by
made
replacing
the
several
ministers
Economic Planning and Foreign Affairs:
-16-
major
changes
of;
in
Finance,
These ministry
changes and some additional laws were all measures against
corruption and speculation in commodity.
the
part
were
of
the
initiated
president
to
insure
and
the
other
These efforts on
members
continued
government
political
sta-
bility.
The government has undertaken a program to reduce the
number
of
industry.
every
foreigners
in
key
roles
in
government
and
This "Ivorianization" policy will affect nearly
aspect
university
of country.
to
train
Efforts
Ivorians
are being made
for
positions
in
that
the
are
essential to growth and stability of the country.
Economic data:
developed
export
world's
producer
Since independence the Ivory Coast has
an economy based
of
agricultural
leading
products.
producer
of coffee
largely on
(after
of
The
cocoa,
Brazil
and
largest exporter of timber in Africa.
-17-
the production
the
country
third
Colombia),
is
and
the
largest
and
the
These
commercial
country
to
develop
The
since 1960.
developing
export
at a
growth
countries
activities
rate
rate
of
is
(normally
have
more
far
3%
that
above
to
allowed
the
7% per
year
those
4%).
of most
This
rapid
growth has caused some difficulties in the expectation of
the
population,
should
be
who
feel
significantly
that
their
improved.
The
living
recent
standards
depression
in cocoa prices has caused some reduction in the growth,
but it still remains at 3%.
Oil finds off the coast will
be able to supply the domestic needs but are too small for
any real export.
has
increased
gross
its
domestic
Through favorable incentives the country
industrial
product.
development
This
industrial
relies heavily on French investment.
Ivory
Coast dependency
France,
for
on foreign
investment
in
to
13% of
the
development
This underscores the
money,
industrial
especially
projects.
from
This
dependency has created a situation in which the country's
-18-
development
is
needed
was
to
hampered
finance
because
the
Ivory
scarce
foreign
Coast's
exchange
portion
of
the
projects.
Cultural and social conditions:
family
structure
project
in
be
considered
the Ivory Coast.
The major
of the country
it,
(i.e.,
groupings).
the
must
The
effective
is
influence of the
in
any
building
organizing
element
based on the family or an extension
clan
formation,
Family
origin
operation
elected or appointed.
village
is
of
a
structure,
occasionally
particular
ethnic
important
office
of
to
whether
Should one attempt to minimize the
importance of the family, problems will likely result.
some cases entire construction projects
In
have been stopped
because of a conflict relating to the family and its views
of
the correct method
when
individual
of
conflicts
project
arise,
operation.
they
quickly
into major confrontation with the individuals'
-19-
Often
times
escalate
families.
In
one
sense
extended.
whole
the
responsibility
When one part of the
family
interrelation
participates
and
support
of
the
individual
is
family has a problem the
in
would
resolving
provide
it.
a good
base
This
for
the development of a cooperative.
The strong family structure offers some advantages to
the
cooperative
entire
cultural
because
structure
of
its
of
the
interrelation
society.
family units have provided assistance
cooperative
manner
in
the
past.
with
Traditional
to each other
This
the
in a
cooperative
knowledge can be used to help institute other cooperative
endeavors.
This
not
the
negate
past
experience
necessity
of
with
educating
cooperatives
and
training
does
the
cooperative members, these factors remain essential to the
successful implementation of any cooperative program.
-20-
THE IVORY COAST
( source: Business Internatioanal SA
Research Report )
-21-
Chapter two
-22-
C H A P T E R
T WO
THE IVORY COAST CASE:
This
case
study
implementation
of
a
of
the
developing
has
been
idea of
country.
It
used
to
demonstrate
cooperative
shows
the
in
how
the
the context
and
why
of
initiating a cooperative approach to construction.
I was in the
Ivory Coast as a
two years as of
1978,
Architecturales
et
directed
primarily
tion
the
of
old
working
Urbaines
the
but was not
since
I
pose of becoming
joined
the
The
de Recherches
research
city
.
and
This
that
I
renova-
work
was
the kind of activity which
Peace
to the real needs
Corps
involved in work which
majority of the country's people.
-23-
architect for
restoration
capital
I felt would be of most benefit
people,
the Centre
(CRAU).
focused on
colonial
quite interesting,
in
research
for
the
of the
sole pur-
would benefit
the
Of
the many
CRAU,
projects
proposed
one particular
to me,
upon
my arrival
at
project seemed to meet my interests.
This project dealt with the implementation and improvement
of local building materials.
The
intention
country's
of
dependence
this
on
program
imported
was
to
building
decrease
the
materials
and
provide improved living condition for it's people.
Another
research
program,
underway in
the office,
was
to make a complete survey of the villages located in the
central
project,
area
regions
of
the
country.
I participate in
being
In
the
course
of
several field study trips
investigated.
In
observing
the
this
to the
villagers'
activities, it became apparent to me that there were many
unaddressed
needs,
in
terms
of
shelter
and
community
facilities.
One of these needs was the apparent lack
nently
covered
village
market
-24-
building,
as
of a permathe
village
conducted
it's
market
activities
in
the
open
air
unprotected from harsh climatic conditions of the region.
New
interest
was
generated
in
rural
development
through a rural development program sponsored by the Ivory
Coast
Government,
the
Regionaux
d'Amenagement
portion
of
the
country
Gbegbessou
Rural),
known
construction
was
and
existing
a village
as,
provides
The amount of support
facilities.
of
the
program
center,
of
FRAR
financing
vital
depended
for
a
community
on the region
available
fitting
(Fonds
the
resources.
conditions
and purposes of the program-well.
The commercial
physical
structure
activities of Gbegbessou called
to
provide
shelter
during
for
a
the market
activities.
Up until the present the villagers had used a
large
space
open
for
their
market
activities.
In
a
meeting with the villagers and the village chief, the idea
of
possible
government
support
covered market was presented.
-25-
for
constriction
of
a
In addition to the support from the Ivory Coast government
the
village
United
was
States
also
eligible
Self-help
for
funds.
financial
The
support
aid
form
provided
money, could be used to finance up to 75% of the construction cost of the project.
about the idea.
a structure
The villagers were enthusiastic
For a long time they had wanted to build
that would provide
a covered market
location
for the village, but until that time they lacked the means
to do so.
and
But, first background information was collected
project
data
forms
should
have
been
completed,
then the proposal would be submitted to the U.S.
After
my
office
made
a
presentation
and
and
Embassy.
had
long
discussions with the villagers they were provided with the
necessary background
the initial
information
and
forms
steps for the project proposal
to the embassy.
-26-
to
carry
out
to be submitted
In a subsequent communications with
three months later,
since
my
posal
had
embassy.
previous
been
I learned that nothing had transpired
meeting
neither
with
the
completed
project
waited
council.
able
and
another
proposal
to
processed
villagers.
nor
The
submitted
pro-
to
two
was
in
months,
presented
Once
act
anticipated
the
on
He was very
the
the
proposal was
the
proposal's
before
to
matter
the
arrival.
completed
We
project
embassy
by
the
signed,
the
embassy
quickly.
less than a month.
interested in
This
The
village
proposal
allowed
project.
Later,
ceremony,
granting
village
there
the
was
an
funds
authorities
to
were
official
the
document
village.
present
for
was
Several
this
the
signing
of
event.
Because the region was included in the area covered by
-27-
was
for prepar-
ation, for making plans and organizing the start up of
the
the
In the interim I had discussed the case with the
counselor at the U.S. Embassy.
the
the village, about
A.V.B. (Autoritee
development
use
the
de
extension
la
service)
de
extension
Bandama,
the villagers
resources
additional
development
Vallee
service,
were
rural
able
through
available
which
a
normally
to
this
provided
support for
coffee
and cocoa cultivation in
themselves
with
extension
service
the market project
through
working
extension
the area.
service
(A.V.B.)
local
gained
agents.
provided
the
By associating
rural
development
additional
For
the
logistical
prestige
villagers
support,
such
by
the
as
trucks and equipment, not otherwise available.
Thus,
four
(1)the
CRAU,
A.V.B.,
who
(3)
and
the
(4)
organizations
who
U.S.
the
Enbassy,
the
logistical
who
villagers
provided
who
in
the
assistance,
technical
provided
provided
participated
and
supports
most
provided
of
the
both
unskilled labor and much of the local material.
-28-
project:
(2)
the
systems,
funding,
skilled
and
By
coordinating
these
four
different
groups
together
a
the beginning,
it
covered village market was created.
In
was
motivated
not
difficult
something
that
Having
needs.
to
would
get
people
eventually
had contact
meet
with
one
some
of
to
of
the
build
their
United
own
Nation
project there in the Ivory Coast, I saw the possibility of
a
utilizing
precast
element
construction
system
for
housing.
This system consists of small scale elements which can
be
produced
with
very
low
elements
of approximately
concrete
bases
elements,
390
poured
cm
After
the columns
used
to
fix
connections.
columns.
the
long
level
60 cm
in
by
situ.
15
X
15
are aligned
columns
Wooden
technology.
60
Into
cm
beams
are
place
located on
these
foundation
are
inserted.
amount of cement
and
placed
These beams consist of small
-29-
are
columns
a small
in
cm.
Foundation
on
form
top
is
stable
of
the
wood
7
approximately
of
sections
are
which
cm,
X 30
cm
nailed together in different configurations for structural
Roof slope was practically eliminated
making up the roof.
to
slope
A slight
structure.
addressed
beams.
build
that
by
Using
the
providing
of
two elements
securely
width
of joints
the number
This
attaching
the
of
and
walls,
represent
of
or
the
the
building
concrete
it
problem was
to
sheets
roof
this construction method
of the building.
entire
the
airplane wing.
an
structure
the
the
by bending
The low roof pitch caused an effect
the forces of uplift.
to
roof
the
The major roof problem was to overcome
roof penetrations.
similar
span
minimizing
thereby
the building
in
developing
generated
was
sheets
These
sheets.
aluminum
from
-lateral forces
prevent
aluminum sheets
corrugated
support
The beams
resistance.
was possible to
without
entirely
slab
a substantial portion
floor.
of
These
the cost
Leaving out the slab and the walls
-30-
the
at
assumed
that,
replace
these
had
assistances
If
process.
the
site,
later
temporary
also
all
was
Time
diminished
the
a
better
portion
of
effectively done, with expert
the
demands
on
great
deal
technical
With such
little as three days.
work
a short
could
quality
the
after
completed
structural materials had been
this
would
villagers
with
materials
erected.
been
were
stage,
treatment
Finishing
materials.
structure
some
was
It
materials.
economical
and
available
readily
from
walls
temporary
construct
to
villagers
the
allowed
technical
this
in
provided
been
have
assistance,
to
in as
time requirement
for a supervising team per project, advisory personnel can
reach a far greater number of locations with
staff.
The advantage
struction
crews
remaining
part
was
of
their present
for the villagers and the local conthat
the
they
structure
were
able
at
their
to
own
finish
the
pace,
and
chose readily available materials. In addition, local
-31-
of
advantage
take
to
able
were
builders
local
price
changes and use materials which would provide the greatest
structure
roof
is
where
In a typical case,
value for its intended use.
on
resting
required
walls,
bearing
the
payments were often made late, and construction scheduling
suffered accordingly.
build
the
within
a
foundation
year
build
For example, it became necessary to
and
then
wait,
floor
slab
and
first,
the
maybe
and
the
walls.
Finally, the roof structure would be put in place, after
about three years of work.
be
finished
proposed
and
system,
the
The whole building could then
family
people
would
could
be
move
in.
sheltered
With
the
within
the
first few months from the start of construction, by moving
into their semifinished, but adequate house.
(see figures
1 and 2)
In
it
is
studying
the organizational
based on the villages'
structure,
clan structure.
-32-
we see that
>1
-P
W)
YAO BUILDS HIS HOUSE.
- He buys cement.
- He buys cement.
- He brings sand.
- He brings sand.
- And water.
- He hires two workers.
l
1
- He hires two masons.
- And two workers.
- He brings water.
i.-He makes the masonry works.
- He makes concrete blocks.
Q
A'
- He buys cement.
34
- He brings sand.
>1
- He brings water.
0
- He hires two workers.
- And a mason.
- he makes the foundations.
Four years later, Yao looks at his house.
-33-
KOUASSI BUILDS HIS HOUSE
- He brings two skilled
C'-.
workers to construct
the roof.
- He builds two rooms,
>1
8
Vt,
(traditional material)
and moves in with his
family.
He builds a third
.
>1
4
room (concrete), the
Vt,
floor, and a concrete
'7
porch.
P-A
~
(
Kouassi looks at his house, four years later.
-34-
.7]
3
Each clan
the
provides a
construction
council
and our
the different
predetermined
site
on
team set
phases
different
the number
of
were
frequent,
work
problems
with
required
due
to
their
their
and
different
crops
The
of workers
other
would
on the
Interruptions
holidays
and
based on
depended
skills.
for
village
The workers
schedule
their
of workers
days.
of construction.
come to the work site and
type
number
and
causes,
festivals,
produced
delays in the construction schedule.
The villagers were not accustomed to strict scheduling
and
punctuality.
Given
their
cultural
predisposition,
they felt that as long as progress was
being made,
schedules
of
tance.
almost
simply
were
Construction
all
not
seen
to
be
prime
impor-
took about a year and six months
projects of this
type.
Thus,
time
for
the normal com-
pletion time for a project of this type is 3 to 4 years.
The rural extension service provided trucks and other
-35-
vehicles,
as
well
as
ditions.
A
base
office
service,
which
personnel
helped
was
to
familiar
provided
bridge
with
by
the
the
gap
advising technical team and the villagers.
service
agricultural
the
had
agents
products.
the
villagers
our
for
vouched
new
effect.
If
these
not been
in
at
the
tive
construction
method,
more
difficult.
By
experience
working
a link between
their
of
our
and
materials
our
having
with
for
This
in
turn,
and
assured
the
would
service
agents
the
would
that
the
have
have
two
had
been
years
agents
a
coopera-
of
provided
technological innovation and
thus taking
enhanced
the
on the role
credibility
the extension agents who participated in this project.
-36-
with
the
problems
acceptance by the villagers,
mediator.
their
rapport
introduced
the villagers
ideas
a
methods
more
on
because
extension
time we
the
easier,
credibility
positive
place
made
between
The extensions
established
was
con-
extension
villagers
the
with
This
work
Our
villagers.
agents
worked
local
of
EXISTING VILLIAGE MARKET LOCATION
-37-
MEETING WITH THE VILAGE COUNCIL
-38-
PRELIMINARY CONSTRUCTION PHASE
-39-
COMPLETED UMBREII A STRUCTURE
-40-
CONSTRUCION OF INFILL WALLS
-41-
THE COMPLETED VILLAGE MARKET
-42-
In order for the cooperative method to be most effective, it is good policy for all parties involved to receive
some benefits.
Another important aspect to cooperative is
the communication links among the different components of
the cooperative are the key to its proper operation, and a
means of setting priorities
for the cooperative.
or
to
pool
their
legally
responsible
the
delivery
process
of
cement
purpose
only
for
and
the
other
in
of
the
forming
purchase
a
the
allowed
together,
resources
unit, not
work
not
process
cooperative
The
organization.
will
and
thereby defeating
cooperative manner
villagers
goals
particular
her
for
the group will be vying
is not done, each member of
his
If this
a
and
construction
materials but also in the eyes of the state who never took
much
interest
recognized
the
in
the
project.
cooperative
as
The
functioning whole,
of controlling the villagers' destiny.
-43-
municipalities
also
capable
For
example,
a road
grader
was made available
because
of
the group's efforts, which would not have been possible on
an
individual
organize
basis.
Because
themselves
as
a
people can bond together
village
pride on the
were
able
cooperative
unit,
the local government officials
to improve
the conditions of the
The collective effort of building
market
part
to
This was a excellent example of how
with some authority.
own
members
responsible
they were able to approach
whole community.
the
resulted
of
in
self-gratification
the villagers,
useful and important asset to
aside
and
from adding
their village.
important to understand that the
their
traditional
Thus,
it
structure
a
is
of
the village can not be ignored, in adopting new ideas and
new
techniques,
life.
The
family
unit,
for
the
traditional
which
is
improvement
village
part
of
of
structure
a
larger
their
is
everyday
based
clan
the
structure,
eventually encompassing all members of the village.
-44-
on
This structure
the
it
was used to organize
cooperative.
would
work
have
together
structure
If
this
been
as
structure
difficult
they
to continue
did.
to
By
the working
had
been
motivate
allowing
suppressed,
the
the
and actually help to
teams of
people
to
traditional
form the
roots
of the new cooperative structure, the villagers were given
a
reference
point which
they
understand,
and
a
procedure
they could trust.
Size is
another
factor
which
is
formation of a cooperative.
If,
for
ship is
to
his
too
sense
large
of
reduced.
is
ability
based
which
is too small
large
to be
members.
is
obligation),
The
effectively
(that
on
say
very
instance,
each
effectiveness
of
the
a
critical
and
individual
will
balance
appreciated
in
loses
be
greatly
to
operate
between
that which
by
the
the member-
cooperative
to be effective and
understood
important
the
that
is
individual
Thus, the group we were working with consisted
-45-
too
of
Each
families.
twenty
about
appointed
family
as active participants
more representatives
(a group of about
and the other members of village council
or
8
actually
who
men),
along the way.
We were not allowed
contact with the families when it
family to
the
project
find out
their
place among the village
came to decision-making
the project.
ideas about
village
the
concerning
to have direct
consult with each member of the
however,
We did,
sion-making
guide
to
helped
This group also served as a communication
link to the village.
matters.
the govern-
These people met with the village chief
ance cooperative.
7
in
one or
chief and
matters,
Deci-
always
took
the council of elders,
and seldom did the technical staff make decisions outside
make
sure
that
must
not
be
It
technical matters.
the realm of strict
the
traditional
disregarded,
for,
is
important to
decision-making
if
the
process
traditional
decision-makers do not feel respected, they can create
-46-
many problems in a project's operation.
understand
the
that
villagers,
It
decisions.
arrive
in
elders
and
that
would
the
sion-making
the
lations
upon
the
munici-
pality
is
villagers.
also
Pre-fect
people
to
or
do
The
which
were
served
village and the local government.
as
a
link
government.
the
the
leaders
to
project
change
own
making
team
its
the
able
needs
to
of
regu-
of
project.
for a given
to
deci-
rules and
cooperation
often
the
to
of
the
Often
project.
motivate
both
the
His function was to act
village
and
the
national
Ivorians have strong nationalist feelings and
thus
want
This
feeling
the
between
to
a catalysis
Sous-Prefect
work
the
its
important
are
accustomed
attempt
imposing
the municipality acts as
The
are
benefit
and
by
chiefs
they
not
village
structure
and
It is critical to
to
identity
of
Sous-Prefect
with
national
(who
their
identity
represents
an influential role in
-47-
national
makes
the
it
government.
possible
government)
to
for
play
many of the villages activities.
He would often visit the
construction site, speak with the villagers, hold meetings
with the materials suppliers,
his
technical
Through
his
office-,
television
country.
desire
equipment
and
He
to
in
aid
some media
the
to
in
the
support
publication
helped
to succeed
and even dispatching some of
instill
construction.
was
of
news
motivation,
the villagers at
produced
for
throughout
energy
and
times when it was
most critical.
The research center also derived several benefits from
the
construction
of
the
village
market.
The
centers'
major focus of involvement was the application of theoretical
research
Ivorians.
to
The
experiment
research
to
the
daily
project
with
center.
provided an
ideas
The
problems
and
experienced
excellent opportunity
products
application
of
tested
these
in
products
actual real-world situations revealed many of the
-48-
by many
the
in
problems that arose in
method.
meters
the use of this or that material or
Because the project was located about 250
from
the
central
research
center,
an
kilo-
opportunity
was created to present new materials and methods to a much
wider cross section of the population
in
the
capital city,
have been constructed
only
experienced
than could be found
since usually projects
in
viewed
or near
by
a
such
as this
the capital city and are
limited
urban
population.
This also made it initially difficult to convince the villagers and local people that new materials and new building methods
However,
situation.
village,
(systems) could
the
chances
be was
by building
of
applicable
the market
persuading
the
in
to a rural
a
typical
villagers
that
these innovations were also suitable for there needs were
increased manyfold.
of its
own,
it
Because the center had limited funds
was 'important to make selective alliances
with other organizations which could offer financial
-49-
support,
to
possible
realize
to
use
research
efforts
emphasis
placed
difficult
for
the
the
projects
center's
within
the
on
actual
the
center
proposed.
budget
center.
project
to
This made
to
support
There
was
finance
actual
little
was
projects,
cost of construction,
because of the extremely high
the
It
construction.
it
thus
focusing it's resources on applied research.
The real-world implementation of innovation made the village market a very appealing
cooperative
project for
was an excellent
approach
the center.
means
The
to provide
a
market for the people and--at the same time--to realize a
viable
project
for
the
research
center.
say that the cooperative approach is
all
sectors
developing
available
of
the
countries.
housing
This
is
not
the best solution for
construction
Nevertheless,
to those with the most need
of
all
industry
the
for housing,
in
options
it
be considered as one of the more operational methods for
-50-
to
may
action
in
changes
the short term,
in
existing
since it
social
does not require major
and/or
technical
infrastruc-
tures, and since the ability of a system to be put on line
rapidly
system
is
in
of major
importance
nations
delays.
Postponement
show
any
countries.
most developing
developing
to
that
Growth
they
can
delivery
patterns
not
afford
put
project
any
of
shelter
of
long
excessive
stress on the rest of the system and scheduling difficulties increase at a tremendous rate.
to understand
that for any shelter
It is also important
delivery system to be
effective, radical changes impacting on the existing cultural
habits of
discontentment.
introducing
countries,
the
people
This
the
since
is
can
only
the
strongest
cooperative
cause
process
traditionally people
chaos
and/or
advantage
to
of
developing
have been surviving
by mutual cooperation even though they may not perceive it
as such in terms we know.
It is a cooperative effort that
-51-
joins
energy,
people
to
their
share
of both
This
is
individuals
and the
foundation
the
on
their
knowledge,
and their skills to reach their own goals
betterment
whole.
together
comwhich
for the
as
munity
a
a
shelter
cooperative can easily be formed,and it is advan- tageous
for all concerned to build upon the
traditional
shelter
for
cooperatives
those
in
structures
greatest
need
firm founda- tion of
to
provide
and
those
better
who
can
afford decent housing least in the so-called "free" market
place of the well-to-do individuals.
-52-
Chapter three
-53-
C H A P T E R
This
chapter
will
T H R E E
examine
those
organizations
which
are presently involved in the shelter delivery process of
developing
different
(2)the
groups;
private
sector,
tor
countries.
(1)the
sector,
best
processes which
we
(3)the
national
In
into
building
or
four
sector,
governmental
the private
sec-
the formal and informal construction
further
will
divided
traditional
(4)the international sector.
there exist both
earlier,
are
They
look
divide
at
the
both
the
sector.
formal
As
mentioned
and
informal
sectors.
The traditional
local
building
sector is characterized by the use of
materials
have been used in
and
the country
methods
which
for many generations.
This
construction
construction sector is responsible for most of the housing
-54-
stock
found
this sector
in
the rural
is
the peoples'
The major
areas.
need to provide
themselves and their families.
by
the
Other
and
types
of
goodwill,
HOPE are such
use
their
own
capital
groups
consist
organizations
groups,
international
international
for
to
Profit is the motivating factor in their
produce housing.
national
shelter
in
Another sector is occupied
private companies which
operation.
motivation
as
such
They
who
the
strive
Red
are
the
motivated
CARE,
Cross,
to show
of
that
by
and
they
are
working to improve the human condition in the world.
They
the plight of the
"less
lay claims
to a desire to improve
advantaged"
in
the
and
world,
theirs
is
convince the world that their only intention
shelter
often
for those who can not afford
by
sponsored
nations
who have
that,
these
the
united
collective
to
achieve
international
-55-
the
wish
to
to provide
is
a dwelling.
They are
of
several
these goals.
Beyond
efforts
organizations
also
help
increase
thus
the
reduce
between
flow
of
the
various
information
communication
countries.
The
between
barrier
countries
that
value
of
may
such
and
exist
improved
communications is seen in the mutual benefits that can be
derived by sharing information.
THE TRADITIONAL SECTOR:
This
sector
mankind.
needs,
As
i.e.,
man
those
ways of providing
the
is rooted
Its origin
delivery.
of
represents
has
of
begun
food
shelter
and
oldest
method
of
shelter
in
the early development
to
meet
his
human
also
found
he
clothing,
from the
basic
materials
found
in
his
environment.
He chose
consisting
immediate
of
materials
those
that were
elements
environment.
readily
which
could
The use of wood,
available,
be
found
stone,
in
the
and earth
have provided the basis for the bulk of this type of
-56-
often
construction.
able
to
As skill levels began
improve
the
methods
by
to develop, man was
which
he
utilized
these
materials, as seen in the joinery and finer detail used
to obtain maximum benefits and beauty from their application.
These materials were truly economical at that time,
the only cost associated with their use being the time and
energy
required
these
materials
to
gather
were
and
well
shape
suited to
them.
the
Additionally
climatic condi-
tions of the regions where they were found.
Bamboo,
which can be found along
many tropical countries is
is
in
areas
where
in
an example of a material which
very well adapted to its
prevalent
the coastal areas
is
use in
little
construction
thermal
mass
is
and is
needed.
In most cases the supply of these indigenous materials is
almost limitless.
They exist
freely in
nature and can be
planted
and
period.
Though these materials offer several advantages,
harvested
many
many
-57-
times
over
in
a
given
there
also
organic
some
disadvantages.
origin,
they
short time span,
conditions.
ments
and
These
of
and
to
most
decompose
in
are
a
of
an
relatively
depending on the severity of the climatic
Insects are likely to invade some of the elein
may
Fire
dwelling.
tend
Because
other
fact
is
another
factors
It^ is
disease.
attack
problem
also
lead
possible
to
parts
destroy
and
with
to
these
the
materials.
spread
possible
correct
the
of
some
of
these
shortcomings, but often the cost of correcting them may be
higher
tant
ranges
than using an entirely new material.
to
understand
of
each
material used
performance
these
one
the
of
real
these
improperly will
and
materials
create
are
used
significance
indigenous
problems.
The
changed
has
the material was developed.
in
result
is
It
and
imporutility
Any
materials.
an
unsatisfactory
context
from
the
in
which
time
that
If such materials are applied
to a situation where many of the parameters have changed
-58-
(e.g.,
density,
standards)
frequency
the performance
of
use,
loads,
and
expected
of the material will be judged
as being low.
These materials have much to offer but they
must
in
be
used
the
appropriate
manner,
otherwise
they
will be ineffective.
The methods
used
to
build with
In most
been used for centuries.
skills
acquired
from
preceding
apprenticeship system serves
these
materials have
instances
they
generations.
as the vehicle
ring knowledge, skills, and technology.
require
A guild
for
or
transfer-
The type of tools
used to work these materials is very basic, often consisting of only a large hammer, a machete, and a plumb line.
Labor
tion
are
requirements
of
a
for
basic
traditional
skill
level.
shelter
For
demanding higher or industrial skill levels,
difficult
to
secure,
especially
in
construction
labor
developing
Rural immigrants to the cities who usually do the
-59-
construc-
is
more
countries.
construction are seldom employed full-time and are people
who have more often than not acquired their
training
in
an
informal
manner.
knowledge and
Indigenous
methods are generally very labor intensive.
there
is
setting,
no machinery
little
involved.
time pressure
In
construction
In many cases
a traditional village
exist,
allowed to finish the house at their
and the workers
own rate.
Labor
are
is
divided among several people, each having a specific task
and each feeling
of
the
their task to be vital to
dwelling.
Children
are
often
the completion
responsible
for
carrying brick and timber, women carry the water and men
assist the mason.
in
the
strength,
harvest
building
patterns
of
The labor force increases and decreases
depending on each
season
the
are
a
there
home.
combined
particular
may be
Thus,
and
accordingly.
-60-
no
season.
one
social
working
and
activities
During
on
the
agricultural
are
blended
Traditional
convenient
in
construction
the' way
methods
dwellings
areas there is usually some
are
are
also
very
In
rural
financed.
form of barter or exchange of
goods which take the place of cash or money payments.
This
informal
portion
of
Another
option
economy
the
financing
which
dwelling
construction
one
afford
can
called
been
the
in
staged
effective
often
of
exists
is
any
cases
housing
as
a
a
in
substantial
these
financial
areas.
support
of
to pay and build
only as much
as
given
time.
is
approach
in
represents
period
to
of
of
shelter
an
delivery
irregular
This
which
income
has
stream.
This method eliminates the cost of long-term financing and
does
not
obligate
ability to pay.
families
obtain
in
There
family
fixed
financially
beyond
its
are only a few--if any--low income
developing
conventional
constant, and
the lower
most
the
bank
income
countries
financing,
is not
income levels.
-61-
who
are
since
typical of
able
to
regular,
families
in
Though
been
the
in
traditional
operation
can not be
countries
it
to
many
the
in
validity.2
the
as
that
face
Various
literature,
the
Whether
any
of
many
in
has
developing
lower
the
of
and
which
income
to
these
are
being
have
great
"solutions"
approaches
these
system
the complete solution
developed
been
have
delivery
centuries
accepted
world.
problems
(and other)
may
problems
in
populations
published
for
shelter
will
succeed
using
private
only time can tell.
THE PRIVATE SECTOR:
There
capital
are
in
both
many
small
developing
production of shelter.
several
companies
countries,
dedicated
to
the
Many of these may consist of only
two or three employees.
employ
large
and
hundred
Others
are large companies which
people.
Private
capital
construction is limited, because there often exist other
-62-
for
investments
which
outlay.
Most
provided
by
These
one
the
and/or
worth
of
for
low
200
housing
a year,
units
income
firms
on
these
dwelling
for
the
of business
return
through
provide
suitable
that
better
funding
government
seldom
considers
$50,000
a
construction
programs
affordable
provide
that
only
29
capital
firms
programs.
that
are
groups.
When
conduct
of
is
over
these
are
Ivorian, while the rest are either subsidiaries of French
companies,
residing
assert
or are owned and operated by expatriate
in
the
Ivory
Coast
3
then
it
is
French
reasonable
that these companies are not overly interested
to
in
the housing problems of the low income groups, since their
prime motivation is the desire to earn the highest profits
possible, which
can not be obtained by
poorest
of
sector
the
economy.
building for
Neither
are
the
the
small
companies able to generate any great change in the shelter
delivery system, due to their limited financial resources.
-63-
They are often forced to operate in the informal sector,
where government control
Once
outside
able
to
the
regulation
increase
their
commercially viable.
the
inflated
does not limit
of
the
profit
their
activities.
government,
margins
and
they are
thus
become
Most of the companies are local, and
profits
they
tend
earn
to
stay
the
within
community, as opposed to profits that are often taken out
of the country by outside
provide
much
of
the housing
fringes of
the urban
in
that
passing
firms.
stock
centers.
many of
These smaller companies
the
that
It is
workers,
is
found
at
the
interesting to note
employed by
large
companies during the normal work week, run their own small
scale
construction
operations
during
"off"
hours.
The
latter are very important for the supply of housing to the
lower
income
levels higher
groups.
Most of
than those of the
have
skill
traditional sector.
Many
these
workers
of these workers have also some type of formal training.
-64-
Their
full-time employment
is a source of regular
income
for themselves and their families.
As for the unskilled labor force it is mainly composed
of Africans
of other
Ivory Coast
for
who have come
nationalities,
its higher
wage rates
and
better
to the
living
conditions.
More than 80% of the personnel above the foreman level
is
workers
construction
been
made
training
there
Presently,
European.
to
change
institutions
Yet,
construction.
in
the
labor
this
have
is
a
market.
situation.
been
skilled
Attempts
Many
formed
in
growth
of
shortage
to
have
vocational
supply
skilled
construction
skilled
industry personnel is very slow.
Construction materials are very similar
in
Europe.
French,
many
Because
of
the
of
the
materials
French building materials.
colonizing
are
a
to
those used
efforts
direct
of
transfer
Many of these materials are
-65-
the
of
unsuitable for the
The perennial
placed.
cost
environment into which
problem of inflation
of imported construction
obstacle
for
system.
an
These
they have been
orderly
materials
growth
conditions
have
of
affecting
has
the
forced
been a major
shelter
many
the
delivery
builders
to
become more conscious of the choice of the materials to be
used in construction.
predicted?)
materials
it
will
is
As this trend continues, (as may be
hoped
that
gradually
adapt
these
to
types
the
of
building
environmental
and
economic conditions in the country.
The
private
stringent
sector
financial
shelter
credit
delivery
to
the
requirements
system
low
often
of
makes
its
The
groups.
income
the
products
inaccessible
financial
implication of securing a large sum of capital
for
a one
shelter
time
schemes
investment,
beyond
the
places
reach
most
of
private
the
sector
poor.
irregular(seasonal) employment cycles of the low income
-66-
The
workers
do not permit
the
accumulation of
large
sums of
capital needed for the financing of a free marked supplied
Some of the smaller construction companies are able
home.
to operate
in
an
informal
manner
payment that are suitable to
as longer
repayment
terms,
by
accepting
terms
the low income groups,
etc.
Also, the
of
such
informal firms
are able to do work in smaller stages because of their low
overhead and operating cost.
Though
the
private
sector
does
provide
delivery system, it is not well adapted for
the
reasons
groups
must
stated
seek
above.
other
Therefore,
means
to
shelter
the poor, for
the
provide
a
low
income
shelter
for
themselves and their families.
THE NATIONAL SECTOR:
To explain
some of the characteristics
of a national
shelter delivery system, the system now in operation in
-67-
the
Ivory
supplier
Coast
will
of housing
be
for
used
low
rural
organization
for
d'Amenagement
Rural,
a
as
model.
income groups
FRAR).
funding
This
is a national
(Fond
development
major
One
Regionaux
group
quite
is
large and has several construction programs throughout the
country.
It
assists
of
different
infirmaries,
homes,
(schools,
country.
hundreds
In
northern
the
of
whereas
stronger
economic
up
regions,
the southern
base,
construction
project's
economic
in
assessments
operations,
the
of
program
funding
cost.
the
also
areas,
to
90%
to
limited
In
addition
villages
a
in
to
its
system
of
funding
25% of
a
making
realm
whereby
country is divided into small geographical regions which
-68-
a
boast of a
which
is
uses
the
based on a project's
project's construction costs may be covered by its
program,
projects
throughout
etc.)
The amount of assistance is
location.
types
of
the
could
be
tatives,
better
who
projects.
hierarchy:
which
served
control
The
the
system
by
local
government
management
provides
of
for
the
several
village
centers
construction
three
in
levels
of
village center,
the largest being the regional
serves
represen-
a given region.
Next are the village centers which have been designated to
a
have
primary
commercial
health
facilities,
facility,
schools
and
not available at the lower
large
levels.
The lower level is the "satellite" village level.
The project described in
a village
middle
near
which
level
of
this study was implemented in
was
considered
the
hierarchy.
a village
The
a river valley that had been
construction
of
a
large
center
village
flooded by
hydroelectric
or
is
the
located
the recent
dam.
The
construction of the dam has created a lake with a surface
area
of approximately
1,700
square
kilometers.
The
lake
provides a rich source of fish, which can be commercially
-69-
distributed
from
the
village
to
surrounding
villagers were well aware of possible
could
be
(smoking)
obtained,
if
provisions
the village.
economic gains
for
and sale of the fish could
areas.
be
the
right
the
villagers
were
very
in
transport their
goods to the nearest town in order to sell them.
reason
that
preparation
provided
They would no longer have to
The
interested
is
For
this
securing
a
permanent structure for their market.
Agricultural
the
major
activities
source
of
have
income
for
cultivation of coffee and cocoa.
the
base
for
substantial
in
the
country.
of
the
Ivory Coast
countries,
growth
rate
e.g.
As
in
far exceeds
respectively.
the
provided
i.e.,
village,
growth
before,
and
the
improvement
rate
of growth
that of most other
and 1979
Based
the
These two crops provide
economic
mentioned
1978
traditionally
it
on
posted
this
a
African
12% and
stability
developed nations and international organizations are
-70-
8%
most
willing to provide loans and capital as well as technical
assistance to add to its development.
In the urban context one can find additional types of
national
shelter
delivery
systems,
i.e.,
two
housing organizations which provide housing.
to
implement
have
great
income
difficulty
groups.
Association
the
systems
in
These
The
for
for
all
delivering
two
for Construction
Association
(SOGEFIHA).
suitable
They attempt
income
shelter
Management,
aspiration
and
groups
to
organizations
and Management
national
the
but
low
are:
the
(SICOGI),
and
Finance
problems
and
Housing
of
these
organization can be seen in the following statements.
"High standards are a common feature of urban
services
provided by
the government,
and
public
housing is no exception.
A logical consequence of
adopting such standards has been the need for public
subsidies to reduce private costs.
These subsidies
have been financed through various public institutions
and in some cases have reached 30 percent of the
rent.
It
is felt, however,
that in many instances
occupants are capable of contributing more.
-71-
The financial situation of the public housing sector
has reached the point where a costly salvage operation
by the government is necessary.
The govenment's objective was to build a large
number of houses of high standard to be given to
rent.
The
government
occupants
at
subsidized
underestimated the cost of this program and therefore
agencies with
the
to
provide
the public
failed
necessary financial means; in trying to meet ambitious
construction targets, the public agencies had to turn
increasingly to expensive suppliers' credits and the
By the beginning of 1975 two
Eurodollar market.
companies had built about 45,000 units and one of the
companies (SOGEFIHA) had accumulated debts totaling
CFAF 36.8 billion by mid-1975, much of it on high
interest terms.
sector
and
housing
of
the
Reorganization
reconsideration of policies in this sector have been
It is recommended that more
given high priority.
appropriate standards be applied to housing, that the
number of units built a year be cut, that existing
urban areas be densified and upgraded rather than
expanding into new areas, that attention be shifted to
those really in need, and that in general the private
sector should shoulder a greater share of the cost,
however difficult this may be politically." 3
-72-
THE INTERNATIONAL SECTOR:
This
sector
allocation
to
of
provide
would
uses
governmental
shelter
otherwise
The
units.
resources
for
be
funds.
the
unable
problem
often
ineffective
lower
income ranges.
is
obtained
Its
people
to
that
often
selective
seek
the
that
country
suitable
dwelling
organizations
in delivering shelter
More
the
participants
of
obtain
these
by
too
are
in
the
to people
than not,
their
programs
generate shelter for those in middle income levels.
organizations
are
that have been
are
not
very
applied
well
Most of
country.
operating
suited
their
dependent
on
technical
structure
structure
income
a
simply
levels
in
well
does
without
with
frameworks
the
context
structure
run
In
most
not
exist,
any
-73-
which
a developing
is
heavily
administrative
developing
thus
feasible
adequate shelter.
of
of operation
national
standards
countries,
industrialized
in
and
These
nations
leaving
means
of
the
and
this
lower
obtaining
The
following
international
funded
to
several
flood
an
produce
villages
river.
displaced
experts
many
equipment,
shops
were
housing
were
these
United
to
be
dam created
thousands
and
of
installed
as
for
trucks,
wood
for
the
developed
to
program
was
relocation
of
displaced
to
the
of a dam on
the
a huge
people.
garages,
United
in
a
Nation
location
kinds of support
offices,
and
provide
due
ponding effect
themselves
metal
"ineffective",
Nation
They established all
close to the site.
such
of
by the construction
This
facilities
A
village
that
arrived
facilities
example
projects.
plain created
Bandama
and
is
testing
These
masonry.
a- base
for
finding
"the solution" to the housing problem in .that region.
result
of
almost
two
years
of
studies
produced
The
plans
according to which some 80 dwelling units were eventually
built.
The
villagers.
dwellings
were
completely
rejected
by
The villagers considered the plans of the
-74-
the
dwellings
as
totally
inappropriate
to
their
life-style.
Consequently, they refused to occupy the new dwellings and
chose
to remain
reason
for
in
their
rejecting
founded on the way
traditional
the
design
in which
houses.
of
the
these
to
address
accommodate
the actual
local
main
dwellings
was
plans were conceived to
suit mainly a western mode of living,
made
Their
user
and any concession
needs
living patterns
did
not
really
of the villagers.
The
fact that all the bedrooms could be entered directly
the
exterior,
customs.
the
created
attached
none
to
in
of
the
contradiction
the
traditional
sleeping
with
their
units
section
of
had
the
The new units all had the kitchens attached, which
special
preparation
creating
completely
Furthermore,
kitchen,
house.
was
from
is
problems,
because
most
of
the
food
done on a wood or coal burning
fire,
thus
unpleasant
smoke
problems
within
the
dwelling.
The attached toilets created another undesirable situation
-75-
for
villagers.
the
windows
villagers
and
economical
did
they
the
stabilized
earth
was
not
by
were
material
though
most
of
painted
white
in
The
wall
the color of
wall
construction
villagers.
the
they
Next,
in
used
the
innovative.
technically
units as being vulnerable to burglary.
dwellings
like
the use of wood in window panel
perceived
liked
not
wood units even
made of prefabricated
quite
were
Additionally,
Finally,
and
areas
some
the
left
unpainted in other areas, This too was not welcomed by the
villagers.
Often the delivery of a dwelling will be dependent on
the family having a constant income, which is not a viable
for
criterion
that
these
provide
society.
low
international
type
the
group.
income
this
of
This inability to
income
groups
understanding,
is
due
among other
needed
is
not
are
organizations
shelter
it
Thus,
for
a
apparent
able
to
traditional
provide dwellings suitable for
largely
things.
-76-
to
a
lack
of
cultural
In most circumstances
their
own
opportunity
needs,
to
people
and. if
organize
are quite well aware
these
people
themselves
are
and
given
function
of
the
as
a
cohesive group, they could provide shelter for themselves,
which
is
likely to be more suitable
than houses
provided
by some experts of the international organizations.
is
not
not to say that
important.
these
They
do
international
play
development of any country.
an
for
organizations
important
role
in
are
the
However, their strongest role
should be in providing the urban
and dwellings
This
the middle
(or rural)
and upper
infrastructure
income
groups
in
urban areas.
The question that arises in one's mind is the way in
which these organizations operate and make decisions.
for
instance,
intervention
by
the
such
local
a
town
organization
or
was
village,
to
take
If,
where
place,
could be induced to organize itself and define the goals,
-77-
parameters and objectives of their
shelter
needs,
one may
assume that it would be more likely that those needs could
be best met by these international organizations.
The lowest
coverage
and
exposure
that
Without
less
would
unable
generate
exposure,
to
interest
little
is
done
"desirable" class
and
income
exposure
have
the
kind
in
their
to
improve
of
plight.
their
are often seen as a
"visible" and -- furthermore--
rejection
low
therefore
to media
The people of the lowest income levels are not
condition.
readily
are
such
groups do not have access
income
neglect
people
than
people
in
of
tend
in
society,
their
frequently
needs.
to
enjoy
the
lowest
leading
Middle
a
much
income
and
wider
to
upper
media
levels.
The
influence of the mass media, such as radio and television,
represents
a tool which can be used to change
policy and
thus lead to the improvement of shelter conditions of the
poorest sections of society.
-78-
If the poor were organized
in such a manner as to speak with
too could benefit
a unified voice,
from the mass media's power
they
and use it
to help change their living conditions.
It
is
wrong
for
a
so-called
expert
to
come
into
a
place and, in a few days or weeks, assess the "needs" of a
country,
which
are
more
complex
than
superficial
observation or selected statistics can show.
Still, it is
on
the
basis
recommendation
made, which
of
for
short-visit
shelter
inevitably
for the recipient
It
such
delivery
will
have
assessments
systems
long
term
are
that
often
implications
country.
is important
to understand that,
in most of these
large organizations, decisions are usually reached through
complex
negotiations.
organize
themselves
in
If
a
the
villagers
cooperative
manner
were
they
to
could
participate in that decision making process, as a cohesive
group.
This type of cooperative structure has been most
-79-
in
effective
group,
thus
understanding
broader
of
economically
meet
larger
the
The
the
Unless
such
will
be
as
foster
to
the
in
it
the
various
a
dynamic
organizations
the
diverse needs for shelter
in
world
larger
find'
for
criteria
communal
should
organizations
of new developments
they
a
voice
affairs.
"link" to
a
manner
this
to
difficult
much
communal
science.
housing
in
utilized
a
tap new technology and
to
well as a resource
field
as
joins
individual
international
considered
primarily
or
village
and
national
The
him
giving
of
management
past.
the
are
increasingly
culturally
required
and
throughout
the world.
CONCLUSION:
It
for
is
the conviction of the author that the best means
individuals
to
for
provide
through cooperative effort,
initiated
-80-
their
shelter
needs
by the individuals
is
It is also more likely
of a given community, themselves.
that a national organization or
more attuned
a national group will be
to the needs of its
from the outside.
-81-
own
people than people
Chapter four
-82-
C H A P T E R
F O U R
WHAT IS A HOUSING DELIVERY SYSTEM?
to
supplied
which
a
dwelling
is
user,
constitutes
a
by
means
The
the
It
capital
formation,
management
involves
those
who
involved
the
delivery
in
the
assess
the
of
operation
and
needs
political
the
the
units.
It
population,
the
of
will
who
areas
the
and
contractors,
and
process
construction
the
on-going
policy,
housing
and
includes: The means by which land is acquired,
system.
those
constructed
occupants
of
make
the
dwellings.
In
government fulfills many of the
delivery
housing
of
the
system.
organization
planned.
It
the
countries
developing
several
is
functions in
critical
of a housing
that
delivery
national
the national
the actions
system be well
The responsibility of a dwelling delivery system
-83-
is
and affects many different professionals,
wide-reaching
craftsmen,
trademen,
government
national
is
many
and
one entity which
the
the
Usually,
others.
has
all
the
needed resources at its disposal to provide the skills and
to
authority
theory.
benefit
this
control
for the poor,
the most from providing shelter
increase
percentage
not
only
"placate"
the
government
of
development
modern housing
least
in
the national government which can usually
It is
would
at
process,
shelter
the
is
might
but
them,
as
also
popularity.
The
largest
for
fully
serviced
expenses
the cost of
infrastructure.
The
large
scale nature and technical complexity of a modern service
infrastructure
large
scale
is
such that it
construction
can be implemented best by
methods.
It
is
not
economical
for this element of the shelter delivery system to depend
on small independent firms.
Infrastructure functions best
when it is part of a larger network, a city, or state, for
example.
-84-
of
Economies
The
users
may
the
lower
in
participate
mainly
infrastructure
labor.
the
project,
infrastructure
cost
per
contribution
the
This can reduce costs from 5% to 15%.
support
for
systems
is
skillfully
supervision
very
also
directed,
in
contribution
the
to
planning
and
to
able
be
make
infrastructure
overall
dwelling.
the
of
of
manual
Management
infrastructure
of
to
has
Labor
important.
the
larger
construction
the
through
the
i.e.,
important
are
scale
a
be
productive
construction
process.
What is the historical structure of
a cooperative?
Historical
data
shows
that cooperatives
use since 1775 in in the U.S.A.
the
world,
it
is
difficult not
does not have some record of
have
been
If we examine the rest of
to
find
a
culture
cooperative formation.
-85-
in
which
The operation
necessary
functions
faced
are
quite
is
structure
with
a
land,
materials,
most
cases),
for
knowledge).
cooperative
into
to people,
we
major
The
the delivery progress are:
(money is
medium of exchange
labor
(i.e.,
resources
human
the
consider
issues.
of
set
complex
organizational
we
shelter
delivering
technology,
and
When
interesting.
that are considered in
elements
evolve
of a typical cooperative
and
By manipulating these different elements, the
can
a final
a
to
determine
great
solution
shelter
extent
through
will
what
collective
efforts.
Traditional
were
cooperatives
often
based
exchange of goods and services between people.
cases
no money was
this
non-monetary
involved
in
context,
this
on
In most
transaction.
traditional
the
people
Within
did
understand this mode of operation quite well, even though
they had not been exposed to it historically.
-86-
The
introduction
labor
it
of money as
eventually replaced
the medium
the barter
of
exchange
systems,
even
for
though
took some time for the adoption of this new process.
Traditional
are
usually
not
accustomed
worthless
pieces
of
base
effects of this may be observed
new cooperatives
have made
in
metal
in
i.e.,
to
or a
their services for small pieces of paper,
exchanging
few
societies
money.
The
the slow progress
that
countries.
many developing
In countries where cooperatives have been most successful,
the programs have been designed in such a way as to take
advantage
this,
of past communal experiences.
One method to do
is to offer the members of the cooperative a system
of exchange
other
exchange medium.
cooperative
produce
will
than one
based
on
money,
It is often the case
exchange
themselves,
for
some
the only
that members
commodity
services.
as
of a
they
which
Members
of
cooperative can thus develop "internal credit" by lending
-87-
a
and
borrowing
from
another,
one
cooperative is made to flourish.
important
to
cooperative.
the
the
the
behind
fruits
of
so
ongoing
a
functions
their
their own resources.
is
of
a
that outside elements
properly.
cooperative
the
doing,
existence
endeavors,
to expand energy and resources
cooperative
factor
and
in
Internal credit is very
When its members feel
are controlling
less willing
operation
and
that
A
to
great
the
they
are
see
that
motivating
people
control
If this does not occur problems will
arise.
PLANS
FOR A COOPERATIVE
FORMATION.
There are several types of cooperatives which function
in
their
own distinctive manner.
First,
there
are
those
cooperatives which only help with the acquisition of land
and
capital
formation.
Second,
there
are
those
which
continue further in the process, and give assistance to
-88-
is
to consider
are
goals very clearly and
cooperatives
the
that
stages
earlier
the
in
of
provide
which
The
construction.
after
assistance
management
element
there
Third,
development.
helping
as
well
as
construct,
important
cooperative defines
its
that the members are in agreement
with these goals.
The nature of the goals selected by a cooperative will
If its function
affect both its structure and operation.
is to provide only financial support and aid in policy and
project
formation,
cooperative
involved
will
in
the
be
and
composition
different
very
construction
construction and ongoing management.
a more
complex
different skills have to be
construction,
owners,
The
structure,
organizational
interfaced,
government
one
from
one
or
only,
of
functions
devoted
latter
given
such
agencies,
which
is
both
to
requires
that many
as banking,
etc..
type of organizational structure is too complex for an
-89-
the
This
operated
independently
type
Complex
cooperative.
cooperatives tend to function better with expert technical
and
managerial
assistance
groups.
Such
cooperatives
are
often the most effective, since they are able to provide a
complete
assist
range
with
of
shelter
planning
and
delivery
services.
as
development
They
well
as
can
other
construction management.
Participants
of
any
cooperative
are
generally
well
motivated to become more involved in a process which helps
them
obtain
a
desirable
home.
There
is
convincing people who are not familiar with
little
hope
the
of
principles
of modern banking and financing, to put their money into a
remote
bank
account
and
make
them
believe
that
some
at
point they will have accumulated enough money to acquire a
house.
This
experience,
process
and thus,
is
too
they have
system.
-90-
removed
difficulties
from
their
daily
trusting
the
the
project.
of
the completion
to
and
work
it
Often
the
is sufficient
a
to
contribute
assure people of
to
Members
project.
"visibility" of
,is the
Another issue to be considered
are more
willing
that
is
highly
the
successful
project
"visible".
of
implementation
easier
the
then
society,
organization
The
start.
to
for
directly
not
be
having
assured
some
activities.
of
success
previous
The
to
is
simply
experience
quality
helpful
of
traditional
as
with
a
in
may
be
by
creating
are
not
cooperatives
can
skills
these
say,
a
been
previously employed
However,
That
a
cooperatives
are often
a cooperative.
transferable.
within
of
skills
same
groups
traditional affinity
energy
habits
work
has
there
If
cooperative.
a
of collective
tradition
help
will
conditions
Several
result
similar
constructive
of
their
types
guidance
of
and
assistance given to a newly formed cooperative is the most
-91-
important factor in its initial stages, and will lead to a
successful
implementation
endeavors.
cooperative
of most
The nature of educational training and information flow is
also
cooperative.
If
smooth
the
for
critical
these
two
factors
problems become much easier
many of the other
then
satisfied,
are
a
of
functioning
to resolve,
become completely eliminated or do not develop at all to
present themselves as problems.
WHAT ROLE CAN COOPERATIVES PLAY?
to be effective
The nature of a cooperative allows it
in different
aid
the
following
types
traditional
the
of shelter
sector
patterns
system,
international.
whether
has
it
established
also able to assist other
delivery
as
delivery systems.
sectors
they
be
in
the
historically.
involved
private,
in
It
past,
It
can
by
is
the shelter
national,
or
In most cases the scale of the cooperative
-92-
implemented.
needs
to suit the
can be adjusted
The
also
them to include many different interest groups.
be
On another
level,
there
international
or
contractors
bankers,
than
These may
fact
that
is
in a shared decision-making
an autocratic manner,
in
allows
organizations.
The essential
these organization will work
rather
be
the possibility of cooperation
is
between various cooperatives.
process,
to
the project
cooperatives
of
structure
of
without
the
participation of the users.
The benefits of the cooperative structure are found in
its
ability
resources.
to
maximize
When
control
effectiveness
the
of
any
resources
of
is
scarce
further
removed from the users, they tend to be more wasteful.
Difficulties
understanding
of
most
often
users
occur
needs.
a lack
of
because
of
If
organizational
an
method, such as a cooperative, is provided, by which users
themselves are able to direct the flow of resources and
-93-
direct and
becomes
thus
to
cooperatives
allowing
less wasteful.
impetus
give
to
as
a
make
The government role
to
at
significant
the
then
direction
general
the
while
follow,
should
users
control of both becomes more
process,
the decision-making
same
input
into
time
the
decision-making process and the final execution of a given
project.
DEVELOPMENT OF A COOPERATIVE SHELTER
DELIVERY SYSTEM:
The
introduction of the cooperative
approach
into
the
shelter delivery system creates a organizational structure
which has the potential to provide an alternative to both
the
present
systems.
official
It allows the
deciding directly
both
and
traditional
shelter
delivery
individual to have an input
about methods
type of dwelling to be provided.
-94-
of construction
into
and
that,
Beyond
people
value of
the aggregated
greater
of
more
are
and
banking
The
shelter.
institutions
tools
to
access
community
in
cooperative to repay the financial
of
to have
able
the
for
machinery
confident
are
and
money
their
benefits
the
utilize
to
able
are
production
financial
and
other
the
ability
the
of
obligations assumed
by
cooperatives.
Vertical and horizontal organization of
cooperatives (TSO):
The
most
mentioned
above
important
delivery
for
by
system
a
result
Federal
of
successful
experiences
Republic
There
of
in
Germany
that
have
Europe,
and
in
have
been
a
is
shelter
many
been
developed
especially
Sweden.
countries have had a long history of cooperative
-95-
which
basis
operation of
cooperatives.
of cooperatives
different models
as
the
the
form
aspects
in
the
These
development.
They
sophistication
in
learned
a
at
arrived
have
which all members of a cooperative
manage
to collaboratively
and
control
which
are
of
state
high
all
have
levels
of a cooperative's operation.
the
in
importance
centralized
be it
integration,
is sponsorship, considered
the
stages
formative
structure.
tional
of
Finally, part
the
is
aspects
of
Another
important aspect during
cooperative
of the
extreme
degree
the
or decentralized.
as an
the
is
One
of
organizational
the
of
formation
cooperatives.
for
structure
issues
several
are
There
organizational
most critical organizaof
determination
the
geographical
area to be served.
In
considering
organization
decentralized,
of
a
whether
cooperative
we must consider
structure
the
should
the
be
type
will be of most concern to the cooperative.
-96-
of
centralized
of program
the
or
that
If
trained management personnel
centralized
Most
scheme
developing
organizational
for
closer
greatly
required.
more
tend
structure.
control
to
select
then a more
the
the
actual
number
of
structure.
this
A decentralized
of
increases
type
system
building
trained
of
allows
site,
but
personnel
However, availability of personnel is usually a
issue
site.
construction
but
than
This
the
usually far exceed
cost
in
geographical
part
area
better
may
of
lead
to
additional
the
by
vs.
some
at
waste
personnel
the
of
will
a
decentralized control can be
careful
cooperative
area of a cooperative's activities
organizational
control
the additional cost of such materials.
The issue of centralized
addressed
a problem,
offers the most appropriate
countries
critical
material,
is
structure
can
is
is
provide
selection
to
serve.
small,
of
If
the
the
a centralized
support
nearly
well as could be afforded by a decentralized structure in
-97-
as
which
areas
geographical
are
to
projects
of
to
arranged
closely
the number
consideration
much larger.
is
the area of responsibility
If
take
be built
the
into
in
any
given area and transportation conditions, then a plan can
of personnel
the best use
that will assume
be generated
and other resources available.
is
Sponsorship
cooperative's
private
contact
makers
with
may
sponsoring
be
operation.
entire
organization
issue
another
is
sponsoring
On
difficult.
has
organization
some
feels
that
making
national
policy
other
national
hand,
if
the
affiliation,
to ease the operation
will be much easier
host country government
cooperative,
and
the
then many of the necessary contacts
of the cooperative
a
a
independent
an
When
agencies
government
affects
which
it
to make.
When the
has an active
role
in the cooperative movement then it may be more willing to
assist in its development.
Whatever the nature of the
-98-
cooperative,
connection
it
with
very helpful
Often
minor
in
is
always
the
advantageous
government,
solving
problems
since
to
have
government can
by
be
that arise.
some of the problems
can be corrected
some
the
government
and the whole construction process will function with less
effort than that of most other
control
of
a
cooperative
may
cooperatives.
afford
rapport with the central government.
the
Centralized
best
form
of
Thus, good relations
the government are important, because the government
with
is usually able to provide such elements as site services,
which
cannot
cooperative.
its
decisions
advantageous
be
obtained
easily
otherwise
by
a
Because the central government makes many of
based
for
on
the
political
lobbying,
cooperatives
to
it
might
be
place
a
key
representative in the capital.
An
additional
reason
for
the
centralized
cooperative is the cost of technical assistance.
-99-
type
of
The
assistance
more
TSO
allows
providing
services
centralized
technical
the
in
effective
administrative
the
of
for
planning,
for
often
the
have
to
become
management
construction.
approach
professionals
cooperatives
It also
simple
incomes
and
favors
reason
that
comparable
to
those of the primary society at a ratio of 10:1.
Clearly,
it
of
is
more
advantageous
highly paid experts
in
so
doing,
cooperative
shortage
countries.
by
of
If
the
Aside
trained
highly
reduce
locating
reduce
program.
to
the
them
in
overall
trained
is
such
capital,
of
factors,
in
staff
the
cost
from cost
personnel
number
most
a
and
given
there
is
a
developing
spread out
thinly,
the shortage of personnel will not be improved.
There
by
other
are
other
functions
organizations
administration
of
which
such
financial
(loan)
are
as
implemented
savings
promotion,
matters,
tion of infrastructure, and services.
-100-
best
and construc-
Planning of a housing cooperative:
The forward planning of a cooperative should take into
consideration
social
the following four issues:
(2)construction
factors;
components--organization,
education--;
precondition
financing,
management,
(4)scheduling.
that
and
land
design;
legal
(1)economic and
(3)cooperative
framework,
These elements depend on the
is
technical
made
available,
assistance
accessible to the cooperative.
are
A.
C.
Lewin
the
process
and
/
that
rendered
Acquisition of land may be
the most important factor of the above element.
to
and
of
land
According
acquisition
can
be
summarized in the following way. 5
"(a)there exist no urban land market and corresponding
mortgage institutions in most of the developing
countries;
(b)land prices are inflated as a result of speculation
by individual estate developers;
(c)collective ownership patterns are often a major
obstacle for the sale or leasing of land;
(d)the land tenure system usually involves
customary--traditional statutory--"imported
legislation which prevents unified and clear
administration;
-101-
"--
(e) cadastral survey systems are extremely complex and
outdated;
(f) there is a severe shortage of surveyors and survey
technicians in most developing countries."
Most
of
land
the
usually controlled
which
easily
be
can
by the government.
acquired,
is
It is often better
for the cooperative to work through a governmental agency
to obtain land, rather than attempting to obtain it from a
private source. In some cases the government will actually
grant some economic
incentives to
the cooperative.
tax reduction and low interest long-term loans).
of
for
the site
is
important
the development
of an
in
terms
of
economical
(e.g.,
The size
cost effectiveness
infrastructure.
If
the land area is too small, then it becomes very expensive
to implement services at a cost per unit, and suitable for
low
income
groups.
can result in a much
Topography
is
important,
because
better community layout at far
cost, if extensive site modifications are not required.
-102-
it
less
example,
For
if
sanitation will
will
create
be
less of
a situation
substantially
from
conditions
the site.
of
is
drainage
in
taking
a problem.
which
the
advantage
If
handled,
properly
this
is
Careful
then
planning
project can benefit
of
all
done
the
natural
properly,
large
savings can be realized in the total project cost.
Site location is known to be a high priority for low
income
families, 6
as it
is often
essential
for
a
dwelling
to
district,
exist.
be
where
located
most
Because low
employment
and work
close
of
the
income
on
to
the
central
employment
groups
irregular
are often
schedules,
possible employment location is important.
is
important,
and excessive
home,
they
for if
are
opportunities
in
search
of
proximity
to
Transportation
family members are required
amount of time
likely
to
be
in
business
to spend
transit between work
dissatisfied.
Long
travel
distances are expensive, thus, if a family is forced to
-103-
and
spend
more
distant
than
site
10% of
is
its
income
inappropriate
on
for
transportation,
low
income
a
housing,
unless there are some other compensating features, such as
low
density,
or
a
family which
may
have
located
there
already.
Thus, in the design and implementation of housing site
programs,
(TSO)
units
can
be
of
of
the
great
skills and abilities
level.
In
planners
they
Technical
Support
assistance.
Since
Organization
they
possess
that are often lacking on the local
addition
to
should
their
provide
skills
as
assistance
designers
in
the
and
cost
control of a given project, as well as in the selection of
materials and choice of methods of construction.
costs
of a
50%
of
typical dwelling
the
non-industrialized
total
unit
cost
materials
represent
of
can
substantial savings can be achieved.
-104-
Material
approximately
construction7
be
If
substituted,
Other cost savings
will result
from the use of building methods which
substantial
levels
of
user
equity."
The
core
house
approach.
The
major
idea
essential
part
sanitary
unit,
is
of
of
the
is
supplied
participation
an
the
house,
example
of
core house
containing
first
or
and
" sweat
such
an
that
the
kitchen
and
is
the
allow
sometimes,
with
an
additional one or two rooms which may be used initially as
multi-purpose
spaces.
The problem with
that
they
part
of the poor during
In
that
since
still
sense,
the
require
the
recipient
excessive
the
process
of
the
unit
is
core
elements.
construction may be
leasing
it to
Another
"phased"
the user
outlays
rather
obliged
on
is
the
inflexible,
to
provide
required to pay for
choice
in
construction,
the
i.e.,
to determine how much
invest at each phase of his income stream.
-105-
dwellings
stages of a project.
still
relatively high amount of capital
basic
capital
initial
is
core
method
a
the
of
initially
and when
to
Some
individuals
may wish
to
construct
the
bedrooms
or
living spaces first and add the core element later or vice
Regardless of any specific method of construction,
versa.
a high order of flexibility needs to be incorporated into
planning and delivery of a dwelling unit.
well
intentioned
always evolve over
the
designer
may
be,
No matter how
the
house
time and needs to respond to
spatial requirements.
The more
flexible
will
changing
the design
of a
unit, the easier it will be able to adapt to change..
One
example of a possible condition of change is in situations
where a family matures, the children leave their home, and
the
parents
vacant.
design
If
decide
to sublet
dwellers
decision-making
are
the
allowed
process,
suggest small design changes,
space
to
which
has
participate
they
will
be
become
in
able
reason
alone,
to
which are important to their
life style and yet may not be expensive to implement.
this
the
the value
of member
participation
planning a cooperative is ever so important.
-106-
For
in
Membership
formation
policies
period of
must
the
in
can
later,
avoided
If
the development,
as
the
Homogeneity is
important for the
cooperative.
If
cooperative's
established
cooperative.
established early
be
be
there
is
development,
operation must be consistent.
criteria can be
cooperative
some
a
situation
that
continuity
goals
and
It would not
would
maintain and would alienate itself
society.
be
matures.
functioning
very
of a
in
a
methods
of
be
have complete homogeneity in membership, because
generate
the
then many problems
proper
then
in
ideal
to
it would
difficult
to
from the other parts of
In order to determine the characteristics of its
members, it is advisable to carry out an extensive socioeconomic survey first.
in
person,
analyzed.
and
the
Such a survey should be conducted
data
from
it
should
be
carefully
This information will then serve as a basis for
the formulation of the bylaws and legal regulations of the
cooperative.
-107-
Funding aspects:
The
ways:
funding
from
public
of
a
private
sources.
cooperative
usually
non-institutional
The
private institution.
most
In
popular
that
occurs
group
the
the
two
or
sources
is
in
from
non-profit
Savings
and
Loan
institutions, as well as Credits Unions, usually belong
this
category.
type
of
Credit
Unions
affiliation,
generally
whereas
the
in
have
some
other
Savings
and
Loan
Institutions usually serve a more general population.
Public
needs
for
of
low
sector
the
income
developing
by
low
public
income
Public
low
financing
income
levels
countries.
spending
groups
programs
is
is
not usually
community.
not
Thus,
a
projects
suffer
are
from
general,
priority
seldom provide
which
In
most
suited
issue
that
are
affordable
in
need
construction
in
most
supported
shelter
of
the
shelter
for
shelter.
standards
are often to high, poorly planned, and diverge
-108-
to
which
considerably
from
the
existing dwelling
patterns.
Thus,
the resources of the government may be better utilized in
other areas of economic
projects
land
which
are
acquisition
represent
development,
beyond
and
such
as
a cooperative's
infrastructure
a set of much more
large
reach,
as
development,
fruitful
activities
scale
in
which
for
the
public sector.
Formation process and interim demonstration:
The promotion of housing cooperatives
different parts in
the next paragraphs.
treated separately,
and explained
in
is
divided
into
Each part will be
a manner
which
will
provide a clear understanding of each function.
The planning of a project within the national development context
important,
if
is
important.
the
project
Long-term
is
to
be
long range objectives of the country.
-109-
considerations
integrated
with
are
the
If not, one can expect failure.
closely associated with
connects.
If advance
creation
of
roads,
suffer
greatly
these
services
consideration
readily
lighting,
in
from
and
in
many ways
services to which
economical
neglect.
to
be
'the selection
to
support
and sanitation)
such
are
accessible
developing
the support
is
thought has not been given
efficient
(e.g.,
Shelter
the
the
The
of
site,
then
the land will be reduced.
by
should
the site.
the
services
project
means
provided
to
it
will
which
be
a
If they are
the
cost
of
If advance planning
is coherent and accepted, then it is time to consider the
acquisition of land and the commitment
of capital
for
the
project.
The
planning
realistic
of
the
time table,
project
itself
must
be
providing a reasonable
based
on
plan for the
operation of the cooperative during construction.
Next, a
target group is selected to be served by the cooperative.
-110-
a
Given
the
broad
necessary
to
range
have
of
needs
clearly
of
defined
its
clients,
criteria
it
for
is
each
specific group to be addressed in a given project.
A
study
project
of
the
socioeconomic
environment
detailed
enough
prospective
analysis
useful
of
to
members
the
is
also
the
results
information.
It
the
be
depth
information
on
cooperative.
Evaluation
and
necessary
and
in
will
This
important.
affecting
should
provide
of
conditions
reveal
much
information
should
help
to
determine the traditional and social values which are most
widely
then
held
by
finalized
details
of
the
cooperative
and
the
members.
Project
administrative
cooperative
are
put
in
plans
are
and
financial
order.
Meetings
with prospective members are then held to develop some of
the bylaws for different aspects of the management of the
project.
Included in these discussions are such questions
as adoption of plans,
contract
various schedules of operation.
-111-
agreements,
financing,
and
Next
follows
members,
education
both
in
and
training
of
prospective
the technical and administrative
aspects
of the cooperative--such as the means for the development
of
future
savings--and
the
issuance
of
new
payment plans. The cooperative should be
the
government
authorities.
official position with
This
and
registered with
will
the government,
loans
place
it
in
and thus afford
an
it
legal recognition.
Cooperative training and education:
operation
of
an
effective
service
to
the
people
is
dependent on the training and education of a cooperative's
When people are
members.
process,
education
expected
of
continuous
them
to
of how
is
provide
to understand
attempting
the
valuable.
benefits
system works
This
to
the
and
education
what
is
must
be
cooperative,
helps members to contribute to the education of their
-112-
a new
and
cohorts
effect
in
and
time goes
the
cooperative.
the
operation
on.
The
This
of
the
training
creates
a
cooperative
component
is
snowball
improves
also
as
useful
in
the education of people who may be able to provide their
skills
These
in
construction
people
particular
and
the
in
form
skills
the
construction.
formative
continue
they
stage
during
developed
have
and
form
acquired
a
pool
the requirements during
Such
of
training
a
processes.
around
a
People will benefit from new
may
cooperative
people who can fill
maintenance
subgroups,
trade speciality.
valuable
program
can
and/or
should
take
cooperative's
construction
maintenance phase.
-113-
into
the
by
of
such
a
talented
the project's
place
in
the
development
and
operation
and
Self-help construction:
Self-help
individuals
process
is
construction
make
of their
a
the
contribution
own house.
by
means
to
the
The manner
which
construction
in which
people
contribute to the self-help process can be accomplished in
People can make a labor
several ways.
known
as
"sweat equity",
or
they
may
contribution,
choose
to
also
provide
some of the local materials which are readily available to
them
and
(i.e. earth for bricks,
gravel
materials
for
to
the
foundation,
the builders.
some skill or commodity in
are receiving
may provide
from other
money
sand for
for
Or,
the concrete,
etc.),
and
supply
they may arrange
exchange
craftsman.
construction.
for other
stone
these
trading
skills they
Additionally,
In
this case,
owners
even
though an owner does not take part in actual construction,
he becomes responsible for its implementation.
-114-
Additional aspects of management and administration:
The
assured
continuous
over
operation
time.
By
of
the
cooperative
utilizing
education programs of the cooperative,
provide
these
services.
In
the
the
must
training
be
and
people can learn to
early
stages
of
the
cooperative, it may be necessary to have some sponsorship,
either
from
the
government
or
from
a
technical
support
organization.
When the structure of the community
the
case
with
the
introduction
cooperatives, it is often better
from
outside
the
is
of
changed,
new
as
is
shelter
that the change agent be
community.
This
eliminates
any
possibility of retaliation against change directed toward
other
members
become
more
members
to
of
the
accepted,
manage
community.
then
without
it
Once
is
outside
easier
help.
the
system
for
the
has
local
Periodically,
there should be some review by an outside organization,
-115-
but
this
should
cooperative
control
occur
members
or
cooperative,
infrequently
from
feeling
that
responsibility
for
for
assumption
it
is
the
to
the
prevent
they
have
operation
of
the
lost
of
the
responsibility
which creates self-esteem on the part of both members and
alike
leaders.
Unless
the
leaders
of
a
cooperative
are
able to establish such responsibility, few people will be
willing
to
follow.
democratic
manner,
members
the
of
Leadership
giving
cooperative,
should
due
as
operate
representation
the
in
to
effectiveness
of
a
all
the
organization will be severely hampered if members are not
allowed
to
participate.
participation
is
in
In
fact,
complete
loss of direct member
contradiction
with
the
purpose of the cooperative.
The legal Framework:
Shelter
than
cooperatives
agricultural-rural
are
often
projects
-116-
given
in
lower
many
priority
developing
countries.
make
a
of
the
Agricultural cooperatives are often assumed to
much
more
important
national
contribution
economy
to
than
the
urban
operation
cooperatives.
Agriculture is seen as a revenue producing activity and is
often
viewed
as
a
competing
consumption
item
to
the
cooperative
is
shelter producing industry.
The
effectiveness
dependent
staff,
on
the
the
a
of
availability
availability
shelter
of
of
experienced
long-term
promotional
financing,
quality and life cycle of the homes it provides,
the
the level
of participation of its members, and the ways in which
collective
facilities
elements are brought
and
amenities
are
used.
If
the
these
into careful balance, the cooperative
can provide an excellent framework for shelter delivery.
The
formation
operation
govern
of
a
of
the
bylaws
cooperative.
a cooperative
If
is
vital
the
are established
-117-
to
rules
early,
the
which
proper
will
then a smooth
and
trouble free operation will develop in the long run.
The
formulation
of
regulations
once trouble has developed.
guidance
should
for
define
the
difficult
to
develop
If the bylaws are to provide
operations
and
is
explain
of
the
the
cooperative,
responsibilities
they
in
the
following areas of its governance:
The
issues
objectives
regarding
of
the
cooperative
should
address
the creation and management of savings,
seek the correct type of technical assistance, aid in the
land
acquisition
process,
secure
building
materials,
and
assist in the construction of the dwellings.
The means of member
selection
and
type of membership
should be stated clearly in this section of the bylaws.
Rights
and
obligations
should be defined,
cooperative.
of
the
cooperative's
members
including members' obligations to
Bylaws
should
spell
out
how
place and define the role of its shareholders.
-118-
voting
the
takes
It is critical to state in the bylaws how the shared areas
and
maintenance
handled,
is
handled,
conditions
of
how
cooperative
borrowing
and
funds
are
requirements
for
repayment, the volume and rate of interest, securities and
possible changes in the loan status should be brought out
in
the
which
bylaws,
are
explicit
as
well
as
other,
not essential
to
be
the bylaws
are,
order
to
adjust
to
important
included
the fewer
after operation begins.
for the rule structure
less
the
here.
items
The
problems
more
will
be
At the same time, it is important
to remain sufficiently flexible
the
special
situation
of
in
each
cooperative.
Shelter
generating
cooperatives
property.
If
should
any
function
it
should be returned to the cooperative to be used for
the
The
is
non-revenue
generated,
collective needs of its members.
income
as
financial condition
of the cooperative should be reported in a standard
-119-
accounting
format,
understand.
have
an
the
for
all members
to
In the early stages it is often necessary to
outside
source
the cooperative.
by
but simple enough
sponsoring
gradually to
the
This
control
is
the
accounting
a service
agency,
and
cooperative,
aspect
of
which can be assumed
should
be
as
ability
its
passed
to
on
only
handle
such matters develops.
A
final
bylaws
of
consideration
the
governmental laws.
cooperative
of
such
the
relation
and
between
or
national
the
other
Bylaws should be carefully examined in
the light of the latter,
Areas
is
to eliminate cases
possible
conflict
are
of conflict.
land
tenure,
registration of the land, design and building regulations,
planning,
most
zoning,
cases
and
national
legal
aspects
laws
take
of
precedence
regulation initiated by the cooperative.
-120-
contracting.
over
In
any
Housing for the lowest income groups:
The
during
process
the
reasons:
greater
of
late
urbanization
fifties and
(1)increase
access
to
in
has
sixties.
natural
health
average life expectancy.
gained
much
This
is due
population
facilities,
momentum
and
to
two
fertility,
increase
(2)the great impact of
in
the rural
to urban migration which is reaching a rate between 2% and
10% a year
is
in
most
encouraged by
and urban areas,
high
as
commercial,
1:5.
and
developing
countries.
the wide
income
which
some
The
service
in
rural areas
concentration
organizations
other
to the cities.
employment
reaches a
of
in
which
come
are
rural
ratio
as
manufacturing,
the
major
to the migration
People
opportunities
migration
disparity between
cases
centers contribute significantly
This
to
urban
from the
find work
not available
and
in
the rural areas, since there is often a lack of employment
opportunities in rural areas.
-121-
This,
combined
water,
with
electricity
rural-urban
the
and
migration
shortage
sanitary
of
services
facilities,
problem.
Efforts
greater
urban
opportunities
centers.
urbanization
that
it
is
in
for
If
most
improvement
one
characterized
by
the
this
in view of the
the
countries,
a slow
as
to
curtail
available
examines
developing
adds
to
movement have been relatively ineffective
such
in
the
process
of
one
development
can
see
of
the
infrastructure which usually lags far behind the effective
demand
for
sewers,
dainage,
pace
with
these
the
services.
electricity,
increasing
informal settlements,
where
the
lives,
urban
recognized
population
by
Elements
governmental
income groups, one-third
etc.
such
are
not able
population.
often
not
authorities.
to two-thirds
to
keep
of
to
70%
of
registered
or
30%
Of
of the
the
lowest
people are
not able to find jobs outside the informal sector.
-122-
roads,
growth
The
in most cases
is
as
The income
level of the informal
of the average income in the
employment
opportunities
sector
is
far
formal sector.
are
not
below
that
Additionally,
keeping
pace
with
the
supply of workers available for those who move to the city
to find jobs at the lower skill level.
Most often the schemes proposed for the
groups
are
self-help
The
intent
the
development
and
sanitation
dwelling
is
by
disposal.
and/or
to provide
of
the
systems)
and
themselves
by
this
and
services
infrastructure
services
support
Initially,
site
let
the
necessary
electricity
users
provide
thought
means
to
face many problems.
of service infrastructure
often leads to having
their
a
good
that
these
cost
the actual
This in turn
The lack of qualified local
-123-
for
the
The extremely high
construction handled by private contractors.
increases costs even more.
at
be
process, but time and many examples have shown
schemes also
projects.
(water,
whatever
was
lowest income
personnel
also
increases
the cost
since well trained personnel is
and
build
the
employ local
as
the
required
infrastructure.
personnel
of
It
to plan,
is
they often
infrastructure,
not
lack
develop,
possible
the
to
necessary
skills for such work.
Speculative
investment is also a problem.
Often
the
owner may be able to sell or rent out a property which he
may have acquired
making a large
owner
and
will
use
the
through
low
income assistance,
thereby
"windfall" profit on the transaction.
then
relocate
capital
in
gained
another
for
other
informal
purposes,
The
settlement
or
as
a
business investment.
Maintenance
and
upkeep
without a decent community
soon
become
neglected
of
the
dwelling
infrastructure.
and
thus
entire community.
-124-
is
difficult
Outdoor spaces
generally
degrade
the
The lack of securities
another
difficult
cooperative has
issue
to
for
for
the
the
assume
the repayment
cooperative,
responsibility
of debts
is
since
the
for
paying
bad debts.
Approaches
found
within
people
to
to solving
the
cooperative
participate
seeks
explicitly
many of
to
in
such
the
can
be
which
allows
process
which
framework,
directly
solve
these problems
Additional
problems.
assistance may come from the ministries or the cooperation
of
other
delivery
national
sector.
active
organizations,
Such
assistance
is
the
in
often
shelter
critical
for
the survival of the lowest income groups, because here the
inhabitants
anything
branch
have
else
but
practically no
the
bare
laws
which
for
essentials.
of the national government
implementing
means
assist
may be
providing
The
legislative
instrumental
cooperatives.
When
cooperative is in its formation, it should confirm that
-125-
for
in
the
none
of
its
national
government.
coordination,
tools
for
policies
the
will
conflict
Thus
cooperative
addressing
shelter
income groups.
-126-
with
serves
with
proper
those
of
planning
as
one
delivery
for
of
the
the
the
and
best
lowest
Conclusion
-127-
C 0 N C L U S IO
The
development
of
N
cooperatives
in
mankind has been an important element
the
in
history
the
of
process
of
allowing people to provide shelter for themselves.
Present
shelter
shortcomings
effective
and
means
delivery
can
no
of
longer
supplying
systems
be
have
considered
shelter
increasing population of the world.
for
to
the
many
be
an
rapidly
The context in which
most of these systems were created no longer exist and yet
existing and new shelter delivery systems
adapt
themselves
to
these
changes
and
have
have
failed
to
consequently
become outmoded.
This
proposal
delivery is
based
for
an
on the
alternative
idea of a
method
fusion
of
of
shelter
the modern
cooperative concept and traditional community actions.
this system of shelter delivery, people will be able to
-128-
In
participate
in
the complete process of shelter design and
acquisition.
procurement
Individuals
on
the units.
through
can
participate
to construction
The cooperative shelter
create a situation in
will contribute
full cycle of
in
the shelter
land
and management
delivery
which each component
a manner
in
to serve best
of
system will
of the process
throughout
delivery system.
the
Cooperatives
can be viewed as a rationalization of existing traditional
and
modern
systems,
participation
system
with
can
the
in
and
the
function
process
on
traditional
of
many
or
introduction
the
shelter
different
grassroot
national and international levels.
of
user
delivery.
levels,
levels
The
starting
to
local,
Cooperatives should be
seen as a system that can change and develop in time.
dynamic quality
the
of
intervention
this
of
system
its
is
only possible
participants.
-129-
through
People
continue to change and develop as time progresses.
The
will
This
is
shelter
succeed
the
most
important
delivery system.
to
provide
aspect
of
In this manner,
good
service
in
the
the system will
many
situations, for many people, for a long time.
-130-
cooperative
different
Appendix
-13 1-
Roads
& Footpaths
Planning
Site InvesSurvey
Sewerage
%
Electri-
Surface
Water Drainage
11%
city
(Street-
lights)
Site Leveling
and Filling
Contingencies
Water Supply
(Standpipe)
INFRASTRUCTURE
COST
AND
Land
Acquistion
Construction
Training & Supervision
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
SERVICE
(INCLUDING 10% CONTINGENCIES)
-132-
&
Design Fee
tigation &
COST
(UMBRELA
( ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM )
( BEAMS )
DU SYSTEME
ELEMENTS
PARAPLUIE.
EN
POUTRES
POUTRE
r -
60t*
-
BOS ROUGE DE 4)(12
POUR TOLES
DE:
)
800
PARAPLUIE
I~T1
1: 100
i
I
2.00"
-
I-
4
300
2
-0
o
n
n
3.50"
a
450
S
,
5.00 m
A
6,00
n
nn
340
.
I
120-
a
6.50"
too
A
IS"O
A
9 50 M
900
n
oo"
n
n
I
A
OUPE
-133-
A
POUTRE
POUTRE 13
STRUCTURE
( BEARING
PORTEUSE
STRUCTURE )
750
i so
15so
150
150
150
.4.
'r
770
'
235
300
ri
i
235
H
n
JL
DETAIL
POUTRE
( BEAM DETAIL )
-134-
I
1'
PourRC
POUME
4
-015
0
COUPE AA
600
ISO
ISO
(
-r
620
245
t'dj
IIi
375
ni
11
r1i
I-i
II
T
DETAIL
POUTRE B
-135-
..
g
TOITURE
600
1475
_
_
--
-
-
--
--------
LI IL
15O
1so
iso
Soo
iso
1so
-136-
145
145
1475
WORLD BANK LISTING OF LESS-DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
HIGHER-INCOME (over $2,500)
Greece, Israel, Oman, Singapore, and Spain
UPPER-MIDDLE-INCOME
($1,136--$2,500)
Argentina, Bahrain, Barbados, Brazil, Cyprus, Fiji, Lebanon, Malta, Panama,
Portugal, Uruguay, and Yugoslavia
INTERMEDIATE-MIDDLE-INCOME
($551--$1,135)
Algeria, Chile, Republic of China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic
Guatemala, Ivory Coast, Jamaica, Jordan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia,
Mauritius, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Republlc Syrian Arab,
Tunisia and, Turkey
LOWER-MIDDLE-INCOME ($281--$550)
Bolivia, Botswana, Cameroon, People's Republic of Congo, El Salvador, Ghana,
Guyana, Honduran, Liberia, Mauritania, Morocco, Papua New Guinea, Philippines,
Senegal, Sudan, Swaziland, Thailand, and Zambia
LOWER-INCOME ($280 or less)
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, People's Republic of Benin, Burma, Burundi, Centel
African Empire, Chad, Comoros, Arab Republic of Egypt, Ethiopia, The Gambia,
Guinea, Haiti, India, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Nepal, Niger,
Pakistan, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somilia, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda,
Upper Volta, Arab Republic Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of Yemen,
and Zaire
OIL-EXPORTING DEVELOPING COUNTRIES*
Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Nigeria, Trinidad and Tobago,
and Venezuela
SOURCE: World Bank, World Debt Tables, Vol. I (1978), pp. 21-23.
NOTE: Based on 1976 GNP per capita in 1976 U.S. dollars.
*
Countries that export large quantities of oil, or for which
oil exports are of considerable importance.
-137-
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF DWELLING UNITS REQUIRED *
IN AFRICA, LATIN AMERICA, AND SOUTH ASIA BY
1980, 1990, AND 2000 (in millions)
By 1980
Due to Population Increase
Africa
Latin America
South Asia
HOUSING NEEDS : Projection of Population,
Number of Households and Percentage In
Urban Aras
AFRICA
1375
A.
Iss
.1500
2000
Population Imuionl
In Y.,
21I.S
251._
336.1
436.7
20 -44
127.2
145.3 _
13.1
263.0
46+
56.3
63.8
4.9
114.0
63A
72.7
6.6
131.6
6.3
6.3
6.4
6.2
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
27.1
22.5
37.7
0
-
13
j
Households
Number Imllionsi
Popution
per Household
of Whkh
Number 46 VarS
ove'
OaW
Urb.n Population
24.5
By 1990
By 2000
9.5
7.7
28.1
33.3
27.4
97.6
66.7
51.9
184.9
5.5
4.5
7.0
16.5
13.5
51.0
27.5
22.5
85.0
To Remedy Existing Shortages
Africa
Latin America
South Asia
6.3
4.9
19.0
19.0
14.5
56.8
31.8
24.2
94.6
TOTAL
Africa
Latin America
South Asia
21.3
17.1
64.1
68.8
55.4
205.4
126.0
98.6
364.5
GRAND TOTAL
102.5
329.6
589.1
To Replace Obsolescent Housing Stock
Africa
Latin America
South Asia
* Requirements as of 1975
Source : Center for Integrative Studies
Data: World Population Prospects 1970 -2000 As Assessed in
1973, UN ECOSOC, 1975.
Global Review of Human Settlements Statistical Annex,
UN ECOSOC, 1976.
-13 8-
ADDITIONAL DWELLING UNITS REQUIRED (million units)
Due To Population increase *
Dwellings
Required
per Year
1970-1980
PROJECTED HOUSING NEEDS: URBAN/RURAL
Africa
Current
Estimated
Deficit for
1975(%)
_million
_
Additional
Dwellings
Required
per Year
By 1980
By I9
By 2000
Urban
50
0.3
1.5
4.5
7.6
Rural
50
1.0
4.8
14.5
24.2
Urban
45
0.6
2.8
3.3
13.9
Rural
50
0.4
2.1
6.2
10.3
Urban
40
0.7
3.7
11.0
18.3
Rural
50
3.1
15.3
45.3
76.3
Urban
-
1.6
8.0
23.8
39.8
Africa
Latin America
South Asia
1
By 990
0
By 20 0
Urban
0.9
4.4
15.6
34.4
Rural
1.0
5.1
17.7
32.3
24.7
2.7
Urban
Additional Dwellings Required
By980
-
ADDITIONAL DWELLINGS (million units) Required to Remedy
Existing Housing Shortages a
Latin America
Additional Dwellings Required
1.4
Rural
0.1
7.1
0.6
Urban
2.2
11.0
43.8
91.8
Rural
3.4
17.1
53.3
93.1
Urban
4.5
22.5
34.1
173.7
Rural
4.5
22.8
74.2
129.8
-
-
-
-
47.5
-4.4
South Asia
Total
ADDITIONAL DWELLINGS (million units) Required to
Replace Obscolescent Housing Stock
Additional
Dwellings
Required
per Year
(milionI
Additional Dwellings Required
By 19800
By 1990
By 2000
Urban
0.3
1.5
4.5
7.5
Rural
0.8
4.0
12.0
20.0
Urban
0.6
3.0
9.0
15.0
Rural
0.3
1.5
4.5
7.5
Urban
0.9
4.5
13.5
22.5
Rural
2.5
12.5
37.5
62.5
Urban
1.8
9.0
27.0
45.0
Rural
3.6
18.0
54.0
90.0
Africa
Total
Rural
Requirements as of 1975.
-
4.5
22.2
86.5
110.8
Latin America
South Asia
Total
-139-
URBAN / RURAL BALANCE: Estimated
and Projected Percentage of Population
in Urban Areas (%)
1975
1980
World
More Developed
Regions
Less Developed
Regions
39
41
URBAN / RURAL BALANCE . Estimated and Projected
Population in Urban Areas (in millions)
1990
2000
45
50
69
72
77
81
27
30
35
41
Africa
24
27
32
38
Latin America
60
64
70
75
1990
2000
4,374
5,280
6,254
1,548
1.793
2,376
3.127
1,132
1,181
1,277
1,360
781
850
983
1,102
2,836
3,193
4,003
4,894
Urban
766
958
1,401
2,007
Total
401
461
614
814
Urban
96
124
196
309
Total
324
372
486
620
Urban
194
238
340
465
1,427 1,836
- - --551
357
2,267
- ---793
1975
1980
Total
3.968
Urban
Total
World
More Developed
Regions
Urban
South Asia
23
'
25
30
Total
Less Developed
Regions
35
Data: Global Review of Human Settlements
Statistical AnnexUN ECOSOC, 1976.
World Population Prospects 1970-2000 as assessed in
1973, UN ECOSOC, 1975.
Africa
Latin America
Source : Center for Integrative Studies
South Asia
-
Total
Urban
-
1,250
-288
Data : Global Review of Human Settlements Statistical Annex,
UN ECOSOC, 1976.
World Population Prospects 1970-2000 as assessed in
1973, UN ECOSOC, 1975.
Source : Center for Integrative Studies
-140-
( MOULD FOR STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS )
MOULE
ELEMENT A
56
A]
VUE
COUPE
VJE DE DE55OUS
DE FACE
VUE
4-1
FACE
DE FACE
AA
VUE
A)ONOMETRIQUE
ELEMENT B
vuE DE DESSOUS
DE
DES
E
Ls
vUE
A
I
COUPE. IB
MOULE = A.B
VUE
DE
DESSOUS
COUPE
-141-
C.C
VUE
AXONOMETRIQUE
. is I
F]
Fl
_
-C:P u
1F
F]
IA
F] ii
w
-4c
r
SySlomOealternald tie Imalon
do le charpord.
u
U
-65
s3
U
is!
VUE
i!
53
EN
a
&
a
52
PLAN
Wc
anS
-r
L-j U
u
u
u
S2
52
VUE
DE
~2
u
III
-4-
LJL
Bg
s2
COTE
POTEAU
a
DETAIL C
I -ItI
0
0
0
lw-.
DETAIL
21
VUE DE FACE
A~I 3A
IS Af
t
0
Krl
A
I
2t
PROGRAMME FRAR
PROJETPNUD
FRAR
IVC-78004
POTEAU 11
MOULE
DETAIL TYPE
0
ANTENNEPILOTE DE DALOA IECH 19/10
DATE
7-S-79
DETAIL PLANCHES
CENTRALEB
COUPE
A-
N G GLODE
ESSIA
8
-14 2-
JEAN REMA
ES
SUGGESTED TIME-TABLE FOR HOUSING CO-OPERATIVE
PROMOTION AND FORMATION
MONTH .
.
.
.
.
.0....4....
7....10...13...16...19...22...25....
OPERATIONS
1. PROJECT PLANNING,
2. LAND ACQUISITION
3. PLANNING AND DESIGN
4. LAND SURVEY,
~~~
REGISTRATION
5.
QUANTITY SURVEYING
6.
PROVISIONAL FUNDING
7.
SITE DEVELOPMENT
8.
CALL FOR MEMBERS
9.
COMMITTEE FORMATION
10.
PRE-MEMBER
11.
PRE-MEMBER EDUCATION
12.
PROGRAM, PLANS & DESIGN
SAVING
13. SOCIOECONOMIC SURVEY
14.
FINAL MEMBER SELECTION
15. COMMITTEE TRAINING
16. MEMBER EDUCATION COURSE
17. MEMBER TRAINING
18. SELF-HELP CONSTRUCTION
-143-
References
-144-
R E F E R E N C E S
1.
Mchale, John, and Mchale, Cordell, Basic Human Needs
Transaction Books, New Brunswick, New Jersey,
1978, page 96.
2.
IBID, page 148-154.
3.
United States Peace Corps, Country Report: The Ivory
Coast, 1976, page 2-5.
4.
Den Tuincler, Bastiaan A., Ivory Coast The Challeng of
of Success,
The Johns Hopkins Press, 1978, p.76
5.
Lewin, A. C., Housing Cooperatives in Developing
Countries; A Manual for self-Help in Low-Cost
Housing Schemes, John Wiley & Son, 1981,page 49.
6.
IBID,
PAGE 59
7.
IBID,
page 78
-145-
Bibliography
-146-
B I B L I O-G R A P H Y
"Abidjan Survial Guide to Boomtowns,"
Dunns Business Week,
Camboulives, Marguerite, L'Organisation Cooperative au
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Centre de la Recherche Scientifique, Atlas de la Cote
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Centre de Recherches Architecturales et Urbaines,
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Maisons LEM de la SICOGA
Clayre, Alasdair, The Political Economy of Cooperation and
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Den Tuinder, Bastiaan A. , IVORY COAST The Challenge of
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Denton, E. Hazel, and Emery Simon, Assisting the Developing
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Fanon, Frantz, A Dying Colonialism, Grove Press, Inc.,
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Hagel, John Louis, Housing by the Untrained through
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Lamb, Felton, Self-help, When is it viable?, Urban
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Lele, Uma, "Design of Rural Development: Lessons from
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-148-
Lewin,
McHale,
A.
C., Housing Cooperatives in Developing Countries
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Transaction Books, New Brunswick, New Jersey,
1978.
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Bob Hardy Project Director, 1977.
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Recherches Architecturales et Urbaines, Rapport
de Stage, Felton Lamb, Project Director, 1979.
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the Ivory Coast, 1978.
Okonjo, Ngozi Nkemdilim, Underdeveloped Areas,
M.I.T. Thesis Urban Studies, 1978.
Perrett, Heli (Consult), Lethem, Francis J., Project
Advisory Staff, Human Factors in Project Work,
World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 37, June, 1980.
Remy, Mylene, Ivory Coast Today, Editions Jeune Afrique,
1976
Ronds, Alecander
"The Price of Development (Ivory Coast)
Africa Report, March-April 1979
-149-
"Shelter--Afrique' For Afric's Ill-Housed Millions,"
News, January 18,1982, p.10-ll.
"The Europa Yearbook 1981, A World Survey" Vol. II,
Publication Limited, PP. 601-618, 1981.
Africa
Europa
United Nations, Non-Profit Housing Associations,
Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
New York, 1975.
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1969-1977 United Nation, N.Y. 1980
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Village Housing in the Tropics, Government
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reprinted 1972.
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-150-
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development,
Housing in Ghana, Country Report Series, 1971.
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Housing in Liberia, Country Report Series, 1971.
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the Conference on Housing in Africa, Nicholas
K. Ekra, Ministry of Economy, Finance and Plan,
1980
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Les Methodes de Recouvrement des Couts de
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Some Aspects of Economic Housing in the Ivory
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Conference Paper, 1980.
-151-
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development,
The Urban Development Project Administrative
Aspect of the Project, Department of Construction
and Urbanism, African Housing Paper, 1980.
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Aided Self-help Housing in Africa, Ideas and
Method Exchange No. 65, 1961.
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"Which Way Africa," Black Enterprise, April, 1981.
Widstrand, Carl Gosta, African Cooperatives and Efficiency,
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-152-