NATURAL FORCES AND THE CRAFT OF BUILDING:
SITE RECONNAISSANCE
BY
VIVIAN ELLEN LOFTNESS
5.S.A.D.,
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
1974
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER OF
ARCHITECTURE
at the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
May, 1975
Signature of Author..............
Architecture
Department
16, 1975
)/Mag
Certified b y.
Thesis Supervisor.
Accepted by
Chairman, Departmetal Committee.
on Gra uate Students.
Rotch
JUN
3 1975
00002
ABSTRACT
NATURAL FORCES AND THE CRAFT OF BUILDING:
SITE RECONNAISSANCE
by Vivian Ellen Loftness
Submitted to the Department of Architecture on the 16th
of May 1975, in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Architecture.
Architecture
must be conciously and precisely
designed
to integrate the life of its occupants with the cycles
of nature.
This thesis is a collection of information
on the natural microclimate which exists on the untouched
land, and that which could predominate by intervention
and design.
An understancing of site potentials and
limitations involves: first the survey of local climate
elements, second the evaluation
of
each climatic
impact
in physiological terms, and third the development of a
design response for
each microclimate condition.
Field
reconnaissance gives an invaluable overall picture to
the designer,
enabling him to design with respect
for
the
site
.
What is proposed here is a method, an index,
for reestablishing in bui/t form, a more delicate exchange
between man and nature.
The information
is organized and presented
in such a way
that the thesis may be used as a handbook by the architect,
engineer, contractor,
or homeowner who is
interested
in
making more sympathetic and creative
use of a building
site.
Thesis Supervisor: Prof. Edward Allen
Position: Professor of Architecture, M.I.T.
fir
00003
in dedication to my parents;
for always being there.
0004t
INTRODUCTION
There is beginning, today, a profound change in man's
feeling about nature.
The 19th century was a period when
humankind was busily struggling to overcome natural hazards
and natural disadvantages.
The struggle was caused by a
vague impression that natural forces and natural conditions
were generally hostile, and thus factors to be fought or
disregarded.
Where humans begin to achieve dominence, the
balance of nature is often disrupted: plant and animal worlds
are made poorer; pools and streams are eliminated; irregularities in the type and form of grounds are smoothed out;
even forests take on a cultivated appearance.
rarely seen as an infinitely varied bit
"The site is
of the earth's
surface, wtih slopes, rock outcrops perhaps, groups of trees
or other native flora. A developer comes to a site with
bulldozers and power shovels, with pickaxe, dynamite, and
fire, and as rapidly and as cheaply as he can, he transforms
what might have offered a superb challenge to imaginative
design, into a flat and dreary waste of dirt."
Indeed,
architects are forever creating new kinds of microclimates.
Every building constructed displaces the original climate of
its site, creating a warm, sunny, and dry climate with a
southern exposure on one hand, and a shady, cold, and damp
northern exposure on the other.
If we are going to replace
the natural richness existing on a site, we must, with a
powerful vocabulary, respect and create a replacement richness
that once again can be called'natural'.
Architects must come
to realize that man's future lies less in -fighting natural
forces and natural conditions, than in cooperating with them.
They must realize that every variation irelope, every change
in the character of the surface, and every natural peculiarity
of a site may be the source of the most vivid and successful
elements in a design.
00005
HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL:
The intent of this thesis is to sensitize architects,
architectural students, engineers, planners, home builders,
and homeowners,
with the demands and phenomena of the large
and small-scale
climate,
and to apply thatknowledge in
design of sites, buildings, and communities.
this,
it is advisable to study
time, with different emphases.
the
In order to do
a site in several ways over
There is no simple method
of site selection, analysis and design.
Instead one needs to
gain a total image of the particular site, and an understanding that allows the use of the natural site conditions
to enhance the practicability and the livability of the built
environment.
The text itself is divided into four major sections:
vegetation, drainage, topography, and soils.
Each of these
issues is discussed in turn with respect to the four climatic
elements that specify human comfortconditions: sun, temperature, wind, and moisture.
The fifth chapter then takes the
regional climate data related to these four elements, and
reevaluates this data to approximate the microclimate
conditions for the particular site.
a-
OOOO
-Ak
Within each page, then, there are three levels of information,
which can each be used for separate purposes:
prior
to a site
visit,
one
might skim these on-site clues
as a means of identifying
the
habitable
climate
conditions
on a given site.
A heightened
sensitivity
as to the attributes
and deficiencies of a site
allows responsible decisions to
be made in design. By all means
do not level
a site
before it
has a chance to speak for
its
strengths and weaknesses.
09
F
this last section becomes
a microclimate checking
work already
process for
in progress, or an index
avoiding and correcfor
climatic
local
ting
design.
blunders in site
an explanation of the Local=
influences
that
are modifying
the regional climate conditions
Potentially,
are found here.
of
allows for
evaluation
this
existing
condtions and clarifies
decisions
about site
redesign.
-.
0000
TEXT CONTENTS
READING THE SITE: VEGETATION
2.vegetation classification
3.vegetation as site indicators
4.vegetation and shading
5 vegetation and heat transfer
6.vegetation and air movement
7 designing windbreaks
. inducing wind movement
,?vegetation and erosion control
10vegetation and moisture
1).conditioning the air
1Z.vegetation and built form
READING THE SITE:
DRAINAGE
14surface water drainage
Wmground water drainage
hPthe water table
READING THE SITE: TOPOGRAPHY
l.topography
I9.topography
Z9.topography
Z4.topography
ZZ.topography
0o.topography
and
and
and
and
and
and
insolation
temperature
air flow
wind movement
drainage
microclimate
READING THE SITE: SOILS
gS.soil identification
20.soil characteristics
Zjsoil and air temperature
z9.soil and ground temperature
o9,soils and erosion
Z.soil type and drainage
9/.soil and moisture
32.soil type and stability
MICROCLIMATE SPECIFICS
>'+regional climate conditions
35microclimate and insolation
37.microclimate and temperature
).microclimate and wind
4Lmicroclimate and precipitation, humidity
V
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on the shaded side of evergreens.
Thus, evergreens
placed on the southern side
of roads will leave long
periods of snow and ix.
Thi s
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however, in the
design of ski slopes
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retief
can be provided by use of
vegetation near courts, parks,
walls, and interior rooms to
naturally modify the excessive
heat and glare of the sun.
Deciduous trees will screen the
hot sun in summer, and allow
warming rays to pass through
bare branches in
6
So, in addition to
pacingv
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carefully in their
relationship to each
ether, be aware of
the choice in:
Planting densities,
co lors., and textures
which absorb, reflect
and transmit di fferent Zy
and tree forms which
cast varying shadow
dimensions.
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Use plants as one type
of wall insulation, a
ground insulation near
basements, thus retarding
heat loss to the cooler
air outside.
Vegetation can act as
a heat retainer
(especially when planting
moisture-holding trees),
and stabilize temperature
differences, by longterm heat absorption.
0
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TION a
00018
Use edge planting to
insulate buildings and
prevent rapid heat
exchange, by retarding
wind movements across
the building face.
In winter allow less air to
circulate, pooling instead
to prevent a
the warm air,
drop in temperature. Be
careful not to place vegetation
poorly, thereby drawing
cold air
WrLt -n0MMe-v
At? ?C WL
WFMhf -ot WIA
AL
into a pocket; and
do not leave too large a
space, allowing cold air to
in and dam.
fill
I' a
*h.
In summer, on the other
hand, allow some air to
pass through at a low level.
VeNT~r(L$This prevents excessive
humidity harmful to the
1UNiki(k \&)
structure, and forces up
6yj4eg,
the hot air with cooler
P 9CfxrrH
breezes.
w yte4-tincoming
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____________
___________5
Use vegetation
WPPY
25pt'
i)TIoN
L)6
to create
wind protected areas
and building walls,
Mass a variety of
-vegetation to sweep the
air
up over an area,
but not to fill the
protected wake.
~ ~
'PREIFF
1LO
W9
&
r
-
r
mfereioeoq
5,0
A somewhat pierced windbreak
eliminates the Low pressure
pocket on the leeward side of
the barrier. This places less
drag on the air flow above,
giving a longer wake of quieter
air and protected space. Also
avoid no pressure pockets
between plant windbreaks
and the building wall.
Although windbreaks may
decrease air velocities
to the depth desired,
they can also increase
wind sPeeds in neighboring
areas and at different
Consider the
heights.
effect of windbreaks at
foot height, head height,
and upper story window
height.
waynr
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With careful wind observation, plants can be used to obstruct
and redirect the wind, leaving places and building faces
free of wind; as well as to catch the wind,and ventilate hot
stuffy areas.
Y'5P.
NW WN'p InAdJ IN WIMNT-.
In plan, place vegetation and
buildings in relation to each
other to maximize use of vegetation when needed in summer,
and minimize wind .movement
otherwise.
In section, as well, plants
can be used to cause a beneficial change of direction in
the airflow within and around
This provides one
a site.
method of protecting slopes,
roof surfaces, and raised
terraces from higher wind spee
t-eferereevcp : it, Iq
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VAY1ME
(*
0
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(
NoMETi
Water has an excellent
thermal capacity, equaZizing temperatures over
a period of time.
Therefore, by maintaining
a higher humidity, the
area directly around
trees usually has a less
drastic temperature shift
from day to night, adding
significantly to the
comfort of the area.
lot
K
VZVaA
1%
RAlN r'NvI-~f1rl
04.I4MM
MPAFt4 Te"
T
'P'wAIfAF-AO
*
ThANSY
'
HU
Y
UMVIT'
Use trees of appropriate
densities and moisture
retaining ability to
dry the areas beneath
the canopy, and prevent
surface erosion.
Design to trap humidity
with canopies. When
drying is needed in
summer, allow then for
the wind to sweep
through.
In
general, even grasses
are worth planting for
the benefit of their
root systems in holding
moisture and preventing
runoff.
rGe~fl~:
,
I
14
0002Y-
'POLWUTION
TKM 1TZrgANT OF
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00328
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AM$ A' WE( A, (QMl4C4AL AIK HANPLVe5 cOP
1LANTS CONWL T-MPAvTU , A FL 5WI
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CMEUL
10l57URE 6NTENTThrough careful placement
of vegetation with respect
to pollution sources-
building exhausts, traffic
or polluted winds- air
can be purified and
freshened for adjacent
areas or rooms.
Vegetation
can control both natural
4\
and manmade pollutants,
absorb noxious gases, act
as a receptor of dust and
as well as wash
dirt,
the air of impurities. Up
to 30% of dust and smoke
particles can be eliminated
through an effective use
and density of vegetation.
#*
W-4
avINCI
ehN
Good site
design should:
1)induce winter winds to
pass through vegetation.
This slows and humidifies
the air during the winter,
when it is most effective
for warming.
N1
2)and should also involve
placing vegetation
F#- (including deciduous or
newly-trimmed plants) to
direct drying summer winds
through an overly humid
space.
refereu~tb:
j
00029
rvagq aqoa&tBuln
worgo
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f
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Vegetation acts in plan
:to channel, rebuff and
dir~vt air and sun movement;
:to create places that
will dynamically change
with each season, and
with each year.
Vegetation acts in section to build up land
forms, to create a topography that can be more
beneficial for building and placemaking. However,
care must be taken not to create disadvantageous
land forms.
ThER
1'5 MOME rXSTIjS DILT FOKMON THE5rT.
ffR5T A ARENr ANPO
momE
0/
WTHIlME PETA
AN
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p kla.Whenever possible, preserve the
existing surface drainage courses.
orough deforestation, resurfacing,
building placement, or soil compaction
in construction, drainage channels
are often filled or blocked, forcing
water to seek new (often damaging)
runiff channels.
If building and surface placement must
be in direct line with drainage
channels, adequate gutters must be
provided to direct surface water away
from the building. Take particular
care when buildings are placed halfway
down or at the bottom of steep slopes,
__
as
foundations
will be subject to
severe undermining or corrosion.
v
TEAT
Prevent slow, uncontrolled runoff by:
1regrading steep slopes, limiting
impermeable surfaces (e.g. concrete,
asphalt), using textured surfaces,
and adding vegetation whenever possible.
MA S9P
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Again,
iimprove infiltration
excessive, by:
is
where runoff
steep
or regrading
terracing
adding vegetation and
slopes,
exchanging dense soils
layers
vA
and loosening or
grasses,
o
with
more porous materials.
of
excess water
store
possible,
by
near the ground surface
linings
of less
porous soils.
If
.
This will prevent flucuating
water tables below, stabilize
air
temperatures, and warm
and humidify the surface
air.
- -4-
of underground
The pressure
watercourses is particularly
structures.
siting
for
serious
of construction,
as a result
If,
and ground
both infiltration
prevent
increase,
levels
-&-water
-transportation
water
new
the
from shifting
77
WATtA'L-
o
rf:6 it
P9
neighboring
:subsoils or causing water table
Even on level
fluctuations.
sites, footing drains are
necessary to remove subsurface
runoff water, before it has time
to damage foundations.
IN TEME'IATe.
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A high water table causes difficulties in excavation work.
When the table is less than 6-8
feet below the surface, all
development costs are increased:
excavations must be braced with
sheeting, and pumped out; and
and basements must
utilities
be waterproofed thoroughly
Cellars which
against seepage.
sit below the water table
require the careful placing of
drainage channels and membrane
waterproofing. Corrosion and
freezing is the last consequence
of high water tables, since the
hy??--1it
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water involved
-
a often chemicall 1
corrosive, and also subject to
expansion and contraction with
temperature changes.
Additionally, wet soils exert a
far greater pressure on building
foundations than drained soils.
In wet soils, it may be necessary
to reinforce the floor heavily
to prevent upward explosion. In
short, one must effectively
-
design
a boat hull. for construction
below the table, since damprooting
hydroalone will not resist
static pressures.
A FWaL11Nc
A fluctuating water table (due
to precipitation conditions,
or nearby construction)
V#m
4
u
V9 rA=V
-
poees
several problems:
1)ground settlement with the
-gp7rZMAVON
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reNIweVAMIVcWv5
-1
rcferer~e4: 4~ Z '~ Z~
table; 2) ground heaving
with a climbing table; and 3)
the rotting of those materials
which can handle either wet
subsoil conditions or dry, but
not both.
This is especially
apparent in old buildings on
of
wooden piles, where the fall
oJggb
,At
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od.
00038
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Although a 67 degree slope
is much too steep
for
a
building site, it can be
useful in the design of
retaining walls, to define
parks, or in deciding roof
and wall pitch. Avoiding
flat sites, or grading
to provide some degree
of slope, could double
heat gain in winter
months and halv heat
gain in summer.
If south-facing slopes are
available, by all means
build there. A north orientation
will cause excessive heating
bills in winter, receiving
no .heZp from the sun. In
4
addition, a west orientation
glare
will receive excessive
and- overheating in summer,
putting undue stress on
normally unnecessary air
conditioning.
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dJl&N VOJLV7t4C
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F'oISrLPt'i~
,5AU VAXY(0609 ALT) &
, egP4E. OF A1VaYie
XT1ON of V.Ag6- VA4Ley 20'F
7rMf7FAMivg 01:7- 5 0 ) AS WEL ,- r~~s7l6
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TOPWNHY- 3UN AN12 WINAP 5HAXVJ5
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5UNU6HT O1FTN '5&M 01Z ?MVr~rVS'-KAfNi
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irwMA1vim CHlkkAs Fr-M -PAY
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FaX 1'ULLV
(\k
OO42
Ihe presence of lower local
temperatures, can often be
predicted by identifying
areas in the topography of:
low sun exposure, extreme
altitudes, and high wind
exposure; or identifying
areas of local depressions,
which pool or dam the
slipping cold air.
0
4e
1
MILf/
!5
6VEKY Epif6C
6AL)
By redistributing the cut
and fill of a site into
ground berms, against or
near a building, a windowless
wall can gain a steadytemperature insulator, offering
protection from the wind
and from rapid thermal
exchange.
refe&rge&iA,
In analyzing the site
topography, recognize the
existing or designed areas
that are in sun shadow due
to the terrain. Also
recognize areas protected
within a wind shadow which
will result in warmer local
temperatures (due to
reduced heat exchange).
Ideally, south-facing slopes
receive maximum sunlight, as
well as being protected from
northern winter winds and
open to summer cooling winds.
5Pq, j0
OTOR
Ij
00943
167
ID
NATURAL, AlIR FWA5
oTi-tn USAk o
6f~ io'
ON A51M) WILL inPtar
*tiff A 6
OUT AgrA-S- wiME COLZ2
U'. ON Tl4C OThri4 AW1,
Xt'wH 104 hA-!5 LOA4
6N~~j:
vffLTH-10 1TOTV
ING6ENE AL Wi4EN T1Ef AeNDOIIOLU5 V'4INV
EAK714U , C M6VFMENT I' CAL1,9EP PY TH - NATht) FAL FLO WVOF CO
A1IM) AW NCi T1E Ut4 O 0F LJ6T
1KE26-i5aN6,TOT114 LW Er -OINT, Tft5 I(N A
VAu-FY OIZAP/r(Nl-TP aAFMY)OP-AT 'T~FXtOF'A LON4j 5LM~ T-I~fAIK -- TF1ALLYC600
EK ANt? VAMF9 WI-hI 6MATMR Pt0rOCW1ENN
1W~' AT NILWW TRt PIFFM1JN4 AMcn)NT'--70 HJ AF
956'r Y'5O'5 OF tIg1q MIF INCINALIONS
ANP7OKINTAIOWNS1 WA9WAA thLP~t7 INCEFTA1N
SP&fl' MoT, ITHN O4Lf - ThE nUL'tIM4 12iFFEMN65 IN T?-MF'ATU)M5 &IVE 9?5 To UNN*JAL,,
~N6
c L WM2ITH- TK! FLOW
OF
AYF,
R OF~r
W9V5Lo1P:5
WEl'
LZ655 IMPOTANT AW;?THeN IT IT'Fl1 TegmA L,
CAF'k,4rY OF -F&t l?1~f-1N-rg5)RFAtW fFFFl
WXL-p N04ALY
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w~fXS COW AiW 14At' DMN
TFRA1PMP, v~trf4XT mEAN5
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T4EARTHt
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r4-AN A~
11AW-m4 WAOMAA AIV- NrAg -Tr
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To Vpt
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COW4 A19RXV*tI N~i I !' TWM frVN ON OPMJ S2LOF-*
E, wA, YA- N1& Rr CAN PON W
VNr'
WHFlNT74E GRUNP Mi4A7 MAINrAIZPTi-,
C2MrO~RA ZVE?'
l6N W Jt2IION9'5
17'AY
141619
0
IW9U6Fl2 AI1K ILOW'50
i22re 5 IWc COLxAIX FLOV2 tZMJNwA~t FOLWWINk4 TH 1ANE OF
LZAA1- g*5rANCE , IT1,5 AL71 aYJIVTW
Y c5JW
5eA0~ WALL'5Or
-Me0Tf 4 WKI V Q5*1o44ULV -2-t nKXV -0 6QVNKT1: ArTHE AIlK FLOW4 INTO
W~,
F 764 NF
T~O
t -- 1E1 LI LP1 N4
AN 1-ITe F1W M 7PKA r-75
FY F1
WN~ R-OLWcWS Awt CXEA1N6 SLth
AgMA'5 (AN AL~-5 RVtNF
Z ONE OLVI- AwcugrwNre25 (NrVF,9y6C
L, Alf,6VRRx-NT,5 HOU
NOTrJV5T 13'PAMWM17' purr F9DVII~r& WITH AN AL-rff9NATF, MEAN TO FLW4
tOWNWAgP ANP17M4. AVOIPTHt ?kUILA?1N S1TF,
*3 MArh(N AY,
ACM4N6r IN6MV Nt PMATEIALr6A AN INw6e Or IMVrN
PMEZ667Ae2
f~rTh4F Mc9r (OMFOPhV~fLf FNVIMOPM74-T. TrHE
5UP-FACE ANPTH gMAL IFNCf
OF LANi? ANI WAThR, IMO INW57ANCr, 6AFN
5MF (A' 5fi=R M-EZE5 PK)RN& THE- -PAY TI4t- WA~Mrf LANI2 AIR ,
ITI- M LON1 iAN6 E rHAL
4W4-
I-t? V'VAAM;-e '50 t1r5P'51
Z5NC
;~,M
OF
Z
00044
DESIGN IMPCATION
-
the buildings
site
First of all,
well. For design purposes, the
best local wind conditions will
be: on upper or middle slopes
rather than at the foot, or at
the crest (where cold air dams);
on the slopes facing south or
southeast for maximum sun
advantage; and lastly located
long-range
near water for its
capacity.
retaining
heat
:
selected
In general, the site
should not lie in the zone of
cold air currents. However, if
this siting is unavoidable, cold
air currents can be cut off by
hedges or forest belts at higher
levels (always providing an
alternate means for the cold air
Regrading is also effectit
flow).
for redirecting cold air flows or
for eliminating cold air pockets.
Finally, place and mix your
Vie induced
materials well.
breezes from heat-retaining
materials-especially water- will
help stabilize air temperatures
1hMen,
M1frOm day to night.
reflective (e.g. asphalt) surface
will induce off shore breezes
during the day, which must be
blocked or welcomed as needed
for seasonal comfort.
mkrerae - 61(It,,
,
"I
O0c3L1i
WINP5, AIJP wNrm
OSEric4AL fp
rcjw-
TN~rY CAN
C11 A
I~AVlIT1O N TO AFEC TI R61 THEI AMOUNT5 OF
)NSOLATIOI'4 ,-6JVEV, -THE
O0ARlCUKKNTS5
DA4NP TE ATUMt3 TOFV6RAM YCAN AFMCr
l~r. 1?GMAL, WIMPIT MOVEM1?\iT AS-)WELL,
cVMF0PPFA=Z, 5rTr.
R176AY(27 M cio69ATM T}4AN ON FLAT
MPC~bVIN
cecArIm
-me
BQW0VVM
I F T1h- 5 Ire CA-4
kA K
15 ve
J1;2Au,
0E.
tFT+4,LFE5Wf~rr- ,!.6L~nt
e4THr 114t
L)AIONVITONITI N'5
flcot4 OF-111-_
ON -r)4 ,I
PiWVALIQ Jcj oJI7JArr~ I+Agp
M
VVwic vurkN rv.
AU
ON
1-TH'51
2t'v
'fllVAWJIj4 WLNP
1 Ag~e
TkegMALi
HILf,
'JUILIN6~ rL"ACA4NT OK69AJ2M4-j VNIN~iANVC
CM4NNWt4 PANl2 HURZJ42PTO LlkrP42 /AKhA5
0 P,7-r OL)RP VOWVIPV. f1Ytr6T7PAgVA-'ANI2'
L5 M!510 a
1r~06AMy o(
TO'
LNWAIMTV
6F6AU1-rF06AlqYN WIMP NV-.mrNT ('50
11I-AT WMNP WILLF M41 Cfi~aTR 244Tdf Lr-SIP
IN
(T4-IAN, ON THt, W(N12WAPIPM) Of ANYi
ArtLm cj VJtt'
T
, USUALOAi' wRM4,
i37CA'f bP)'Fb)L, IN(00b5LJN 4 -1
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WAi IN WR IC4THM
Ext-eprM A TroVM~vJoeN'j Ve~erA11OP.
AaT,
oNAL., WINP2 9flj-
TIQNS5 L6UALLY -tVMI NAW ONANY'~nr ) NLt'5c
THrY RAE->
lZKCrrP (MPLtM L AVQk 1
A 't~rr -o 1T5 OWN LOAL,AI9 Ft~oV HOW E~-,;
RE6O0NAu WINP'4P terar0~N56 M 9EV6Ws-p s
ALFtP 564L VY gnFMN, P,!O V Ap~NV M JN
5LO M W)NP5. TNfCr-W IN 5;t ACWVAUY VEIY
5T2MNC61 AIK FLOW M0VrMMNT5 6AUL)5 17 YThfWih
MIC, EC4+AN6E, -IN -FFZC1-, -fATFP ' 'OtVM? DMZ
AA-(ML/M EXrC5U9,
0AM TktAig, (tivUaWM
A(t9A
PON T-5:7TO WEf~ I N
AN? 17:OtfIM 0! gt~bA(W- E-94 E
MrIONAI. vWnNr26e-9Nttrr0M5. ALVHOk
THNC P
PTON5Al;,AWuVtrr IAO5r-rot2EV V56AIF6e,
R6AUA11fT E,$FAIX45H PE2 76N 6(VFW,
ThEY AM
W1N7 MANA6ANT; WINFIRFAKt) WINIP MAN Ki6-MeNT NWFONI.N MFUE
,5TOPFNM
-MEAJ1NP.
72-DW - ANV'
EI(
WIN2 VF-XATIEZ. ON f1lILY 5LOF'l-S, Op-V41m_
FYTPN\ \F GFAPI N6t5 N=pEV, A WIl~RA
DUT AL: O ,-j IE(lW
W11407fAe6 4L4VWFL,k
f$\lPN '1Nc -f 0IOMP4ON
rfj- Vef 1AW Alzah6 ,4'P Vf6TATlOt4.
CM M FowrM P 'Y TiUm& T lZTHTMA Y-LA
F=CTIN4 91~t 91GHT ANGLF, OF,4 WJrXnN TO THE
L*DTFLj0NA'lXZ WINP 65~S DM T15AI6+r7T
All-W"1 C
kJ
F-XTPP WN1-RP
FMRA MiNiNMALA6
AI9-MhOL6H,
gZ1UCE E17 F5 N TH -OT H K5 Pff.
WILL-
DWSGN XMPJATO
If local topographic
conditions cause undesirable
winds, then the process of
cut and fill
can create
a more comfortable wind
flow, reducing dryness,
coldness, and wind
erosion.
P4L
1ETD2
06site
7
6 AA
*
This regrading for better
climates, however,
must be done in plan as
well as in section.
1he
wind can be 1)funneled
for use, 2)dammed (with
eventual overflow), 3)
diffused, 4)detoured; or
all four as useful in
different areas of the
site.
In general, a living windbreak can look more
natural and can provide seasonal change of
vegetation. However, they require far more
lateral space than a constructed fence.
As
one example of ideal wind management, an
elongated clearing should be oriented with
the partially open end towards the approach
of the prevailing wind in summer, with the
width of the opening set relative to the
funneling effect required.
000~47
c4agAt-ow 00
IMIAL X1ffr0"=11G.Dq
Al PIZANAGr.
FGRORAFY 172
0
P.
(pO7PECrNNOT M
VAe4
OVKQI'A6e~ 0NPMOW7 ON
114
A5l1
1NP
) W5
VIF6=A-noC; 1P&.
F-ISM6ViLY(TIRVr. FOV Ar6f
W
fl14 S--WAAM'
t-0 VM~
V&E CZt JIA N~P AK~A5 Of *W-H
Mmotpj vNLTH No ve6rATM~ AT
Au, . rvAWvATioN MAw-Tri~
WI-HC 6NXV05, THI~ ON Wmm4rp
COMP'rnOW. mR'. rrqgIjzA0
A6 KpAV)4 6HAV&r,
Z CMNtXr A-5 A 600P?
'5TANPAW.P, 614A6
A
wo~jf~4 o9NL ( it4 ujtm
!iMAL& AMOUNTOf: Srci'?6e
-0vVA-WILL,
-RAV4 eas%.
N~r U-UAW( G6OW ON %LO65 qATE
IN 6eMKAl, TPE
LANPTM MOQt
'!IMFXW
r5 WILL, 6tUK (N'95TEA2 OF
T i1U
TL~~rLY
1VL M9U&
ON THU. O1-htY '5Vt OOW- UNPE9 ONE TM~
CE4'T VO NXr PK iN WRL .~CAVE &fr.L6V61,N
P+CTVAN\ 7
of 141LU67 AM2'5L01Pne 090N LrVe42W,- 'E5l1
WLIU-
OFTEN ?V,~ wfIE- At *1)VMY f09 -VRAINA6iE,
HN -n4J4 , ACLUMAU LAllON 0r 4ZVNOtf MMV MAN5'
2, ALW V~ APCVYA'5, ruW,
McW;c OF WAI-h
A14!' WILL INCVK
w4 ONLY l'5 Ttf-, 5L.O Ori14f! LAN t7
VZY Ir~fO0fZTANT INThM ?o~rALPVANA&C OFTE
-f14 t AlPM2 VIM iS'k,4R A NrL2
ANP ! rrr 9Wi4259rp:i0vnON 6
TO1'c&FMY ANFW r:77TC) E
THE,~ MOM'W9E Or A-r~Te 1-. MX'ThY A &W;UeWNCr
OFcX 0 tFATMY\ VE4-rrlt4JANt50IuPlZALNA6E
t1OWYEvr i14e,-Pg 6 N Or- CEAlN T~OMA111
AVP4L'AT, ANP WINIP ANP
%Nf~
O1; fN1W F~acN(A -THr,5uN or fWAN4 HE VY wlr'W
A~rcON L14,Y 5uAcr To tVArotVEV-PjYi Nc
WHI 16H7fN
P"E%~g VffcgrA110MG
W~~r Mf1e256NlftA NTL.
TO1V&PW ANP PK61FfCI 'TATIO0N
WMW, A LMYg OFAIK I 1FLLTF.42UWAr-P5ON
Mtd~2 or A LA6 EA3WL.NTA I w,1r1-5
THe. I1 Wi q,-WP
X~l r 4 TWAA W--2 I NFUW5L)I0N 7
5S~ECT1VZV.
i-MJSL~ rMAYi1WNm fOmCrp1?,
AtNJ1ON A
nLMZ@ A N?lCA Lr57E AT Vt+LO'W iItM~AVA
ITCAN Nor i-,5mx ASMiw~ATW VwAc 4rrCOL.L4
W+HN WAM DC Nf F~lTlf, 4 ~Nt2W/ACW 151M OF
ft5p5ANP rAN6b7 AM OFTrJ 1l.A6UE WVIW OVVIM
NArinoNj,i WlNcPvAV'54Pe5 A-FTHE ,5UMMIT' OF
44-iU,2 i-A A 6YaATg TWavk1 Tv AiTAC crcWum2
.
00348
Areas at the base of slopes, on completely leveled sites
and in dips in the terrain, are often very wet with poor
drainage. These wet pools will undermine foundation
stability, corrode basement
materials and then leave a wet,
colder basement as a stamp.
Learn to recognize well drained
sites and whether it is the
topgraphy (steep, moderate, or
flat)
which is allowing for the
dealized drainage conditions.
If so, unthinking topography
changes could well disrupt the
;1!
atural drainage channels, causin
gullies and erosion elsewhere.
Hesitation before bulldozing, as
well as carefu grading, can
save a site
m o r rainage
conditi. -- .
WIrLTN& VC-6VATION
A void changes in topography
which wull allow exposure to
t he scorching sun or passage
to
the drying wind, since
this-milI' spe d evaporation
H
of the needed moisture
in a site.
Recognize the modifications in
the regional precipitation
givens, caused by ridges and
peaks which force the air to
release rain unexpectedly by
rapid cooling. The result
is often sites plagued by
dryness or unexpected quantities
of rainfall.
referne,
00 34 9
THt ACTUAL 1IGO1
CL~NlP1ONOf,
OF
TKS'E~ Kjssu5
I N5,LATION ThMPIZA11JM
WATEK Ct' tVffOX54, AJ.
FLOKIJ, AND WIN17 M:OV~
00050
.,D
IN 5HO1r, EVAwAmm of ThE.r M(CO5CUMATE rX1-fNG
( PE511E.t
Lowest areas are often the
coldest, especially at night,
since cold air runs downhill
and collects in frost pockets
created by buildings. With
poor orientation, these areas
could also be in the shadow
of the hill.
All this leads
to costly heating.
In addition to receiving
less sunlight, the north
slope feels the full force
of winter winds, resulting
in dried out soil and colder
areas.
wlra
6tlw
WNP
'-
lye:
1- h
Crests receive all the elements
in full strength, often subject
to great variability in climates,
with few of the attributes
that come with being hidden.
00051
00052
(9
ro P da
00
501L P5) AN MAKGATM OF FOUR A-DRt~
COtA1POMU,4T5 ' MINM$?ALL ?AW4NS '+57.
OmA(IC 4gAtg5,5 7 -WATEr: ?,57, AIhK ztn,
'5AMPYi d ,OI1.
ANJ7
WILL- Ran
5OL!f A~ CL~ptArl W-PY( Fl, 'I1-
t1
V-CIALL..y VI2Y.
5M On'MM-7 ZMM A1I( TtYJLrvie
(IMVZ1 MWr V
S3L-T DOL)?MA -I.or5-MM -MAtYA
2&1MM (V-o~Y-,Lg'TcC.T u
CLAY' uwv
S,1Lr 61L CAKVES IN A rOWIPKY
FA- H4ON APTef- ?,AN'5.
CLAVE(
e0UL OXAC'e:' VVJNjE
VF1YPWAP At7 LJF-A4f5WITH
WA-rEJ2 V EA'eAC AV~,
NtATT-r.
INTO T45'M
12OLuf
Of THE,
v~r- CD
04ErN7
TICOF
IN~
w~O TE -A
CAN
OE-rF..N 13M1,CKZX
A4
5,17Nqy pmuti, .
00
T44 I NEAL.- AiN CLaSSIFICATION fAU9c i 1r
qXIV'JTUY -D Ik~t~rf- ZVYTI+ff INMOt2QCMON Of
-uTrs IN1!rKAT1THE~ OWN--0 CQNMT--HtT.15 i
FIM7 aA,i *AtI:jCAn11,0N'5,: O~ILN-rO R4OKION PD
PACV*q-, OtbAC-54e
A2,
O
Irw
HOtWpIN
MOAvLY
094ANIC., A-Vt?
M4lAN'rAINeP M IAJF
CONTeNT ffI~or
T&+-. IAzE$jW'L
Oi9
Jill
10
U
-VAMr t~o[ L.,
IA
106)
%.INC4 I mP1 ex b L. a5 CONTAI N TWO0
MXE: H0,fZ*0 LAYETft.11 '0-'IJN
IWA-JP5s 01 )VOMIWAThP VY FKC!4i UA412C6DWOS1
0964116 MW67 't1J A 7 L-ZAVI- AN P OZ)VOMI1NATM
'Jy f:06s1 MV 1'AMTLY
O0F'1&
MMM~ THAN Wo INCLA*YEY 0U05)M0
5 (LIY oiz'A'UY %3i
obLAN& 1(,WnMV II1TAN Zl
Lb2-rii- A~ 10,IZON 1'7TF
rw.~r7 MIMMAL- HOkKIZWt\ ANP 60Ns r5 op: Al A
P2ACK LAYM~ wfIMg A q+ljd -P9FOrflO0N Of FINELY,
PIID2 0001NI&, MATTg Wf: ACUWLATEP, ARIl2 AZ
A U HT COL09W LAF1 WI'M C9YNIC. tP46rr W.
rN WAH;Ptt OUT Vo IfORtOW&'s -f14F 'V'H0RLW(' l'57
AN Wwv(AU.(wA*w 1M)CONCEMATION~ Of 0O6ANIC
MiNEiAL, MAT1Mf"O
09! W4~~N-A ),NW19
MAT ZRf
VeNr-toi,- H-VON 'C'.
T14,
00053
DES1I
c1LXRCAfl
1lPENT'WYlNAi '30 L5 ON A VA RIAPLE, '5?Tf~ WITHOUr AN
D.NMEr CAN E.PIPPICUCT; HOhltV MK, A4-UgATi- llENlfl(A
TION 1MNS A WEALTH bF INFOMAT1ON FOK
JTrFoN-D1E.
uVINcN
a..
SOIL IPt7NTIfCATION
SAD4POi 6fAVqL?. MYA HNPUL. OF 'O ILV
Good load-bearing soils
have a spectrum of sand
and gravel sizes, and
thus are well graded.
*IFARTICL45 PK VKAR GLE=AP
OK GEAVEoIF ON-RALF THE-PARqlM77Y4"=C1AVCL.
elF LZ'.9 TI4AN
I01, i INVwA&l,= CA-/
I IN0T ,\T IS A 'ILTY Of, C4.AY5ANO QAL.
CtAY
.Lr?WeP rt ouro6A g rAxca4v,
ANP WET fOIL ANP MOLP IT INTO A FAT- tr
P,TY TO TR
EAYK IT1
1Y M-KmE
gI
01 lF IT CANNOT.P 1E390KEN OK owEeR,,2uT
Pure silts have a very
low dry strength which ie
a
clear indication of
ON\..19WAP* wTir4C=AT ffOr= LArICcAY
" IF IT P913KE.M WITH 0ME- Efroi'=OR&ANC1 Ay their lack of foundationbearing potential.
" IF IT IS S.OkaN ANlWP EP EAJL~. 5ILT
FLA9TIC OR NO-'?LASTI C?
*F rT 6AM VE MOWEP ANV REMOLE WHEN
9U@WLHT VAMF'7wI A-tlc CCAY
* I1' 1R MOLT" Wrn CACkINC=N ON-flAT1&CQ
AM
0F
tT 6ANOTI'
MLDE
IT \ISgL:T7 ,ANP
*I F IT .0.1iV NOT DE- MOL7-P AT AULL=ONO9%AN\C7ThAT o9CX9 ~, rVENTPIMAOltX
1T1
ULACK 09
X%gK 9iOWN COLK, T-5
ViW1t "UrJ 9EMAI Ni, Mp 1AN41 F=Lt. MID
Organic soils, peat and
muck are compressible and
weak, and not loadbearing soiTs.
OR6Awicl OPX .
Ir
The plasticity of pure
clay is a clue to
possible land aippage
under loads.
05 THt -F NANGE OF eANPCIAVAfLT
COMINNATIONS THAT MUST-M 4N17P
IN F'AerIc4JLARX:
lereniT
5&j99
4iLT
151a
CVYitX
OV6ANIC S(Ti
SANZ( CL.AY
CLAY
SItY CLAY
ORGANIC-LAY
ti:
'nm
To wrnr
THi/M& ITSTp INWAText:
AFlXM f G OW- 60MIN.
NO
Vel160VLW
[.A'nCrN:Tf
10 RAI- fex. I,+.
LOW
IVAO.--evf.14t.
LOW - ME.
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Good surface drainage must be provided
for clayey soils, to prevent foundation
corrosion and damp basements.
Design footings and foundation slabs to
resist the uplift common in expansive
clays. Volume change can be prevented
by keeping the clay dry, although
extremely difficult.
For footing
stability, the extension of piles and
caissons to an inactive soil zone.
below
the expansive clay zone may be the best
solution.
lw
4A
Care must be taken to pin foundations
over clay against slippage or creep
under uneven-pressures.
Whenever building foundations must be
placed in organic silts,
which absorb
and retain water, design for the wet
basements and serious frost conditions
which will result.
The addition of
sand to either silts or clays may
improve drainage, thereby reducing
the damaging effect.
Silt is a poor soil choice under
foundation footings due to its
guu
instability.
Possible solutions to the
|
problem of construction on silts
includ
with stabler
completely replacing silt
soi,
or dri 'ng piles through the sil
o
he bearing soil.
lrs
Organic soils are highly compressive,
i water easily, and are generally
able for building. However,
c soils are ideal for cultivating
s and crops, and should be
ted on the site when there are
ernatives for building placement.
_r. .HNAe4-
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The higher temperatures on,
saade, -plazas or in the city
are due to the fact that man
made materials are in general
highly conductive but can
only retain their heat over
a short period of time.
Use water and natural
vegetation whenever possible
to stabilize microclimate
temperatures. In these
materials excess heat is
absorbed and stored to be
released only when the
temperature drops.
Therefore,
bodies of water might raise
ag average January temperature
5 F and decrease a July
Temperature
temperature 3-5 F.
over plagted grounds may be
up to 10 cooler than
e x-e d soil.
q*0
15L4A-rM 1WMO
BE TMMJTEP TO
W
i~XHE AIK LAYE--oa
Prevent the rapid heating of
surface air, by minimizing
the number of highly
reflective surfaces in
summer. In general, materials
with high albedos (coupled
with low conductivities) do
not help balance the shifts
in weather and cause extreme
climates.
I/ATS)rAOW'S
AX rw.
INVer:iT -TEM'M ZATN6E
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referervwts: 914 5 , to
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cotflRs1IVITY CIN Pte-g A$8.A
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00059
By using soil versus air to
pack walls and foundations, a
lesser temperature difference
from inside to out is provided,
which insulates the building
Fbr th
against rapid heat loss.
best insulation, build in
sandy soil, which retains heat
P
F
to greater
depths during the
day and releases heat in the
o
evening, when needed most,
warm building walls and surface
air.
TEM1f;ATURfE IN
9ELATION TO DBT1i4:
Clay soils, clayey loams,
and bedrock will conduct
heat rapidly and leave
basement floor stabs cold.
Therefore, for siting
foundations, soils (such
as sand, sandy loams,
and gravels) should be
chosen, with low conducto keep floors
tivities
and walls warmer, but
with good heat retention
to reradiate during
colder periods.
In addition, exposed reflective
surfaces will quickly heat up
the winter air in parks on sunny
A WINT
WATE4MOPFIE9J
TEMY.
ET MM"
days,
EPLEC
HEArNw
wEa6H T, ANP TlHEmCoP491?0e
ref
&
1
but are easily protected
from the sun in summer.
The
inclusion of any body of water
in a design solution helps
stabilize the air temperature
absorbing
as reflecting little,
heat over longer periods.
o
r
-pv*LY.
a
OOOGO
50ILS f WATEK EK0D5NO
AMJDR 15UP' A Vr&e6lO Mfg T M
ThE= ARETVO
E TlWTH
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TO FlrV-NT
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-IN EWf 1kpIM MAJOR 1UN)FF WEVER TiEiE ENM EANV MINERAL 1616
H-HCH HO TQTHE IN THE T4E. OF WAT.R, OFTEN -9VEV SU1FAC-.
AwALAT EM?
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F094E IN WATEK !UNOFF W4CH MAY v-SEr1IO(LY UNPERMNE SUILVN4
TION'5, AN'
FaUNVJPA-
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.,TJO VEN T oH FO9/4c OF WATER E9O10N.. W MOVT E-f&TN
. .
WHEN
[JA5 AN ZLL- AMOUNT OF OANIC,- MATCrIAL TO MINEMAL (DNTET.
QMANIC ANV MWghL-
MATERgALs AKE COLNW
ArNELit.
50L (LS
SROUPlbE, W1C44 1CH RE T T OLP.01 Lt, Af E AL--A AB!*Rw ' f~lA-TATiON
AP' U)EFAE WATEK TO TLNI~e;H VUNOFr ANV 170aL7 OF
5TANPIlj WATM-.
Prevent topsoil loss by using
nser soils with greater
mineral content. Then,
prevent the fast surface
runoff (which undermines
v building foundations) by
introducing: 1)a large proMiportion bf organic materials
-
SO01 LS(V4 NP f~og4ON
to increase absorption. 2)
vegetation and rougher
surfaces to slow the
remaining runof .
WINP
ON 1S EPUVCE1p V O6 S E UP
bl\4CAN M tNTACAJ A
-E90TFCTIVE /$R U{EK AT~HE. &OUNP. f'Kr t;MLE,
6A-~5 TfAP5 A
THICK AY, LAYM WJHdic 5SEvEs TO REZEC;rT4E PW6-lWk wINM2 TO
A5 INSULATH15 AK 1%ANKET ALOE
%GWLGY flf6VERCHNANNES.
T ON FCr7JAA 5URFAC6E AN;2 UNVERGOUNP 'TKUC-TURE".
PENSER 59ILt- (5AXr A550LAY
,gAMAWEgAL5 'l/2
AL-5O tvm-r WuN1
EFDO~iN VY THrlRS'TVON6 COHEINt. fORGE. cON Ti OmEK HAN1, L4LY
UNP ~OI L5 (''lXA A3 3AN ~I &\LT, OR LL AM5) A~ cE-OFT N CARKEP
AWAY -Y EVFN S4GWT WTJ1NQ MVEMNTs.
Prevent wind erosion by pro.Oiding denser soils, rougher
soil surfaces, and retaining
vegetation. On windy slopes,
ive preference to clays, rocks
and mineral soils which check
wind erosion. Avoid loosely
bound soils such as silts,
Oil
sandy silts,
or loams which
are~ ga-qi7-7
ea r*e
/Zamay
0j0061
~I1~
~
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(~~M
1)-
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AOVNVJJAW4
VrP
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5GNIC ANT IN THC Cji CZE OF ')UKFAcEF1NIStICIS A1rPCON5TnVcTtoN MATERLALS, As
WELL. A5 INT14E (cII0tcOf VZTATO4. 0ON
A6CAL'OFACA1DPTLI OK IH-FACTORSVALUES
KKLM rOM 0 To il4 W N I 1zr%.ewENT
eN&Lt*P j&vicA1r
+,VR1M
Acapay.
WMETK ALITY-> NUMICKS !-e.6T14AN -7 FO INCKP6IN AOIPITY, AN? N UME
6KEAT E
TMEE5 INWATC5IL ACIITI
' 5. T4AN 1 FrK INC Z
A IM AM TY.WMEJNfVM
y - A.
WAEKTNAN " OR G ATEIZ T4AN 6
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V0V4LA-rFIX 64
OK 9 , fiw5s LAlp7 IN-THEGbUW? W-CO
lE
C-uC 000 1.5-1(p
NOT TO MENTIoN LEe5 9MSTM AMt TUNF7ATLON.
M4se 1WE 4.0-Yo
4L)MirE1Zr40N5 OFrN HAVE AOiC 2, W HILtt.
1ZiE'E ARZ A1AtJTA1N ALAWUl50tLt.S.
eT-C eiOOT srau- COLOR5
OFt New
5Q(.AR M Ant~-lf
IN OAK V-f6
H rrE, 4W. V_-.
Y(.AMg
04V
10A.4 wALhUr 1-6
Determine the acidity of
the soils on the site
through observation and
testing, then prevent
corrosion by proper sealing
materials and surface
selection.
WATER5kTUfATION:
5CL65 5ATUATEP WITH WATC
AL'SOHAV A
TENDENCY' TO COIP09? -BULlIN4S-,vY TH..
CO(TINUAL, PrEEZC41 AND THAWN( OfP FOUNtATIONJS ANP FLWIK tAG., '1 THE AC1i1Y OF THE.
WATM, -1Y THE LPEK FcT y0TENTT A,
-Provide adequate drainage
around submerged foundations,
as well as good waterproofing;
to prevent corrosion by
water.
rdfereric<xv:4,
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or
Impervious soils (with little
result in wet
no infiltration)
smelly ground surfaces which
corrode foundations, cause
extended frost pockets, and subject
basement slabs to freeze-thaw
action. Standing pools of water
will exist on heavy soils, such
as clay, and on soils whose
.ve been clogged by
openings
fine particles. O ver these
nonpercolating soils, then, an
intermediate soil, such as a
bed of gravel, must be placed
to provide adequate drainage for
the building foundation
WATEK
The good percolation of graded sands,
and certainly loams, will
some silts
to drain at a proper
sewage
allow
rate. By purification, soil chemicals
and bacteria prevent sewage and
drainage from polluting ground waters.
Well-graded soil mixtures with
adequate drainage, will slow
subsurface water runoff and thus
prevent high pressures on
foundations and potential water
infiltration. If the soil is
not well graded, or has poor
-FI-EeuZP5
drainage, the building should be
relocated, or foundations
reinforced.
Watertight construc-_
tion and waterproofing must also
be prov1 Cg.w
_
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1)Whenever possible, leave snow
accumulation (and add vegetation)
to act as an insulator for the soil,
serving to stabilize ground
emperature and prevent freezeNO FP4Othaw
damage.
in
2)Wetting soils
stabilize
wil
Mhelp
no-frost months
temperatures
air
by retaining heat for cooler hours.
FT DECITO ANVOUMO
PEI &-I V.# (DVCKo
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For building stability,
foundation
"footings
must be placed below the frost
line,
a line which varies regionally
as well as locally - depending on the type
of soil.
The national building code
requires that buildings be placed one foot
frost level.
below this
To prevent corrosion and cracking,
foundations must also be protected from
freeze-thaw action of frost. Frost
- "the
damage can be prevented by removing all
highly frost-susceptible materials
' 1 within the depth of frost penetration,
I Mand replacing them with frost-free material.
Often the expense of this is prohibitive,
rand
fros t -free materials can only be
placed at the base of the foundation,
OA
Q.& jfoundation
IR ORMTW.AS 'O1L/' W11
WTO46V I'~ZA1O0 AMw
directly under pavements.
Therefore,
materials must be chosen to
withstand the corrosion and cracking
effects of the frost.
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silty soils will compress under loads
when dry, which often causes a lopsided
settling in building foundations. When
wet or frozen, silt is even more unstable.
It swells and heaves badly, so foundations
must either be carried to deep, stabler
x
or be elastic enough to cope with
-soils,
the heaving pressures and height variations.
Clays also swell when wet, heaving under
foundation slabs. In addition, the
crystalline flakes that compose clay allow
one clay layer to slide on another, requiring the use of floating foundations,
or piles which can reach the deeper soils
-
-Topsoil
with better bearing quality.
Layers also slip on clay soils, implying
that decks or light construction be carefully tied to the foundation structure or
be anchored to stabler soil.
'
Uncontadned sands, found particularly near bodies of water,
are subject to continual shifting, with no point loading
!herefore, sands are unsuitable for stable foundapossible.
tions unless braced or contained.
In general, soils with higher mineral content -ranging from
non-plastic clays and silts to bedrock - have good stability
for building purposes. Organic soils on the other hand, are
unfit for construction, being subject to both form and volume
alterations under Loads.
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00085
4?1
A PROMISE
Site Reconnaissance is only a small factor in the way that
natural forces affect the craft of building. Indeed, inspite
of beginning well, one can nullify all the natural gains of
responsive site design, by poor building placement, poor
designing, or poor detailing. This handbook, then, is the
first segment of a projected work on Natural Forces and The
Craft of Building, which will eventually encompass all of the
following topics:
NATURE
AND THE BUILDING SITE: SITE RECONNAISSANCE
Reading the Site: Vegetation
Reading the Site: Drainage
Reading the Site: Topography
Reading the Site: Soils
Microclimate Specifics
NATURE AND BUILDING FORM
Orientation/Siting
Massing/Shape
Configuration/Plan
Massing Additives: balconies, arcades..
Siting Whoopdedoos: fountains,furniture..
NATURE AND THE BUILDING SHELL
The Structural System
Floor sections: crawl spaces, basements, on-grade
Floors: materials
Wall sections
Walls: materials
Roof sections: attics, slopes, roof forms
Roofs: materials
Thermal mass and section variations
Weathering and the building shell
NATURE
AND BUILDING COMPONENTS
Openings in the building wall
The choice in windows, size, shape, flexibility
Strategies for selection and placement
Shades, Awnings and Screens
Entrance prototypes
Window and Door detailing
Craftsmanship/ Construciton techniques
Surface finishes: texture, porosity, endurance
Chimney design: a collection of sound principles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following references have proved invaluable resources in
the writing of this
thesis (and are referenced within the
actual text by number).
I Aronin, Jeffrey Ellis, Climate and Architecture, Reinhold
Publishing Corporation, New York, no date.
a very goodreference where all the elements comprising
climate- wind, sun, moisture, temperature- are described
in full, with methods and instruments for calculation,
and design implications for architects.
2.Brainerd, John W., Working With Nature,:A Practical Guide,
Oxford University Press, New York, 1973.
a manual on vegetation, soils, water, and rock management,
or how to use your sit to build.
iBrown, Vinson, Reading the Woods, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg,
PA., 1969.
a text on vegetation and soil as indicators of microclimate.
4Foth, H.D., and L.M. Turk, Fundamentals of Soil Science, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1951.
a clear text on soil type, soil water, soil content, and
soil acidity, including the highly technical characteristics.
5Geiger, Rudolph, Climate Near the Ground, Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, MA., 1965.
this reference contains the experimental data behind many
of the conclusions drawn in this thesis.
6oHendler, Bruce, Building in the Wildlands of Maine, Land Use
Regulation Commission, Augusta, Maine, 1973.
a well illustrated how-to book on site response and in
fact, a case study, or application, of the thesis material.
7.Lynch, Kevin, Site Planning, The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, MA.,
1962.
the best overview on site planning and site analysis.
9,Olgyay, Victor, Design With Climate, Princeton University Press,
Princeton, N.J., 1963.
a more in depth explanation of the regional climate
specifics brought to the microclimate level as design
criteria.
00087
q.Peck,
Ralph B. , Walter E. Hanson, and Thomas H. Thornburn,
Foundation Engineering, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1974.
an exhaustive explanation of
sensitivities, climates.
soil:
soil types, stabilities,
10.Rapoport, Amos, House Form and Culture, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969.
an overall text which continues from climate as a
modifying factor to construction, materials, and technology
as modifying factors.
11."Regional Cliamte Analyses and Design Data," Bulletin of the
American Institute of Architects, Sept., 1949-Jan., 1952.
the house beautiful climate control project includes
fifteen years of climatological information, and is an
invaluable source of data with implications for building
designs.
1lZRobinette, Gary 0., Plants/People/ and Environmental Quality.
American Society of Landscape Architects Foundation,
Washington, D.C., 1972.
a biased, but comprehensive study of vegetation, its
effect on sites and environmental quality.
t*.Ward, R.C.,
Principles of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.
a highly technical explanation of the properties of water:
precipitation, evaporation, soil moisture, and groundwater.
Pi.Wyman, Donald, Trees for American Gardens, The MacMillan Company,
New York, 1965.
an authorative encyclopedia on vegetation.
O ther sources which have
text include:
le .nt authority and detail to
i5.
Anderson, Bruce (Total Environmental Action Group),
Energy Housing Design. unpublished paper.
the
Solar
b(P.Baham, Reyner, Architecture of the Well Tempered Environment,
n
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1969.
ICarson, A.
Brinton, Foundation Construction, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1965.
teClark, Wilson, Energy For:.Survival: The Alternative to Extinction,
Doubleday, Garden City, N.Y., 1974.
/( Holleman, Theo, "Air Flow Through Conventional Window Openings,"
Texas Engineering Experimant Station No. 33, Nov., 1951.
E
L.McHarg, Ian, Design With Nature, Doubleday/Natural History
Press, 1971.
Z1.U.S. Department of Architecture, The Yearbook of Agriculture
1955 WATER, The U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C., 1955.
With time and practice and interest, the material covered in this
thesis will lose its novelty, and the design clues and implications
will prove only to be the first step in designing with the natural
forces.
Yo continue into the next few chapters, the issues of
'Building Shell 7 and 'Building Component', a few references might
include:
62."Energy Conservation in Building Design' American Institute of
Architects, Research Corporation, Wash. D.C. 1974.
an overview of all the design considerations which will
influence eneregy consumption in buildings.
Z'. Fitch, James Marston, American Building 2: the Environmental
Forces that Shape It, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1972.
this reference deals directly with designing a building
in response to climate.
&4Rogers, Tyler Stewart, Thermal Design of Buildings, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 1964.
a good overview of the building shell, its design and
performance.
0 5fU.S. Housing and Home Finance Agency, Application of Climate
Data to House Design, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Wash, D.C. 1954.
an out of print, but excellent manual on the next stage of
building in response to climate.
24.Van Straaten, J. Thermal Performance of Buildings, Elsevier
Publishing Company, New York, 1967.
a scientific, yet readable discussion of building for
physical comfort. The Elsevier book series is an outstanding collection on the ' theory of architecture' beginning
with physical needs.
00089
Acknowledgements:
Prof. Edward Allen
who will be an encouragement and resource forever.
and my principle readers,
who offered unbounded time and advice
Prof. James Becker
Prof. Kevin Lynch
Prof. Tunney Lee
Prof. Terry Schnadelbach
Prof. Mike Underhill
Prof. Waclaw Zalewski
William Turnbill
John Freeman 4 James Andersen
with love to,
Stephannie, Denny, John, Peter, John,
for every last hour.