NATURAL SPACE CONDITIONING FOR A TALL RESIDENTIAL STRUCTURE
by
Jamie Devol
B.S. Architectural Studies University of Illinois, Urbana
June 1978
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the requirements for the
Degree of
Master of Architecture
at the
Massachusetts' Institute of Technology
June 1980
@Jamie Devol 1980
The Author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission
to reproduce and to distribute publicly copies of
this thesis document in whole or in part.
Signature of Author
ii
Department of Architecture
June 1980
Certified by
y Johnson, Principal Research Associate
Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by
Rotch
MASSACHUSEfS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
MAY 3 0 1980
LIBRARIES
Maurice Smith, Professor of Architecture, Chairman
Departmental Committee for Graduate Students
Natural Space Conditioning for a Tall Residential Structure
by Jamie Devol
Submitted to the Department of Architecture on May 8, 1980 in
of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture.
partial fulfillment
Abstract
residential structure can be designed for high degrees of thermal and visual
comfort and energy conservation through natural space conditioning. This thesis shows how
passive solar heating, natural daylighting, and natural ventilation systems can be integrated
as parts of the structure through the use of new and old building technologies.
A tall
This tall
residential structure is
the mid-twentieth century.
It
is
in
also in
contrast to the typical single family housing of
contrast to the mechanically space-conditioned
towers built during an era of energy abundance.
The presented tower is
an architectural response to local Boston climate.
Its building
New
form and flow-through organization are well-suited for natural space conditioning.
building technologies as well as age old passive techniques optimize solar insolation for heat
and daylight as well as pressure and thermal forces for interior air flow.
The three major components of the finely integrated natural space conditioning system
are individually addressed.
Passiw solar heating for the south-facing building zones involves solar collection
through direct gain windows, thermal storage in the structural building elements, and heat
distribution aided by building organization.
New building technology permits significant
solar heating from diffuse radiation for the north-facing units.
An appropriate auxiliary
heating system, sympathetic to the overall decentralized method of heating,
is
selected.
High quality daylighting is
achieved through well recognized methods in
combination
with some relatively new technologies.
Natural ventilation, consistent with passive solar heating and natural daylighting,
is
developed for each unit through the use of prevailing summer winds.
The tall
structure
invites the use of the stack effect for controlled air flow over pressure differentials
between a low inlet and a high outlet.
As an inherent part of the structure,
natural space conditioning criteria combine
The result is
with housing requirements to generate the building form.
structure in harrony with the environment.
Timothy Johnson
Thesis Supervisor:
Title: Principal Research Associate
-
,
a tall residential
Acknowledgements
Timothy Johnson
for support, patience,
Douglas Mahone
for more of the same
and knowledgeable suggestions
Ed Quinlan and his TI 59
John Crowley
Robert Slattery
for the tall building studio
Frank Durgin
for use of the MIT Wright Brothers Wind Tunnel
Al Chock
Nicholas Godbey
Renny Snyder
for editing and typing
Beth Frey
Bonnie,
Carol
Lee
Alex,
Chris,
and Jim
Table of Contents
Title Page .....................................
Abstract.
..............................................................
Acknowledgements
4
.......................................................
Table of Contents ...............
5
......................................
7
Introduction ...........................................................
Chapter 1:
The Tall Residential Structure
Chapter 2:
Passive Solar Heating..................
Z
..............................
....................
13
32
Why Passive Solar Heating
Passive Solar Heating Objectives for
Direct
Limitations to Passive Solar Heating in Tall
Chapter 3:
Gain
Structures
Design Response to Passive Solar Heating,
Direct Gain
Design Response to Passive Solar Heating,
Indirect Gain
Natural Daylighting ....................................... . 45
Why Natural Daylighting
Natural Daylighting Objectives
Limitations to Natural Daylighting in Tall Structures
Design Response to Natural Daylighting
Chapter 4:
Natural Ventilation
........................................ 66
Why Natural Ventilation
Natural Ventilation Objectives
Limitations to Natural Ventilation in
Tall Structures
Design Response to Natural Ventilation
Chapter 5:
Auxiliary Heating .........................................
Appendix A-1:
A-2:
83
Direct Gain Calculations...............................
89
Indirect Gain Calculations
94
............................
Appendix B:
Light Model Studies for Daylight Levels and Quality
.....
116
Appendix C:
Light Model Studies for East and West-Facing Sun Control
132
Appendix D: - Recommended Minimum Daylight Factors
........
Appendix E:
Wind Tunnel Studies for Interior Air Flow ...
Appendix F:
Stack-Sizing Calculations ...................
Appendix G:
Cost Analysis of Auxiliary Heating ..........
Bibliography
...............................................
139
.............
141
168
.............
172
174
INTRODUCTION
7
Introduction
Natural space conditioning for a tall residential structure is a retreat from the architecture of the affluent mid-twentieth century.
During
but bland interior environment.
a comfortable,
a mere multiplying and
Large urban boxes,
stacking of horizontal boxes,
are of no improve-
too, fail to respond to the
this era of unlimited energy supply, buildings
ment; for they,
were constructed independent of local climate.
natural environment.
Mechanical space conditioning systems guaranteed
faceless envelopes accomodating multitudinous
environmental comfort in
conditions.
any shelter under any
This fueled the proliferation of the
They have degenerated into
mechanical and electrical facilities,
a frantic
effort to regulate interior comfort.
the suburbs
The arrangement of small boxes in
homogeneous box.
TNHE
14~O6&A IGU
BOX
and larger ones in
the city requires great mobility
due to separation of function, living to shopping
Isolation from nature and artificial
and working.
uniformity of interior comfort is tenuously preserved between these two stations by a stream of
oversized automobiles, environmentally controlled
with heaters, air conditioners, and tape decks.
The homogeneous box comes in
and suburban.
two forms,
urban
Millions of acres of countryside
have become flypaper for the suburban breed of
box,
little
the single family home.
These vulnerable
boxes are sprinkled at regular intervals
with no regard to the forces of nature.
equipment is
Mechanical
required to continually pump energy
into these boxes in
a valiant effort to maintain
I
E
I
a
E-
Such blatant disregard for the environment
results in an incredible amount of wasted energy.
About 1/3 of all energy used in
is consumed by buildings.
Oil,
p.8).
the United States
(Caudill, A Bucket of
At least half of this energy,
alone,
is
reason to
design for natural space conditioning.
solar heating, natural daylighting,
Passive
and natural
maintains a comfortable
As such,
natural space conditioning is
the cost of
absorbed in
building costs of structure,
production of multitudes of single family houses.
saved through shared resources such as
structure,
and materials.
Medium
to high density housing implies an urban setting,
close to work and shopping.
the
glazing,
and finish materials.
initial
cost may be no more than that for
conventional structures.
Total expenses over the
life of the building are significantly less
Walking, bicycling
and mass transit replace the inefficient car,
"the
the most visible symbol of conspicuous consump-
cost effective.
Passive solar heating, natural daylighting,
if
not demoralizing.
is
Natural space
conditioning provides a play between indoors and
out, which improves the quality of life.
solar heating, natural daylighting,
ventilatibn heighten an individual's
Passive
and natural
awareness of
the recurring natural cycles by which the human
is governed... from night to day and from season
to season.
As an inherent part of the building, natural
(Caudill, A Bucket of Oil, p. 15).
Natural space conditioning is
a symptom
of the spendthrift years of limitless energy,
depressing,
building construction as opposed to the
tion."
response to the
Isolation from the out-of-doors,
Energy conservation is also argument for
utilities,
interior environment.
in
through energy conservation measures.
renewabililty.
land,
cyclic forces of nature,
systems,
ventilation utilize free energy with infinite
Energy is
itself,
Even when furnished with mechanical back-up
less building design.
tall
The building,
traditional
80
billion gallons of oil, is wasted through thought-
Energy conservation,
ment.
and
natural ventilation require no mechanical equip-
space conditioning systems are form-givers to
architecture.
Criteria for passive solar heating,
natural daylighting, and natural ventilation
provide reason for design resolutions.
This lends
a definitive character to regional styles.
homogeneous box, on the other hand, is
The
isolated
from nature and dependent on mechanical environ-
The premise of this thesis is
that a tall
residential structure can be designed for interior
environmental comfort and energy conservation
through natural space conditioning.
Passive solar
and natural venti-
mental control.
With no hints for design from
heating, natural daylighting,
the environment,
the building often takes on an
lation systems are finely integrated as parts of
arbitrary form,
mate.
independent of location or cli-
This has no reason.
the structure through the use of new and old
building technologies.
Passive solar heating depends on direct solar
gain for south-facing building zones.
storage is
inherent in
Thermal
the concrete structural
system, common to many tall buildings.
A flow-
through organization allows the convection and
uniform distribution of heat from the lower levels
of solar collection and storage to the upper
levels, isolated from direct gain.
A new technology permits passive solar heating
for north-facing building zones.
used as a glazing material,
is
Heat mirror,
transparent to
incoming short wave radiation from diffuse northern
light.
It
is
infrared rays.
opaque
Heat energy from both the sky
vault and internal
space,
to the returning longwave
gains are
trapped within the
thereby contributing almost half of the
north-facing aniuial heating load.
height,
collect and distribute solar heat gain,
and true building methods such as high ceilings,
natural
daylight,
tall widdows, and shallow rooms with white walls.
vertical shading fins control low sun angle heat
Building form allows for multi-directional lighting
gain and diffuse the accompanying light for plea-
Natural daylighting is
while light shelves,
optimized by old tried
reflective louvers and ver-
and overhead ventilation.
sant natural lighting within the space.
The
In
they create negative pressure fields for
tical shading fins control light penetration and
addition,
uniformity.
air flow outlets and accomodate flues for stack
effect ventilation.
Natural ventilation depends on the flow
The overall organization
through organization used in heat distribution.
permits solar heating, natural daylighting and
The crenelated building form creates pressure
natural ventilation throughout the entire building.
A detailed description of this integrated
differentials inducing air flow from a field of
design response to natural space conditioning
positive pressure to one of relative negative
pressure.
The vertical shading fins create pockets
of negative pressure in
control functions.
criteria appears in
addition to their light
Chapters 1,
2,
3,
and 4.
Chapter 1 describes the tall residential
Selected fins also accomodate
building as it
is
organized by vertical neighbor-
hoods.
ventilation stacks, one for each living unit.
Chapter 2 focuses on passive solar heating.
These stacks cause air flow via pressure differentials that exist between a low inlet and a high
Objectives,
outlet.
in
Integration of these natural space condition-
limitations to passive solar heating
tall structures,
and the design response to
passive solar heating objectives are discussed.
ing, systems with each other and with the building
Appendix A provides direct and indirect gain
is obvious by examining building elements individ-
calculations,
ually.
For example,
the "clerestory" windows,
combination with the light shelf at transom
in
supporting materials for this
design response.
Chapter 3 focuses on natural daylighting.
It, too, lists objectives, limitations to natural
daylighting in
tall structures,
response to these objectives.
and the design
Appendices B, C,
and D provide supporting material for the design
response through light studies and recommended
daylight factors.
Chapter 4 focuses on natural ventilation.
Objectives, limitations to natural ventilation
in tall structures, and the design response to
these objectives are discussed.
Appendix E
presents the wind tunnel studies and Appendix F
provides stack effect calculations.
An auxiliary heating system is
final chapter.
chosen in
the
Appendix G evaluates the initial
cost of the chosen decentralized scheme to that
of a conventional heating system.
CHAPTER 1
THE TALL RESIDENTIAL
STRUCTURE
Chapter 1
A design developed in
tall
Professor R. Slattery's
building studio serves as a base from which to
generate a tall
residential structure using
natural space conditioning criteria.
project, a "small tower,"
is
The studio
organized around a
series of vertical neighborhoods.
Fifteen dwelling
units within and around a four story community
common define one vertical neighborhood.
Five
neighborhoods compose the tower.
The design criteria,
to create a three-
dimensional composition of dwelling units and
common space,
interconnected by a continuous
circulation spiral, generated the design.
The
crenelated building form lends itself well to the
application of natural space conditioning criteria.
Many of the living units,
as well as the public
space, benefit from flow-through organization,
with multi-levels and three or more exposed
weather walls.
Through consideration for passive solar
heating, natural daylighting and natural ventilation, a new structure evolves.
Comparison of the
original design to that at the end of this chapter
shows the changes.
0
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The main elevator stop for each neighborhood
Natural space conditioning criteria is
applied
occurs at the second level.
Concrete steps lead
to the common space and to each unit individually.
to the first
This allows for flexibility of the interior
All unit entries are off this community common.
The character of this public space is
environment according to user needs.
a neighborhood on a hill.
Natural space conditioning criteria:
1)
2)
3)
one of
Natural daylighting
Elongates the building along the east-west
axis;
and ventilation render the space as exterior.
Increases the amount of south-facing double
glazing and the amount of north-facing
heat mirror;
exterior daylight, while cooling breezes heighten
Decreases the amount of east-west glazing;
glass doors along the south-facing expanse,
4) Alters wall elevations sections,
materials;
5)
and third levels of the public space.
and
6) Alters room proportions, decreasing room
depths while increasing ceiling height;
7)
Changes partition placement and design;
8)
Suggests room finish.
the basic
ideas of the original building remain intact.
four-story neighborhoods.
By opening sliding
limited number to the north,
and a
the neighborhood
The south-facing sliders open onto an
ground.
outdoor balcony,
an exterior extension of the
neighborhood.
A profusion of plants not only visually
the smell of soil to this sunlit common.
of outdoor neighborhoods,
Typical
concrete paths for
subdivided into five,
circulation and play are defined by these garden
Each neighborhood is
areas.
composed of a three-level communal space.
dwelling units are oriented in
community common.
the sense of the outdoors.
suggests an outdoor space, but lends dampness and
In spite of these and other changes,
structure is
quality of interior light fluctuates with the
becomes a sheltered exterior space high above the
Changes the neighborhood and unit layout
for better flow-through organization;
The 240'
The
Fifteen
and around the
Park benches and porch swings interspersed
with plants offer "outdoor" seating in sunshine or
shade,
in
direct breeze or built shelter.
A convincing symbol of a true neighborhood
is
The laundry
a laundry-filled clothes line.
The design for a tall residential structure
facilities on the second level to the north,
include an indoor-outdoor drying porch,
with natural space conditioning is
perceptually
reinforcing the neighborhood character.
The architectural detailing of the unit
facades and entries is
weather walls,
exterior in
operable windows,
character, with
transoms,
and
planters.
The typical unit, itself,
reinforces
door quality of the neighborhood common.
the outThe
transom over the door admits light from the vertical neighborhood,
exterior.
suggestive of a door to the
Immediately inside the entry is
for bicycles, muddy boots,
a space
and wet umbrellas,
as
well as the typical entry closet for overcoats.
This second-level entry permits one to
retreat unseen to the bedroom or bath, or to
descend the stair shaft to the kitchen-diningliving areas.
This organization divides the living
unit into two zones, an active zone and a quiet
zone.
These are separated by a core wall and a
level change of one story.
Both portions are
backed against the core wall.. .the bath and bedroom upstairs,
area.
above
the kitchen-dining-living
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CHAPTER 2
PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING
W
Passive Solar Heating?
Widespread solar heating could reduce national
fuel consumption and environmental degradation by
(Anderson, The Solar Home Book, p.1).
10% or more.
p.
Home Book,
1).
Climates across the globe differ, and solartempered structures vary in
Therefore,
response to the local
passive solar design is
a
No matter what mechanical space conditioning systems
climate.
are to be installed, all buildings should be opti-
potential cause for a rich diversity of regional
mized for natural thermal comfort and energy
styles.
Arguments in
conservation.
Solar energy is
throughout the world.
conveniently distributed
It is independent of expen-
sive transportation networks and ugly political
policies.
Its use lessens dependence on government
and industries which monopolize concentrated energy
supplies for economic and political power.
A passive solar heating system is
the building
itself; building materials couple as the heating
mechanism.
Such simple approaches
to environmental
abound,
design.
favor of passive solar heating
and all can be applied to this particular
most prevalent in single-
Solar design is
family housing, but as formerly mentioned,
be a consideration in
should
any project.
The vertical neighborhood is of an outdoor
a quality reinforced by passive solar
character,
heating.
Sunshine is almost the definition of out-
doors, and plenty of sunshine must be admitted into
a passive solar structure.
Even in tall structures,
control are often less expensive and more reliable
inhabitants need not be isolated from the world
than conventional mechanical systems or high tech-
outside.
nology methods of solar heating.
vide views.
Passive solar heating must be an important
consideration in each design step.
This results in
Windows designed for solar gain also proThe effective use of the sun requires
occasional tasks such as adjusting louvers or moving
insulation.
This attunes people to their own enviIt
makes them more aware of
design decisions backed by reason, a shelter that
ronment and building.
reflects "an understanding of the sun's power,
the wasteful habits of a consumption society.
generosity,
and cruelty."
(Anderson,
The Solar
Passive Solar Heating Objectives for Direct
Gain
1) As a solar collector, the building's form,
orientation, and organization should welcome solar
gain when needed, reject it when not, in order to
maintain a comfortable interior temperature.
accepting the winter sun,
low on the
horizon, while rejecting the hot overhead summer
sun with simple sun control devices.
the sunlight must be diffused at the window
and distributed over a large surface area of the
storage material.
This is
due to the relatively
low effective heat capacity of many building
South-facing windows are effective solar
collectors,
mass,
Distributing
materials.
The amount of mass required may be 5 to
6 times the area of south-facing window.
If beam solar penetrates the glazing to a
phase change materials must be used
excess heat throughout the building mass conserves
targeted mass,
that energy for nighttime and overcast days, lower-
to prevent overheating.
ing the use of auxiliary heating.
ble of abosrbing the intense energy contained in
2) As a heat storehouse, the building should
offer sufficient amounts of thermal storage mass
in order to limit the temperature swing.
direct sunlight while decreasing the surface area
The greatest heating load occurs at night
whereas almost all of the solar gain takes place
between 8 in
If
the morning and 4 in
the storage material is
the afternoon.
unable to absorb that
portion of incoming radiation which exceeds
immediate heating load, overheating occurs.
the
And
with lack of storage material or with excessive
heat loss,
nighttime and cloudy day temperatures
will dip to uncomfortable levels.
If
ordinary
building materials double as the thermal storage
necessary for storage.
These materials are capa-
Buildings with large areas
of south-facing glass inundated with direct sunlight are susceptible not only to overheating but
to glare as well.
Control of this sunlight for
visual comfort is a necessity in a good passive
heating design.
This is dealt with in the proceed-
ing chapter.
3) As a heat trap, the building must conserve
thermal energy in order to substantially reduce
auxiliary heating loads.
This implies more than capturing and storing
solar radiation.
Lowering building heat loss is
an implicit part through the use of ample insula-
Limitations to Passive Solar Heating in Tall
tion, tight construction, double glazing, and heat
Structures
mirror.
Many conventional tall
Heat mirror accepts short wave radiation
while reflecting back into the room the longwave
thermal radiation.
It
traps energy from diffuse
entiated geometric forms.
buildings are undifferThey are composed of a
repetitive rhythm of rooms wrapped around a core
northern light and that from internal heat gains,
or mundanely placed,
significantly lowering auxiliary heating require-
edge of a corridor.
side by side,
along either
The local exterior environment has no influence
ments in north-facing building zones.
over their predetermined form.
uncontrollable sun traps,
As such,
many are
admitting direct sunshine
through the east-facing glass facade in the morning,
its
day,
replica,
the south-facing facade throughout the
and the identical west-facing facade in
the
evening.
Without ample thermal storage,
overheat during the day.
these structures
They are inhabitable only
with the forced cooling of mammoth air conditioning
systems.
Unable to retain this heat gain for later
use, these structures become cold at night or on
sunless days,
requiring forced mechanical heating.
The design of a vertical neighborhood addresses
the idea of passive solar heating in
dential structure.
a tall resi-
Design Response
to Passive Solar Heating,
Direct Gain
The Building as a Solar Collector
The overall building proportions of 1.0 southfacing to 0.56 east and west-facing allow effective
passive solar gain along the 120'
Oriented squarely to the south,
south exposure.
the building relies
on the predictable movement of the sun for control
of glare and heat.
The incoming short-wave solar radiation is
diffused at the window plane by reflectorized louvers, light shelves, or multiple reflections off
the vertical shading fins.
Inside, sunlight is
further scattered by reflections off the lightcolored interior.
The Building as a Heat Storehouse
The building,
itself, if
the storage media.
The flat plate construction system consists of 8"
concrete slabs resting on 18" diameter concrete
columns,
and laterally braced by concrete shear
walls.
With each
reflection of sunlight off the in-
terior, light-colored concrete surfaces, part of
the energy is
absorbed and stored.
This is
diated later as long-wave thermal radiation.
reraThe
amount of thermal mass in
this concrete structure
is sufficient for control of temperature swings.
The Building as a Heat Trap
The entire building acts as a flexibile heat
trap.
With light control louvers as diffusers,
sunlight can be obstructed from one space and not
from another.
In
addition, each unit is
vented
separately, thereby allowing one apartment to rid
of excess heat without lowering the temperature of
adjacent spaces.
The Neighborhood as a Solar Collector
The three level neighborhood space collects
solar heat through a "greenhouse" expanse of southfacing double glazing.
along a 28'
864 square feet of glass
run of south-facing exposure rises three
levels above the lowest level of the vertical neighThis amount of glass admits enough energy
to maintain an average interior temperature of 670
borhood.
on a clear March day.
The Neighborhood as a Heat Storehouse
Close to 5,000 square feet of concrete surface
VECAL NEIGHOPORHOOD
i
3
limi t radiative
space to +4.6 0 F.
temperature swings within the public
On a clear March day, the
- -M
temperature within the public neighborhood
ranges
control with vegetation creates pleasant,
sun-
from 62.40F to 71.6 0F, a comfortable range for an
dappled expanses of shade, and the neighborhood
active space.
space shimmers with a sense of summertime.
Seasonal overheating, which can occur without
The Neighborhood as a Heat Trap
The neighborhood is
It
the urgings if
an efficient heat trap.
of the public space.
to the south except for a narrow two level link
with the north side.
north,
Heat mirror is
balcony,
used to the
addition,
the laundry facility is
placed here,
also
In
an
These sliders open onto a
an exterior extension of the inside/out-
side neighborhood.
admitting diffuse northern light while
reflecting thermal energy back into the space.
is
mitigated by the large sliders at the first level
an interior space with most of its glazing
is
direct sun penetration,
Jalousie louvers at the top
of the south-facing neighborhood and similar louvers at the north-facing laundry combine with the
internal heat gain generator that buffers the
sliders for effective breezes to carry away unwant-
neighborhood to the north.
ed radiant heat.
Summer sun control consists of a series of
festive, cheerful awnings, interior to the space,
which prevents the overhead sun rays from penetrating to the thermal mass.
They can be opened
much of the time; for an interior overhead vinecovered trellis
shades the first
level of the
neighborhood from excess summer sun.
Control of
glare and overheating on the second and third
levels of this public space does not depend solely
on these awnings,
either.
For they,
too, are
shaded by a vine-covered trellis, extending vertically from railing height to the ceiling.
Sun
____
_
____
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-
-
----
-
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The Unit as a Solar Collector
The typical south-facing unit is 2 bays deep
The south-most bay,
and 2 to 3 bays wide.
of solar collection,
is
the area
one level below the bay
that does not see direct south sunlight.
level of solar collection
This lower
is the living-dining-
kitchen complex, a zone of high internal heat gains.
The auxiliary heating system as well as heatproducing appliances such as a radio,
toaster,
stove
and refrigerator are located at this lower level,
supplementing the solar heat gain.
Such an organi-
zation allows heat from this room of solar collection and internal heat gains to be naturally
convected up the stair
Here it
is
shaft to the level above.
distributed evenly throughout the spaces.
189 square feet of south-facing glass insures
an average interior temperature of 68 F based on
SOU-
RAil
clear March weather data.
The window wall, as described in
ing chapter, is
the daylight-
composed vertically of a clerestory
light near the ceiling, a 5'-0" tall
midheight
window between the clerestory and a couting from
working plane to the floor for natural ventilation.
Sunlight entering the midheight window is
deflected
upwards 300 by reflectorized light-directing
El
16
UL
Jo
louvers.
In addition to scattering short-wave
radiation for distribution to the mass, these louvers are able to deflect unwanted summer sun in
order to prevent overheating.
shelf is
An 18" deep light
immediately above these midheight windows,
at transom height.
It
has a slight inward slope
in order to toss sunlight entering the clerestory
~1r~1 r~1r~
deeper into the room.
The light shelf distributes
energy to the thermal storage mass, increases light
penetration and improves uniformity of light levels
within the space.
The walls are light-colored, and
multiple reflections further distributes the heat
energy.
The Unit as a Heat Storehouse
The common core wall and the ceiling contribute
868 square feet of thermal memory.
This amount of
concrete limits the radiative temperature swing to
+5.40F.
Excess heat convects up the stair shaft
keeping the upper bedroom level in
thermal. comfort.
The Uni t as a Heat Trap
These south-facing units are heat traps.
Although each crenelated unit has at least three
weatherwalls,
ample insulation,
tight construction,
and double glazing limirs the heat loss.
Design Reponse to Passive Solar Heating,
Indirect Gain
The northwest unit is
The typical north-facing unit has an annual
solar heating fraction of over 40% as reported in
Yet it sees no direct solar radia-
Appendix A-2.
tion other than limited amounts through east or
west facing clerestories.
store heat,
no beam component to saturate the
for there is
thermal mass.
heat trap.
Nor does it
It
Instead,
with its auxiliary heating system and area of high
internal heat gains on the lower level.
captures diffuse radiation from the sky vault.
Weatherwalls of high heat resistance and low
infiltration, in combination with heat mirror
glazing make for an effective heat trap.
Heat
Natural
convection draws the warm air up the stair shaft
and distributes it
uniformly throughout the upper
level.
The effectiveness of passive heating, solar
the unit functions as a
retains internal heat gains and
a stacked two level box
intake/modified building load, is
analyzed month
by month for this unit in Appendix A-2.
modified unit load is
The
a function of the heat loss
per degree day and the number of degree days for
each month.
The number of degree days for a 24
the difference between the balance
mirror acts as a selective transmitter of radiation.
hour period is
Short wave radiation from diffuse northern light
point temperature and the mean outdoor temperature
passes through the heat mirror.
thermal energy is
The returning
to the longwave infrared rays.
felt as heat.
Transmitted radiation through heat mirror on
not permitted back outside due
to heat mirror's low emissivity surface,
radiation is
for the day.
opaque
This longwave
reflected back into the space and
an average day accounts for the solar intake.
includes diffuse light from the northern sky and
diffuse and beam light from the west.
With 47% of the northwall and 15% of the
The north-facing unit not only
captures thermal energy from the sky vault, but
traps heat generated within the space,
about 54,000 BTU/DAY.
itself,
This
westwall composed of heat mirror,
heats.
ekss
the unit over-
Decreasing the amount of north-facing
by 10% and eliminating two of the west-facing
clerestories
lessens the tendency to overheat.
With
37% of the north wall and 9% of the west wall composed of heat mirror,
the unit is
heated in April,
September,
May,
100% passively
and October.
Passive heating accounts for 27% of the modified
unit load in
December and January,
and 85% in March.
39% in
February,
The annual solar heating frac-
NORTHWEST
UNIT PLAN
tion, based on the amount of energy provided by
the sun to the annual unit load is
48%.
WEST
ELEVATION
0
0
8
16
NORTH
ELEVATION
2s
0
IA
25'
a two level staggered
The northeast unit is
L
1
arrangement, elongated along its east-west axis.
Its auxiliary system and area of high internal
heat gains are located on the lower level.
The
warm air is convected up the stair shaft and distributed uniformly throughout the upper level.
Passive heating for this unit is
in Appendix A-2.
Din i
-a
=
evaluated
38% of its north-facing facade
and 9% of its west-facing
facade is
heat mirror.
The performance of passive heating for this unit
is
comparable
to that for the northwest unit.
WEl E
Solar energy and internal heat gains provide 28%
of the northeast unit load in December and January.
Passive heating accounts for 40% of the February
heating load, 93% of the March load, and 89% of
_____000
the November load.
The annual solar heating
fraction is close to 50%.
NORTHEAST
UNIT
PLAN
0
8
E
CHAPTER 3
NATURAL DAYLIGHTING
Why Natural Daylighting?
A shelter designed to capture solar energy
for heat also intercepts that portion of radiant
glare.
Thus, optimization of daylight in a solar
heated building is conceptually important, if only
A
energy which permits us to see, sunlight.
shading devices guard against both overheating and
solar-tempered building which exploits the sun's
because light is an inherent part of solar gain,
"warm" rays while ignoring its "light" rays does
free energy with infinite renewability.
not completely utilize the sun's potential.
For
A shelter designed to be cooled by natural
12 waking hours per day, on yearly average, the
ventilation also invites the use of natural day-
sun offers an overabundance of light, more than
lighting.
required for most visual tasks.
And for thousands
The opportunity for both occurs at the
building perimeter, suggesting a large surface area
In addition, they require
of years man worked under this natural light in
to volume ratio.
buildings which responded to its availability.
openings in the building skin, implying a simul-
Only recently with the advent of centralized,
taneous opportunity to conserve cooling, and
highly controlled energy supplies have buildings
lighting energy.
disregarded natural light, depending entirely
upon artificial sources.
Although artificial
Quite aside from the omnipresent energyrelated justifications for natural daylight design,
illumination is needed in a naturally-lit building
people subjectively prefer daylit rooms. (Harvard
due to the unreliability of daylight, natural
University Graduate School of Design, "Daylight-
lighting can greatly reduce the use of artificial
ing").
sources.
the view to the outside world afforded by most
The opportunity for conserving lighting
An obvious factor for this preference is
naturally lit rooms.
In addition, well-designed
energy coexists with passive solar design; the
daylit spaces avoid impressions of gloom and
large areas of south-facing glass incorporated
visual monotony, so typical of
for heat gain double as a light source, while the
cially lit spaces.
artifi-
In homes where a domestic
atmosphere is
appropriate,
level appears sterile.
uniformity of light
residential structure
1) A naturally lit
should maximize the area of building that utilizes
sunlight without sacrificing thermal comfort;
Where needed, task
lighting creating pools of illumination make
the space available for all possible uses.
Natural daylight takes advantage of not only
the visible segment of the sun's spectrum,
but its
One such
intrinsic "living" qualities as well.
quality of daylight is its predictable recurring
cycles of day and season.
The lighting within a
naturally-lit space fluctuates in
phase with these
recurring cycles deepening the sense of passing
time through contact with the sun,
our biological
timepiece.
Daylit spaces gain richness through sunlight
as it is teased by weather, reflection, and shadow.
Exterior light levels can vary from 8,000 fc. in
brilliant direct sunlight to 3 00
fc.
in diffuse
light filtered through dense cloud cover.
"Daylighting,
Alliance with the Sun,
not Rejection").
(Lam,
Direction
Such variability of outdoor
light quality implies a variability of indoor
light quality,
lending an essential vitality to
the perception of daylit space.
Natural Daylighting Objectives
2) Light and heat should be distributed
throughout the space with a reasonable degree of
uniformity;
3) The building should provide view for
pleasure, for information, for the sense of
passing time and for contact with the everchanging
conditions outside;
4) Visual comfort should be optimized through
control of direct beam radiation to prevent glare;
and through control of indoor outdoor contrasts to
prevent gloom. Glare at the window should be
minimized, as well as contrast between glazing and
adjacent wall surfaces.
Limitations to Natural Daylighting in Tall
Structures
Limitations are inherent in
lighting of a tall
structure.
the natural day-
the general brightness, or scalar factor, of the
environment decreases.
Some of the
The dominant light direction,
This causes the
objectives formerly outlined are not readily
or vector factor , is
fulfilled.
vector/scalar ratio to decrease,
1) Maximizing the area of the building that
not a simple task in
benefits from sunlight is
design of a tall
story building is
structure.
the
A conventional multi-
a box composed of repetitive
layers of smaller boxes lining enclosed corridors
or encompassing an elevator core.
Due to its
lack of differentiation or directionality,
is
the box
often arbitrarily sited in relation to the sun.
2) Uniform distribution of light and heat
constant.
casting of harsh shadows,
resulting in
the
a modelling of surface
textures.
3)
The accessibility of views is
magic of building to high elevations.
residential structures offer views in
part of the
Most tall
one,
most, two directions from each apartment.
discomfort from the high-intensity light in
or at
Visual
the
sky vault may hamper views from tall buildings.
4)
The control of direct sunlight to prevent
throughout the space is
difficult to achieve in a
glare and overheating in a tall building is often
typical tall building.
Only side windows can be
an afterthough.
used on such a structure,
for roof monitors which
geometry,
With a compact design based on
there is
no differentiation between east/
usually guarantee an adequate horizontal daylight
west facades and those facing north or south.
factor cannot be used on the lower levels of a
Often interior window dressings are a sad cure for
conventional multi-story building.
lit
And many sun-
rooms are too deep and have ceilings too low
to provide an adequate amount of daylight over the
whole working plane.
Towards the back of the room,
preventable visual discomfort.
The control of indoor-outdoor contrasts is
also often ignored, especially in tall buildings
where deep rooms align either side of a corridor.
The corridor appears dark in
contrast to the
glaring patch of sky shining through a window at
And the surface mounted luminaries,
either end.
rhythmically marching down the center of the hallway's low ceiling, do little
to lessen the sense
The design of a vertical neighborhood explores
methods for achieving high quality natural daya tall building.
lighting in
1)
Maximization of Access to Sunlight
The overall building proportions of 1.0 to
of gloom.
Bilateral lighting as well as lighting from
windows on walls perpendicular to each other are
helpful in
distributing daylight to prevent
modelling and in washing wall surfaces adjacent
to bright windows to minimize contrast.
rooms in
Design Response to Natural Daylighting
But most
tall structures have only one exposed
weather wall.
And interior partitions are not
designed to allow light to flow from a naturally
daylit room to a more interior space.
living units are,
in
essence,
Such
stacked boxes with
0.56 elongated on the east-west axis allows direct
passive solar gain and maximum access to daylight.
Its squarely-targeted south exposure also takes
advantage of the predictability of the sun's movement for control of glare and heat.
The neighborhood space accepts daylight
wherever possible,
opening to 3 levels along the
south which admits direct shafts of light back to
the elevator core from September through March.
Additional light is gained through 2 levels on the
5 of their 6 sides smothered by adjacent boxes,
north side and a small area of glazing to the east
leaving little opportunity for good natural
and west at the exterior fire stairs.
daylighting.
The architectural detailing of this space is
exterior in
concrete,
character,
a three dimensional play of
softened with plants, park benches,
porch swings.
The space is
and
defined by the entry
facade of each unit, composed of a door with an
overhead transom, operable windows which accept
light and overlook the neighborhood,
a porch lamp,
mailbox and accompanying planter for territoriality.
Treating the neighborhood architecturally
as exterior space enhances the effect of natural
daylighting;
of doors.
together creating a perceptual out
III
(:ran'r"M
t
I'1
NEGHRDRIDX)
SECTION N
The organization of units around this vertical
neighborhood is such that no units are back to
back, but rather, draped over each other. The
only shared vertical planes are core walls,
meaning all other walls are free to admit natural
daylight.
ther walls,
All units have at least 3 exposed weamaximizing access to daylight.
cow4
l1
-A
*-Mr
+44+4+A4+4I
a
1
16
2)
Distribution of Light and Heat
High ceilings allow the use of high windows which
The second objective of natural daylighting,
the distribution of light and heat throughout the
space is
permit deeper penetration and a more uniform
distribution of skylight.
a further refinement of the maximization
of building area to sunlight.
bays deep, north-facing units are only 1 bay deep
Usable daylight penetration in
the height of the window.
Unlike the south-facing units which are 2
(Lam,
plan is
twice
"Daylighting").
to better utilize the diffuse skylight that illuminates these units.
Due to the quantity of surface exposed to the
out-of-doors,
The flat plate construction system is sympa-
the deepest dimension from an exter-
ior window to back wall within a unit is
With an ll'-4 ceiling height,
20'.
consists of concrete slabs,
the window height
to daylight penetration ratio is
thetic to the natural daylighting concept.
less than 1 to 2.
in
8" thick,
It
spanning 16'
two directions between columns of 18" diameter.
This system uses minimum structural depth allowing
for a flat, smooth ceiling and additional ceiling
height.
This improves light distribution and
penetration.
The ceiling remains uncluttered of visual
mechanical noise for better light distribution.
Natural ventilation and passive heating supplemented
by individual gas fired hydronic auxiliary heaters
with hot water supply allow the ceiling to be free
of piping and ducts.
Gas supply,
waste disposal are concentrated in
'U
LEVEL
2
plumbing,
and
the core wall,
and also permit the ceiling to be free of piping
and ducts for better light distribution.
difficult to achieve in
This is
a conventional tall
cooling,
structure with centralized heating,
supply, hot water feed,
air
etc.
High reflectance matte finishes are used on
the walls from working plane to the ceiling making
the uncluttered upper portion of the room a very
effective light distributor.
With the ceiling serving as a virtual source
of daylight, partitioning is
TYPICAL
kept only high enough
0
PARTI-rloAl
Transoms of single
to maintain visual privacies.
glazing allow maximum distribution of the side
lighting from room to room.
selves,
are kept to a minimum,
bathrooms and sleeping areas.
flow as one,
them-
defining only the
The other spaces
offering no resistance to light
The effectiveness
distribution.
such transoms is
of the use of
apparent from the lighting
study, Appendix B.
its
Partitions,
The bathroom borrows all
of
light from other rooms through these interior
windows.
3 to 4%,
It
still
maintains a daylight factor of
varying from about 8 fc.
to more than 40 fc.
in
SQUThFACING
on a dark day
hazy sunshine.
\~
Crenellations in plan, where semicircular
bays meet the rectangular grid, not only accomodate firestairs and venting systems,
distributing natural daylighting.
but aid in
Light colored
T ~C
\Nx\X~~
Early
walls of high reflectance face each other.
morning or late afternoon sun washes the southfacing wall and ricochets to the north-facing wall,
entering glazed openings to aid in lighting this
potentially dim space.
A light model built of
this particular area is
used to test the effective-
ness of this occurrence as reported in Appendix B-5.
On a sunny March afternoon,
the entry,
28% of the daylight in
and 47% of that penetrating the bathroom
is reflected light from the exterior north wall.
This is
a substantial amount of light, especially
in spaces of relatively low light levels.
The limitation of using only side windows is
adhered to in
most of the dwelling units.
The unit
on level 4 which vertically separates one public
neighborhood space from another has limited exposure to daylight.
south exposure,
Although it
the unit is
has over 20'
of
tucked under the
protruding neighborhood above,
thus reducing the
diffuse skylight and direct solar gain from March
through September.
The space is
a dropped beam above,
further dimmed by
spanning the column-free
neighborhood space.
With the roof of this particular unit serving
as the floor of a well-lit "outdoor" public space,
penetration through this plane will yield the unit
A logical place to perforsome natural daylight.
ate the "roof" is
under the public stair, an area
of otherwise wasted space.
This south-facing
clerestory monitor gains light from the public
space and reflects it
planter in
down to the unit.
front of the clerestory is
The
sunk to the'
depth of the transfer beam and furnished with a
top layer of white gravel for greater light
Even during the summer months when
reflection.
direct sun is
not to be had in
the
this space,
clerestory monitors serve to transfer daylight
from the public space to the unit below.
e/*7CAL
_
;Awl,__
__
_
__
0-e
4iq
LEVEL 4
0 "5
T
NEIGeeOR
LEVEL 2 Of
COMMON
EDWRmI LEVEL UNIJ
5LLJN F
LEVEL 3 of
COHIfOAl
ground,
3) Provision of Views
The lowest level is
The third objective of natural daylighting
is
fied for its
window height has already been specilight distribution, penetration and
uniformity attributes.
But the rest of the window
One very important function of windows in
structures is
the world outside.
to provide a visual link to
Different portions of the
window contribute different information,
view is
very important in
tall
mation about activities immediate to the base of
the building.
Although a
seemingly limitless
b and of windows at floor level in a tall structure provides visual connection to the activities
wall has not been defined.
tall
to a layer of sky.
structures, as a view to the ground conveys infor-
the provision of views.
A tall
to a layer of horizon,
for the
stratified horizontally from a layer of
below,
it
denies a sense of ground and horizon
local to the room.
instability,
This results in
a feeling of
the feeling of standing at the edge
of a roof with no railing.
Allowing only occa-
sional views to the ground below ameliorates this
problem.
And defining the low window height around
the rest of the room's perimeter with darker walls,
opaque louvers,
space,
or wainscoting helps to contain the
much as a sturd y railing or parapet wall
does on a roof.
A view of the skyline is also desirable.
Above this, lighting criteria is the only reason
to extend the window head higher.
This suggests dividing the wall into three
zones,
the top few feet serving to distribute the
sky light uniformly and with deeper penetration
into the space.
The midheight window provides
view of the skyline and,
like the clerestory,
is
a
significant collector of light and heat.
When
most subtle details, making the south-facing land-
light and heat are not desirable such as on the
scape highly readable,
west side or at selected areas on the south side
cloud-laden skies,
for the control of overheating,
this zone becomes
wall area of highly reflective matte finish.
almost surrealistic.
With
the intense three-dimensionality
of the sunny north-facing view flattens.
In
the
diffuse, dim light, the scene takes on the aura of
The natural ventilation criteria demands
a primitive painting, building facades becoming
an insulated louver system below the working plane.
soft-toned planes and trees as brush marks sil-
This course establishes a local horizon and can be
houetted against the snow-covered ground.
broken at selected points for a downward view to
permits each apartment to turn in
local activities at the ground.
The criterion for view (as well as that for
light distribution
and minimization of contrasts)
requires the unit to face many directions for a
variety of visual links.
Direct gain passive solar
design insists on south-facing windows for heat
gain.
in
Often ndth-facing glazed areas are shunned
But heat loss can be
trepid fear of heat loss.
decreased through the use of heat mirror.
Windows facing north often offer the most
pleasing view,
ver.
being sunlit from behind the obser-
On clear winter days,
the low sun shining
from the south drenches the entire scene to the
north in
golden light illuminating the vertical
planes of buildings
and trees.
This design, being highly three-dimensional,
The low altitude
angle of the sun casts definite shadows of even the
many directions,
the typical unit facing each of the four cardinal
points.
These windows provide not only outlooks to
the exterior world, but visual access to the
neighborhood space as well.
4) Optimization of Visual Comfort
The success of the first
lighting objectives,
utilizing sunlight,
three natural day-
maximization of building area
distribution of that sunlight,
and provision for views, is contingent on satisfying the fourth objective, optimization of visual
comfort.
Access to sunshine and views is not
pleasant in
the disabling glare that can occur if
visual comfort is
not achieved.
Control of direct beam radiation to prevent
glare and overheating necessitates refinement to
N
Expanses of south-facing glass sized for winter
solar gain need shading in summer to prevent overheating.
An overhang can control summer sunlight;
but this is
unadvisable as climatic seasons lag
behind solar seasons.
In addition,
an overhang
decreases diffuse daylight penetration near the
window as described in
the lighting study of
louvers reflect at a 300 angle to the horizontal,
throwing light above eye level,
Many passive solar structures employ adjusta-
thereby reducing
glare from direct sunlight as well as decreasing
high luminosity at the window.
is
With a spacing to
the louver cross section
width radio of 1 to 1.9,
of an arc that accepts variation in
solar profile
angles without frequent readjustment (Johnson,
Benton, Hale,
Appendix B-1.
The
for thermal storage.
the concrete structure
the window wall design formerly described
Kramer,
"MIT Solar Building 5").
The louvers can be closed for night privacy
On cloudy days,
ble overhangs that can be regulated to shade during
or adjusted to reject summer heat.
the warm autumnal equinox yet admit full sun on a
when shading is not needed, they can be raised,
wintry March day.
The use of adjustable shading
devices or vine-covered trellised overhangs on a
increasing the amount of diffuse daylight entering
the room and improving viewing conditions.
precluded by wind spgeds several
Although louvers seem well suited for the non-
times that of ground wind and unpredictable turbu-
operable midheight windows, they seem less amenable
tall
structure is
lence.
In such a potentially harsh environment,
interior horizontol blinds can serve to control
both light and heat.
The light level in
with louver sun control is
a room
as much as 40% higher
as a sun control device for the windows above
transom height.
penetration,
These windows serve for light
distribution,
and uniformity.
Here
the average distance of louvers from the ceiling is
than the light level in a room with an overhang.
less, meaning a shallower penetration of light.
This is reported in Appendix B-2.
light shelf with a mirrored reflector,
Reflecting louvers are able to direct inso-
however,
A
is
dropped farther from the ceiling deflecting light
lation to the white ceiling, diffusing the light
deeper into the room.
and distributing the accompanying heat throughout
in Appendix B-3.
This effect is readily seen
The light shelf intercepts light
ceiling in
the back of the room.
the
towards
at the window plane and deflects it
This lessens the
light level at the window slightly.
In combina-
tion with the adjustable blinds dressing the midheight windows, almost uniform distribution of
light can be achieved.
In addition, the light
shelf reduces glare by deflecting the light over
occupants'
heads.
The clerestory is composed of hopper windows
for air circulation above living zone.
Opening
inward so as to not be caught by the wind,
work well in
they
combination with a light shelf.
vibrating
Louvers interfere with this function,
noisily in a breeze.
The light shelf reinforces the architectural
break between the south-facing,
light distributing
clerestory and the midheight window,
view.
which offers
This horizontal line wraps around to the
interior partitions,
marking the transom sill
height.
And finally, windows are rarely allowed to
punctuate the lowest coursing of wall.
The only
function of these special windows is view, and they
are so limited in
is
number and area that sun control
not a critical issue.
Their vertical position
on the wall is
seated.
well below eye level, even when
And with floor covering or carpet on the
floor, reflected glare is
unlikely.
Along the
east and west exposures of the rectangular elements
in plan,
the midheight and lowest coursing of win-
dows are eliminated with three clerestories proviThe
ding light to the room from this direction.
elimination of the midheight windows prevents
glare and overheating problews from low altitude
angles of the setting sun.
The rounded bay form of the bedroom upstairs
depends on east or west exposure for daylight
access:
its
south wall is
the shared core,
and
exterior fire stairs consume part of the north wall.
In plan, the semicircular shape causes many of
the low sun angles to glance off the windows.
But
with the sun setting to the south of west in winter,
straight on course during the equinox,
and to the
north of west in summer, each of the angled windows
admits direct sun at some time of the year.
Adjustable vertical louvers are eliminated as
a viable shading option due to the unpredictable
wind patterns at this height.
Alternatively,
four
building-sized vertical fins are designed, some of
which serve as stacks for natural ventilation.
Oriented 350 to the north of west,
repetitive,
these fins are
strong, vertical elements that rise
uninterrupted from building base to sky.
Construc-
these fins
ted of light-colored precast concrete,
reflect much of the striking sunlight, and through
multiple reflections the west-facing room is amply
A daylight factor of .19
daylit.
is
achieved,
as
seen in Appendix B-4.
The effectiveness of these fins as sun baffles
is determined by simulating critical sun angles.
A beam of light is
projected to a model mounted on
a heliodon, as recorded in Appendix C.
tember to March,
From Sep-
no shafts of light penetrate the
space, yet light levels within the space remain
high due to the reflective matte surface on these
fins.
In
the worst condition,
6 A.M. and 6 P.M.,
shading.
June 21,
around
two of the windows see 25%
Since the summer sun has a high trajec-
tory until immediately before it
sets,
problems of
glare are reflectively short-lived.
One hour earlier, sun penetration is
limited
to a rather pleasing pattern of very narrow light
shafts through each window.
6 P.M.,
Even at 6 A.M. and
there may not be much problem with glare
and heat gain,
for at this low angle,
the sun's
energy must penetrate a thick layer of atmosphere
the requirements of the activity for most of the
before reaching the window.
working day and that the visual environment will be
Any problem is easily
controlled with interior window dressing.
Another aspect of visual comfort is
comfortable.
the control
lighted in
The building
will appear to be well
relation to the exterior light level,
of contrast between inside and out as well as the
provided that the room surfaces are of sufficient
minimization of contrast between glazing and adja-
reflectances.
cent wall surfaces.
No quantitative boundaries are set on a related
In a room lit by side windows, not only is the
but also the inter-
illumination indoors perceived,
ior illumination in relation to the exterior.
outdoor illumination changes,
When
the indoor illumina-
issue, sky glare from windows.
People are more
tolerant of glare from transparent side windows than
from artificial light sources due to the effects
of "proximity"
and "habituation."
The "proximity"
tion changes proportionately and the contrast be-
effect is the idea that an expanse of glare imme-
tween interior and exterior luminances will remain
diately overhead feels more oppressive... almost
The illumination at a point indoors can
intimidating...than a distant source of the same
constant.
be expressed as a percentage of the horizontal
luminance much further away,
illumination at that moment under an unobstructed
"habituation" effect is
hemisphere of outdoor sky.
This is
the pattern of sky luminance is
the weather is
sunny days,
overcast.
valid only when
unchanging, when
On sunny days or partly
the fraction of indoor to outdoor
illumination will no
Appendix D ensure that when a building is
lit
with no supplementary artificial
lighting,
intolerable
p.
(Lynes,
154).
Principles of Natural DayNonetheless,
the
illumination levels on the working surface will meet
control of indoor-
(daylight factor) and minimiza-
tion of discomfort glare is
naturally
while an
artificial light source of the same luminance is
outdoor contrasts
Daylight factor recommendations listed in
The
the idea that people are
used to glare from the sky and expect it,
lighting,
longer be a constant.
the sky vault.
necessary.
The crenulated building form with its high
surface area to volume ratio
and the organization
of units permit most spaces some degree of
The value of light entering
bilateral lighting.
can be seen
the space from many directions
light study, Appendix B-4.
from the
This appendix compares
values of light levels and daylight factors with and
without the contribution of various windows.
Light
entering the front, back, and sides of rooms slightly increases
the daylight factor.
The effect is
almost negtigible, however, in the shallow well-lit
south-facing rooms where most of the light is
obtained from the windows so designed for admitting
insolation.
In
the east-facing clerestory
fact,
windows on the lower level seem to do no more than
to sidelight the stair shaft.
These east-facing
windows are balanced by the unglazed "windows"
overlooking the kitchen-dining-living area.
The positive effect of side lighting on daylight factors is
more pronounced upstairs in
of lower light levels.
at the unit entry is
zones
35% of the natural daylight
contributed through side
windows as much as 32'
away.
It
is
in
these low-
light level zones that multidirectional lighting
prevents excess contrast causing gloom.
A real value of multidirectional lighting is
its mitigation of the contrast between bright sky
and adjacent wall..
Each window wall is
painted
white and reflects light from glazing in an adjacent
wall, lesseing window-wall contrast,
thereby
lessening gloom.
Multidirectional lighting also aids visual
comfort by decreasing the vector/scalar ratio in
the back of rooms.
A single illumination vector
at a point in space represents the dominant lighting
direction,
a maximum vector occurring with light
entering from only one direction.
in
the casting of harsh shadows,
surface textures.
This results
a modelling of
Multidirectional lighting
lessens the dominance of the vector, decreasing
this modelling effect.
Window dressing is
important in
discomfort glare at the window.
decreasing
The midheight
retractable horizontal louvers on the south-facing
facade as well as the lightshelf at clerestory
height help to shield the window from such glare.
On the east- and west-facing facades,
the permanent
vertical fins act as giant splayed window reveals
to control the contrast between the bright sky and
adjacent wall surfaces.
CHAPTER 4
NATURAL
VENTILATION
Why Natural Ventilation?
The arguments in
favor of passive solar heat-
world outside,
important for the outdoor character
ing and natural daylighting are equally applicable
of the vertical neighborhood.
to natural ventilation.
combination with heat from the sun, natural day-
Natural ventilation is
an
opportunity to reduce environmental degradation,
to
architectural
governments and industries who monopolize these
a convincing outdoor space.
treatment of unit facades makes this
Natural ventilation is
The pressure and thermal forces necessary for
settings.
structure is
as sunshine.
windows.
designed
to utilize the warmth and light of the sun,
should
most domestic
residential
perceptually more homey with operable
Proper natural ventilation requires ad-
justments to window openings such as jalousie
also use the sun's energy for inducement of air
louvers,
movement.
ventilation stack.
The potential of natural ventilation
used in
An apartment within a tall
dynamic movement of air are as universal and free
A solar tempered building,
in
lighting, a profusion of plants, and exterior
conserve energy, and to avoid manipulation by
energy supplies.
Cooling breezes,
hopper windows,
or inlet louvers to a
Such activities alert people to
coexists with passive solar heating and natural
their own environment and building.
daylighting.
antly, natural breezes supply fresh air and aid in
The opportunity for all three occurs
simultaneously at the building perimeter,
a large surface area to volume ratio
openings in
implying
and multiple
the building skin.
The need for natural
ventilation varies with geography and climate; and
like passive solar heating, it
character
A building
designed for adequate continuous air movement
through natural economic means greatly adds to
Natural ventilation criteria can give meaningful form to architecture.
the evaporative cooling process.
More import-
can lend a definite
to regional styles.
Natural ventilation provides a link to the
human comfort during the hot summer months.
Natural Ventilation Objectives
1) The building should be located in the free
sweep of the wind. (Caudill, Some General Considerations in the Natural Ventilation of Buildings,
p. 28).
Before any efforts are made to design for
natural ventilation,
building.
the wind must flow to the
This low pressure area is
a good place to build, for there is
wind to exploit.
not
no prevailing
Natural ventilation, in
windward source.
lighting,
flow of air, the wind shadow behind the obstruction
Low pressure walls occur on the
leeward side and on surfaces perpendicular to the
predetermined
If trees, hills, or buildings divert the
has little air flow.
the building.
If
the building orientation is
for solar heat gain and natural day-
consideration to high and low pressure
areas should still
occur.
3) The direction of air flow should be controlled by proper location and design of buildings.
(Caudill, Some General Considerations in the
Natural Ventilation of Buildings, p. 32).
The air flow pattern within a space is
this
con-
case, depends on draft due to pressure and tempera-
trolled by wind direction and high and low pressure
ture differentials between a low level inlet and
areas.
a high level outlet.
design of inlet openings.
2) The building should be designed with consideration given to high pressure areas and wind
shadows in order to facilitate the flow of air
through it. (Caudill, Some General Considerations,
p. 28).
This suggests a building orientation with
maximum wall area perpendicular to the wind.
wall,
pressure exerted on the wall.
forced due to
Effective air flow
within the building requires outlets in
is
also controlled by the placement and
Air tends to flow along surfaces.
If the
inlet is close to a side wall, it enters the room
at an oblique angle.
If the inlet is adjacent to
the ceiling, the fresh air hugs the ceiling.
Inlets
should be installed at a low level if air flow near
This
facing the high pressure area, should have
inlet openings through which air is
It
the low
pressure walls so that air can be "pulled" out of
the floor is
desired.
Windows designed for summer cooling should
divert the air flow within the "living zone."
Windows designed for winter ventilation or overhead
airflow should deflect incoming air flow upward to
mix with the warmer air in
the upper portion of
the room.
Windows designed to fulfill both summer
and winter ventilation needs should be capable of
directing air both downward and upward.
Multiple inlets permit flexibility in
controlled by the user of
direction of air flow,
the space.
the
Jalousie louvers have a wide range
control of wind direction.
Air flow through the
jalousie is at approximately the same angle at which
the louvers are oriented.
4) The quantity of air flow should be controlled
by proper sized openings. (Caudill, Some General
Considerations in the Natural Ventilation of
Buildings, p. 32).
For maximum air change,
inlets and outlets
should be as large as possible.
The greatest flow
per unit area of opening occurs with inlets and
An increase in
outlets of equal size.
causes an increase in
-
outlet area
air flow, but not in
propor-
tion to the added area.
For a variable quantity of air flow, multiple
inlet and outlet openings should be provided.
permits adjustment for maximum air change,
air change,
as well as for an intermediate
This
for no
range of
controlled quantities of air change.
5) The speed of air flow should be controlled
by proper design of inlet and outlet openings.
(Caudill, Some General Considerations in
Ventilation of Buildings, p. 32).
combination with a large out-
A small inlet in
let results in
a relatively high speed of air flow
The flow of air is dammed up
within the building.
by
windward
the
and
wall
The air is
wall.
the Natural
that
on
pressure
exerts
forced through the inlet opening
at a high rate due to this piling effect.
It
rushes through the building and out the large opening to an area of negative pressure.
A large inlet in combination with a small outlet causes the reverse
inside at the outlet wall,
is
4AR6 E 0 0TLET
The dam forms
to occur.
and the increased speed
on the outside of the building.
Multiple inlets and outlets provide flexibil-
ity in
the speed of an air flow,
aforementioned direction
as well as in
the
and quantity of air flow.
6) Interior partitions should facilitate air
O
flow.
Partitions
slow
the
speed
of
air
flow by
creating a damming effect and causing abrupt
directional changes in
air flow.
Partitions de-
signed with ventilation louvers at "living" zone
height and operable transoms at clerestory height
mitigate the decelerating effects of conventional
Imh7T
SHALL OV7-,T
walls.
Limitations to Natural Ventilation in
Partitions should be limited in number and
placed with discretion in
order to achieve maximum
Structures
air flow.
Prediction of air flow patterns in
7) The building should utilize the "stack
effect," especially when there is no wind or its
direction is unpredictable.
The stack effect refers to air flow induced
by the pressure and temperature differentials
occur between vertically separated points.
that
tall structures is difficult.
more buoyant than cool air and tends to
rise.
Greater wind velocities at higher building
and around
Air sweeps up the
windward face of the building, creates vortexes at
corners,
and formareas of negative pressure on the
leeward side.
The stack effect has an impact on air flow both
Warm
air is
Tall
inside and outside the building.
pressure with
Lower exterior
increasing height causes air to rise
elevations cause lower pressures at upper portions
through vertical penetrations in
of the building than at its
This effect is intensified with an inside to outside
base.
and pressure forces draw air in
These thermal
through openings
low in the building and out through openings high
in
When wind and "stack effect" forces act togeresulting air flow is
not equal to the sum
of the two flows.
When the two flows are equal,
the actual flow is
about 30% greater than that
caused by one force.
Warm buoyant air rises
the building pulling cool air in
It
in the building.
ther,
temperature differential.
tall buildings.
is
at lower levels.
easier to ignore these uncertainties,
seal the -building against the outside world,
to
and to
use mechanical space conditioning equipment for air
supply.
tight,
In such spirit, installed windows are air
rain proof, heat resistant,
rust resistant,
and rot resistant.
light resistant,
No concern is
shown for air flow through the window; and the
structure becomes quite separate from the world
outside,
an enclosed high-pressure box,
a potential
glass bomb.
Even with operable windows,
most tall struc-
tures are not adequately ventilated.
story buildings are compact in
form,
1) Building Location for Wind Access
a double-
loaded corridor or center core arrangement.
the vertical neighborhood is perched above typical
Rooms aligning
both the windward and leeward sides of the structure admit outside air.
This air is
As a portion of a tall residential structure,
Fans
pull air out of the corridor to the exterior,
creating a negative pressure field.
Design Response to Natural Ventilation
Most multi-
obstructions to wind... trees, hills, and buildings.
Thus,
2) Use of Highand Low Pressure Areas for Air
Flow
replace that removed.
Such drafty, unpleasant air flow is
There is
Control of air flow
and speed are disregarded.
How air moves around interior obstructions is
addressed.
The structure's maximum wall area is
not proper
no effective use of positive
and negative pressure areas.
direction, quantity,
assumed to flow to the structure
without interference.
noisily
sucked under the doors leading to the corridor to
ventilation.
the wind is
not
And possibilities of using the stack
effect for natural ventilation are ignored.
due south.
This orientation is
facing
based on criteria
for passive solar heating and natural daylighting.
The ideal orientation for maximization of wind flow
is with the large surface area facing southwest in
order to intercept the prevailing summer winds.
The south-facing orientation does not cripple
natural ventilation,
however.
When the wind is
from a 900 angle to the building,
not
the air enters
the window at the same angle as the outdoor flow,
unless diverted by a sash or other obstruction.
(Holleman,
Opening-, p.
Air Flow through Conventional Window
13).
Wind direction is
west.
not always from the south-
It can originate from any direction, and
the building is so arranged to take advantage of
a variety of winds.
Openings on all sides of the
building permit those in positive pressure
locations
to be inlets and those in wind shadows to be outlets.
These two functions are interchangeable for
any given opening as the wind direction varies.
During the summer,
the neighborhood space
usually experiences positive pressure on its southfacing expanse of glass with a wind shadow to the
north.
Air is
drawn in
through the open sliders at
level 1 and convected back through the space and
out the north-facing sliders at the level 2 laundry.
This interior breeze is
caused mainly by the
pressure differential from south to north,
encouraged by the buoyant,
and is
rising warm air from the
laundry.
Without wind-induced positive and negative
pressure areas,
space still
air flow through this three level
occurs due to thermal forces.
calm summer night,
On a
the vents at the top of the
south-facing 3 story "greenhouse"
are opened.
Hot
air which has collected at the top of the glazing
during the day escapes to the night sky, inducing
cool air in
from open sliders to the north.
coolness of 'the night is
stored in
The
LEVEL 1
the quantities
of concrete and potting soil within the public
+
MM
.
-F,
0
space.
in
The south-facing awnings are drawn at dawn
order to shade the space from the sun's heat.
The stored coolness of the previous night keeps
this public space comfortable below exterior summer
temperatures throughout the day.
The units exhibit flexibility with multiple
openings that serve as either inlets or outlets
depending on the wind direction.
The many building
crenelations create pockets of negative pressure for
individual units.
This is especially important to
the southwest unit, with two weather walls exposed
to the prevailing wind.
The crenelation at the
auxiliary heat exhaust and the void for the firestair serve as negative pressure zones for this
particular unit.
3) Design and Location of Openings for Air
Flow Direction
The typical weather wall elevation,
VERTICAL NEIGHBCRHOOD
cribed in previous chapters,
into 3 sections,
is
as des-
broken horizontally
the clerestory,
the nonoperable
midheight window, and the opaque weatherproof
"ventilation box" below working plane.
The exterior facing of this "ventilation box"
is
an industrial ventilation panel with fixed
louvers to shed wind-driven rains.
Behind this
weather shield,
the box is
polyurethane insulation,
composed of 6" expanded
a vapor barrier,
DOUBLE
and plas-
N.
GLAZINQ
E77ZE
ter on metal lathe with insulated operable louvers
in
the openings.
The box is
capped with a 1 ' deep
settee, serving as a window seat, book shelf, or
plant stand.
Each box is
INDUSTR4IL VENT/AT/CN
/WIFXED 40UV&RS
PAAJE.
separated from adjacent
ones for control of air flow quantity and direction.
The jalousie louvers also permit fine tuning of air
VAPOR BARAi
E
flow quantity and direction.
PLASTER oAi HETAL 4ATM
horizontally,
upward,
They can guide air
or downward.
Their low in-
#AJULA TED- OPERAM3E
stallation height and capability of directing air
downward ensures ample breeze in
the "living" zone
R/G/D /ALSLAT/AI
for summer cooling.
Although winter venting is
undesirable in
this
solar-heated building, the option of natural ventilation in
the upper portion of the room is
There are times,
draft is
provided.
even in summer, when a direct
bothersome.
The windows above transom
height are operable hoppers,
INSULATED
VENTILATION
admitting outside air
which mixes with the warmer air at ceiling height.
These windows open into the room in
order to lessen
the havoc of unpredictable winds playing on the
exterior facade.
The location of openings in
a typical south-
facing unit permit a natural air flow pattern from
0
1
2
BOX
This unit is
south to north.
organized with its
area of solar collection and high internal heat
The bed-
gains one level below the bedroom space.
room space is
set back from the sun-accessible
south facade and relies on the convection of heat
from the lower zone up the stair shaft.
a similar manner.
Natural ventilation works in
The high pressure walls are usually those to the
With opened louvers in
south and west.
fresh air enters
space facing high-pressure areas,
the apartment.
It
convected up the stair shaft
is
to the bedroom zone,
the lower
where it
is
emitted through
north-facing outlets at the fire stair, an area of
low pressure.
The overall air flow pattern is
naturally from southwest to north.
This pattern is
duplicated within the southeast unit, where air
flows from the lower south-facing rooms to the upper
north-facing rooms.
This is tested in the wind
tunnel and reported in
detail in Appendix E.
The northwest unit, as a stacked duplex, vents
its floors separately from west to north.
a southwest wind,
Assuming
the northeast unit must depend
on the stack effect for natural ventilation;
it
is
in
for
the wind shadow of the entire building.
WI~dLLJ
FIK1IIV
4)
Size of Openings for Air Flow Quantity
The proper size opening for control of air
flow quantity is
not certain in a tall
structure.
Wind speeds may be 3 times that of ground wind and
wind direction unpredictable.
a very open,
On a hot summer day,
breezy apartment may be preferred,
while a limited amount of fresh air is
cool autumn day.
needed on a
::::~~
~
-
The air flow quantity is the
choice of the dweller, who also controls the direction and vertical level of air currents.
A typical south-facing unit has from 15 to 24
individual jalousie ventilation units below the
settee at the weather wall.
Each of these insu-
lated weather-proof boxes is
individually con-
~
trolled, permitting any number of the units to be
opened to airflow.
bility.
The louvers add to this flexi-
They can be opened wide for full air flow
or just barely cracked,
tration.
permitting a slight infil-
A comparable number of hopper clerestories
permits similar flexibility for overhead ventilation.
5) Design of Openings for Air Flow Speed
The quantity of inlets and outlets allows
control of air flow speed;
for the ratio of inlet
area to outlet area affects velocity.
Opening
JALOUSIE LOUVERS PEh/T
R/A/E 7ZAI/AJr7 OF Af/i FZOW
QUAA7TTY AID A/RECT/OAj.
more outlets than inlets increases the rate of air
flow through
the space due to the damming effect
and the resulting high pressure on the windward
Opening more inlets than outlets slows the
wall.
interior breeze;
for the damming effect occurs on
the inside of the leeward wall.
6) Interior partitions which facilitate Air
Flow
a straight
travel in
Air has inertia and will
H/I
line until an obstacle causes a change in
direction.
This slows the air flow.
Interior partitions are kept to a minimum in
each unit in order to facilitate both air flow and
the aforementioned distribution of light and heat.
The only partitions within a unit are those required
0'
Q
'
'
1
for privacy,
These partitions are equipped with venti-
bath.
TRA AJ5OM
k4AtADMWS--
partitions defining the bedrooms and
This allows air to
louvers below working plane.
L 0L
flow within the "living" zone.
The transoms are
operable for overhead air flow.
With louvers belowand an operable
YE NT1WUpv&E-
above,
TYP/CAL
PAftTI/OA/
the vertical plane of moving air can change
from room to room.
With settee louvers open in
kitchen-dining-living space,
0
5'
transom
within the "living" zone.
the
air movement occurs
The air travels up the
stair
shaft.
rooms,
With only transoms open to the bed-
the air flow is
directed to the ceiling,
avoiding direct drafts near the floor.
preference clearly reigns,
Individual
unit by unit and room
Each neighborhood is
independent of the others,
thus reducing the effective height of the building
from 24 stories to a stacked series of 6 buildings,
4 stories each.
Such an arrangement prevents air
from entering at the lowest level, where the
by room.
7) Use of the Stack Effect
pressure
The stack effect will have an impact on air
structure where the pressure is
flow within the building.
The entire building
penetration,
the extent of vertical
and the difference in
door temperatures
(Service Systems,
A large-scale stack effect is
indoor and outp.
17).
prevented in
to that of Peabody Terrace,
240',
and rushing to the top of the
lowest.
This would
This building is independent of mechanical
space conditioning systems.
is
Vertical penetration
limited to the elevator shaft, pressurized if
needed.
This,
too, works against a large-scale
stack effect.
When properly controlled, the stack effect
the design of a vertical neighborhood.
The height of the building,
highest,
prohibit the entry of air at midheight openings.
could function as one gigantic stack depending on
the height of the building,
is
is comparable
3 residential towers
can be a bonus to the natural ventilation of a tall
structure.
Air flow within a building need not
situated on the wind-swept banks of the Charles
depend solely on wind pressures.
River.
to move up a chimney stack via the pressure and
Natural ventilation and the use of bal-
Air can be coaxed
conies indicates tolerable wind behavior at these
temperature differentials between the inlet base
heights.
and outlet cap of the stack.
It
also demonstrates that tall structures
need not be totally enclosed and pressurized to
counteract the stack effect.
The design for a vertical neighborhood is
vertically zoned into 6 neighborhoods of 4 stories.
To use the stack effect in
ture is logical.
a multistory struc-
The needed height exists, and
the stack ensures natural ventilation when the
wind is not cooperative.
N
Each unit in
the vertical neighborhood has a
vertical stack associated with the auxiliary heat
exhaust.
These stacks, which separate
the round
2,257 BTU/HOUR.
With interior temperatures exceed-
ing exterior temperatures by 5 0,
opening of 3 square feet is
an inlet and outlet
needed.
This area is
elements from the rectangular in plan, also couple
doubled in
as shading fins on the east- and west-facing
to remove hourly internal heat gains with an indoor-
building facades.
They demarcate each neighbor-
the actual design.
The stack is able
outdoor temperature difference of only 1.30 F.
as the flues of individual units are gathered
hood,
into one giant stack per neighborhood.
The separ-
ate flues for each unit are maintained to avoid
short-circuiting problems.
Each unit's outlet
a dramatic termi-
occurs 4 levels above its inlet,
nation which creates offsets in
the overall stack.
The stack inlet, for a typical south-facing
unit occurs at the weather wall of the second
level.
With windows opened on the lower level,
the entire unit benefits from natural ventilation.
The air flows through the lower level,
up the stair
shaft, and through the upper level to the stack.
The stack is
equipped with insulated louvers,
similar to those on the "ventilation boxes."
Unwanted air currents are thereby avoided by
tightly sealing the louvers.
The stack is
sized for a typical south-facing
unit, as reported in Appendix F.
Air flow is
established to remove hourly internal heat gains,
F-AClN
DOUBLE STACK:
STACKS ALTERAATE
WiTH EACY NEI4MBORMD
STACK SECTION
STACK PLAN
CHAPTER 5
AUXILIARY HEATING
Auxiliary Heating System
A solar-tempered building gains much of its
required heat energy from the sun.
The building's
peak demand, however, does not correspond in time
spaces suffer severe consequences during sustained
periods of cold,
sunless weather;
heating must be designed for such peak demands.
A heating system is
to the sun's maximum heat output.
The building's greatest daily heating load
and solar assist
elements:
1)
composed of four basic
a combustion chamber in
which to burn
occurs during the night, in the absence of the sun.
fuel, producing heat; 2)
Its annual heating load is concentrated during the
air) for conveying the heat; 3)
cold winter months when the sun contributes its
to transport the fluid from the combustion chanber
minimum seasonal offering.
And with ample amounts
of solar energy available during the summer months,
heat at the load.
Each living unit is
availability are out of phase, a back-up heating
system is
provided with its own back-
up system, an individually fired gas hydronic
packaged heater.
1)
required.
A single prolonged period of very cold, cloudy
conduits in which
to the load; 4) a terminal unit for distributing
the building requires no auxiliary heat.
Because the need for thermal energy and its
a fluid (water, steam, or
The individual gas-fired boiler has a
43,800 BTUH1 capacity,
more than enough to supply
weather may be enough to warrant a full-size
each unit's peak load and domestic hot water needs.
conventional back-up heating system.
It has no storage tank; the only heat storage is
Passive solar
structures may even require over-sized auxiliary
heating systems.
Large areas of south-facing glass
effective for solar collection, also add to the
nighttime building load.
As such, walls with large
expanses of glazing for solar collection contribute
the volume of boiler water surrounding the heater
A hot water tank for domestic supplies is
coil.
connected to this heater via a water to water heat
exchanger.
2)
Hot water,
as the heat-conveying medium,
sensible heat before returning to
more to conduction heat loss than conventional
relinquishes its
walls with limited amounts of glazing.
the boiler for reheating.
These
3) Type K copper pipe is
used to transport the
hot water from the heater to the terminal unit.
With unit by unit heating,
of piping.
there are no long runs
The necessary circulation is
by the difference in
maintained
density between the hot water
and the cool water returning to the heater.
4)
The thermostat and terminal unit for heat
emission are located at the base of the stair shaft
on the lower level, an area of solar collection and
high internal heat gains.
of auxiliary heat.
It
This conserves the use
also utilizes the same
convective currents which carry the passive heat of
solar collection and internal heat gains up the
stair shaft for even distribution throughout the
upper level.
Each square foot of radiator surface has an
hourly heat emission of 150 BTUH.
With a reasonable
load of about 3,500 BTUH,
a surface area of 23
square feet is required.
One 2 ' x 5'
x 6" radia-
tor has more than enough surface area of piping
for this output.
Multiple radiators may be needed
for peak loads.
Why is
this back-up system chosen over a con-
ventional centralized heating system for the
entire structure?
The individual units are in
keeping with the
centralized heatin system, however,
the heat
concept of environmentally self-sufficient units
conveying fluid continually loses heat through
arranged around a communal space, the indoor/outdoor
lenghts of piping which extend from the boiler to
vertical neighborhood.
Each unit functions as its
own solar collector, solar storehouse, and heat
trap.
Each unit is
naturally daylit and ventilated,
independent of the rest of the structure.
This
permits flexibility and grants inhabitants control
Individual back-
over their environmental comfort.
19" x 14" permit installation in
lower level of each unit.
heater is
housed in
38" x
a closet on the
The domestic hot water
cost of supplying each apartment
with its own packaged auxiliary heating unit is
30% less than the cost of providing one large
centralized heating system for the entire building.
The estimates,
outlined in
Appendix G, indicate the
the method of venting
individual heaters directly to the outside as
opposed to venting through large chimney stacks,
as required for a central boiler.
'1
the same closet.
The light-weight boiler is
The initial
largest savings accrue in
up heating systems allow this same freedom.
The system's space-saving dimensions,
the distant load.
. -,
hung on a weather
wall with its exhaust outlet feeding directly into
an exterior negative pressure zone.
The vented
gases are thus pulled out and away from the building.
Such simple venting saves chimney costs,
conserves space, and helps to limit the number of
vertical penetrations which contribute to building
THERMOSTAT
1
stack effect.
All piping from the heat generator to the
terminal unit is within the space defined as load.
Thus,
the distribution heat loss is
zero.
With a
SOUTH-AC!NG
'
ULT
-M
LEVL-
D' 8'
6'
LEVEL 4
LOCATIONS of UNIT HEATERS
N
APPENDICES
88
APPENDIX
A-1
DIRECT GAIN CALCULATIONS
TrYP ICAL
(LOWER,
po,55;ue
5OUT
UNIT
- FAe-iQ
(AVFA6E
LECVEL) 11m~lp . z, iue±
.SoctLr
I7I~V
~
1I~~I
L.A.S
MEeNPORCED
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ut
x8purk
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LL=
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1.AT4 ..
35
4,O
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/s8BT/D4y
as
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7"445M-/.SS/,O/4
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CI'$
.o'.5S...R=
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APPENDIX A- I
LAR AlE4T
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p&',.se
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SO
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= SOOTHI -t F-A.T t-M ORTH- -t-
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DIRET GAN INERIOR TEMPERATURE
SWING'S
DHEMTERATURE
iA4TE1~OR
7EFHjU4JREw-
~1~5
AVE~o*4f
IAICtLoiii4
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APPENDIX A- I
3r-,E"0ESWA6,
CASE
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DH RECf GA
OF
INTERIOR TEMPERATURE
--
TEMPERATURE
SWINGS__
-----------
SOUTH -F.AC/44G
TYPIC4L
APPENDIX A- I
.L)/T
LEVEL... DOP-s 'JOT OCO 01C
(OPPER
soursCsr dm
O)
Qs - %
TU/4H'/Sg
.- 028
WALL.
AV ALL=
PA'iMc WALL
E- STTER=lO TO 'EE
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1-4(0o5
7,
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A L,= '-74 s
1fl=LTRATOk4:
(g
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=
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=9.47
Hott x 3,0850F'$E.ET
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UAWALL t UAw,ooD
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UAT~~~TAL~(1?
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M~c5rTo
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Di REC T
GAIN
P
TEMPERATURE
SWINGS
INTERIOR
TEMPERATURE
-------------
C
APPENDIX A-I
SPACE
PUBLIC
3o/~/ar
o-.L
.028
3
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Aw4LL-
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0
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(L= 0. 26o)
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DIRECTJ G-AI1N
_
TEMPERATURE
SWING~S
INTERIOR
TEMPERATUPE
APPENDIX
A-2
INDIRECT GAIN CALCULATIONS
APPENDIX A-a.
WA
OF T~ F
IS
To
0fRDER
-i
C4/.&U(ATE
POZ/FED
FOIA4/$HED
4A-OtOAJT
OF
8(1
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TR4 AJS/11TT52'D TH4ROVG1
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3&a-f 4v-D
G"L /Ajc / S AJEEDED.
D/~patJE
F.4Z/4 7VcYJ COA1Pc2S
7-14-7
F-4-57- 4.D WE,577C4 /k/
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J/A1E k/5.
t'VTERITS T --lE
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AE 0RT1-
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F~k~t-PT/
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P2
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A
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VAWE5s O~r T-/U
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K21/VEAJ FOn E~dq57~ 4/ID W/,tS7
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RPECTAA/CE
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/54-5
TED
57-IA-fA
>464 Cx
A 64I
APPENDIX A-Z
Ar7Ho,5PREele C(E~eA/ESS AT
DAT7A
~~)TI-/
/5
FOR
i-/.5r
CD4R
0. 85. T-/4/5
LD4r CCAJZ'/TOA
D'AY op
7P-M
/77iwr~luo
op AJOpeTH-F14@//,Jq
P4T4 HbeeoW /,S AS5C)HED 476(o0.
v~kts OF- &7V/.54 F~T D
T,44/J3 MITTFD
W/JTH4 DAIJX, BEAM PD/AT/OkI
7-4/5<PIrTEID 41uJ) IAdc2-IDET'~
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),4-
C0AIDIT1OAI4S)
/ Uo/
A VERA &E- LK d
THE
TIQA IA -liT TI
t
4AJD A//,r//
A D1/4T1/CA.4
p4~
T-4kLS~-r ED
P41DI4r/OAJ
CLEAR
RA4z>147-/04(
-44SH ITF$D
D.DDEAIT
4//7/OA/
~4PAJ
VEEA
AVYERA& E
!i
DpY
THROC44Gf
A/OF) TrH-
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-174F- /C7 qT- AM1J
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AAU-)YP04E. TO -7W-/ L5A&-7-
Aet MV~LE-S
r-o AV&E'4E 04/$-'
/UJO(DE, T
RA11/A7Yoq 7MR/%CNi//
X45T AkJD k1EST-P42/L)G /-/4T
MIIPOQ
TH7PEF'c Ll- OW//dJ
P4Gt s D97Fh eMIVEj A VR4 6 DAY) TeAj/77-ge? 7DT47Z4 iiZ;401/q7?1 A
1--
1'
E749r
A 4- O Wir-7FAe-iUc6 ,547-
AEEFJNQi A-2
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION BTU/ SO FT.
DAY
east, west-facing heat mirror
0.20 ground reflectance
BEAM
REFLECTED
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
TRANSMIT TEQ
north-facing
heat mirror
I DIFFUSE
JANUARY
220. 8
/07. 6
J 7.5
375.9
95. r,
FEBRARY
30.(0
/54.9
7/-0
532.5
/3/.7
MARCH
4 07. 0
2/.0
/O/.(0
72o.7
/7.3.
APRIL
4 73.8
28/4
/32.c
887.8
24 /.5
MAY
587.3
299'4
/2.0
/048.6
337.2
JUNE
632.4
330.8
/81.7
//52?.9
3%.6
JULY
G028.2
317.4
/74q.7
//20.0
349.7
AUGUST
-548.2
2866
48.6
983.4
2572
SEPTEMBER
508.4
2447
/26O
7_._/
/87.0
OCTOBER
387.7
/215
NOVEMBER-
2073
/24.7
DECEMBER
/898
73.4
69.0
5__3
10.3
_
658.2384._
23.
/38.0
__
.
8/.5
APPENDIX A-Z
MONTH: JAWLARY
clecr day data
east, west-facing heat mirror
.20 ground reflectance
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED 2/7.4C
377.98
INCIDENT
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
-BEAM 220.8
DIFFUSE / 55./
averg day incident beam x clear chy transmit ted
clear day incident beamn
beam
220-I \/ z1 7. 4!o = J/2.7 03
3W
(29.60
/
24-43
ou acay incidet diuse
x clear day
transmitted diffuse
/55.1
><
&Y.(o&= 87-23
DAILY TOTAL RADIA11ON
TRANSMITTED
2e7./4
INCIDENT
502.42
DA\Y
AVERAGE
RANITT_ TOTAL
CY TRANS4ITTED
AVFRAE
: .3 s
APPENDIX A-Z
MONTH: FEB'U4RY'
clear day data
east, west-facing heat mirror
0.20 ground reflectance
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
BEAM 30(0.(o
DIFFUSE 22.5.-7
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
3/
532.8/
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
974/
TRANSMITTED
/73.95
INCIDENT
day incident beam
aver
ncident beam
day
clear
x 3/(-88 =/$Z34
averaci day incider
cair do
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
x clear chy transmit ted
beam
inc dent
z P.5?-
' fus? x clear day
diffuse
X
transmitted diffuse
5741= /2~.5
70C.7(o
AVERAGE DY TRAN2MITTED TTAJ:
AVERA
APPElDIX A-?
MONTH:
MARCH
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
clear day data
east, west-facing heat mirror
0.20 ground reflectance
.BEAM 407
DIFFUSE
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED 4/4.02
671.68
INCIDENT
0
3 /3.(o
day incident beam x clear day transmitted
ave
clear da ncident em
beam
5232 x
4/4.02
= 3/(c.7
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
TRANSMITTED/
INCIDENT
33.75
38.81
avema day incidetiffm
cle day incident diffuse
3/13. 6
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
><
x clear day
transmitted diffuse
/33.75-=
547.77
2
9/O.5
1Y00ANEJYTft=
100
TAL:
APPENDIX A-2
MONTH: APR/4
clear day data
east, west-facing heat mirror
(.20 ground reflectance
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
.BEAM 473-5
DIFFUSE q/14.0
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED 486.4z
INCIDENT
avemqae day incident beam
dear day ncident beam
473.68
300.
;
7600
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
x clear day transmit ted
beam
/77Z7
Ovmc~ dCYincrt rdiffuse x clear day
dew- dly incident diffuse
transmitted diffuse
4x4
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
-316.1X"
/7727
Z3/4 84
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
AVERAEDYIBANSMITTEDJOTAL
1 () 1
532.
"77
APPENDIX A-2
MONTH:
MA Y
clear day data
east, west-facing heat mirror
0.20 ground reflectance
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
BEAM 5873
DIFFUSE 4to/.9
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED 498
INCIDENT
7?8 oO
averace day incident beam x clear day transmitted
clear day incident bea6m
beam
5873
A
4476.6?
=
3KOCO-711
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
2-3.20
380.72-
overa
day incider
diff
clear Nyincident diffuse
380-2
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
x clear day
transmitted diffuse
=2.58.389
7//.3
117 q.33
AyjiBGE_[Y3
L49AlKELJDJL:{)
1 02
APPENDIX A-_2
MONTH: JUAJE
clear day data
east, west-facing
t mirror
Q20 ground reflectance
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED 496.3/
797667
INCIDENT
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
.BEAM (32.
DIFFUSE 520O.5
averoge day incident beam x clear thy transmitted
clear day incident beam
beam
4Zx
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
TRANSMITTED 2Z
40.1/
INCIDENT
4% 3 =39 3.48
clearr day incident diffuse
x clear day
trunsmitted diffuse
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
72 85
/205.78
INCIDENT
~~~
103
AVF..AN
ED.DTAL55
LW~O
APPENDIX A-2
MONTH: JOLty
clear day data
east, west-facing heat mirror
(.20 ground reflectance
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
.BEAM 47-2-2
DIFFUSE
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
483.28
avee day incident beam x clear day transmit ted
clear dary incident beam
beam
>rx 483-28 =3?7 7(C
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
220. /4
393.//
avc
e day incide
clea day
3220.
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
inclicdet
'Ofu x clear day
use
transmitted diffuse
4
= 276-67
703.42
YEB3AGEJAYJRANSMITJED
101'
T:
~7AJ
APPENDIX A-2
MONTH: ALGLST
clecr day dat
east, west-facing heat mirror
Q20 ground reflectance
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
,BEAM 548.2
DIFFUSE 435. 2
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED 454.35
INCIDENT
ove
clear
dayincident beam x clear day transmit ted
inycident beam
beam
fI~4 ~45435~31&~.35
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
/ 87-31
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
338. //
om~m viC,
r-ifi
3 5./I
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
TRANSMITTED d43.6?
INCIDENT
/657.25
x
/aC'?
x clear day
trunsmi fled diff use
3 4=z R-3.7/
AVERAGE D~Y TRAN~4IITED~
AVF-R
105
E MY TRANSMITTED
7QIAL
l52
-rj/
APPENDIX A-
MONTH: SEPTEIbER
clear day data
east, west-facing heat mirror
0.20 ground reflectance
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
.BEAM 508,
DIFFUSE 370.7
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
38/. 2S
average day incident beam x clear day transmit ted
clear day incident beam
beam
381.28=-.
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
/40-&1
25/- /5
day, incide diffuse x clear day
over
c~asr &Iy incident diffuse
trnsmitted diffuse
370.7
Z51,- /5
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
/4c~,4207 66
521-73
877-(3
yERECAY
I() ()
TRNSMTED
IQDTAo:TJr
APPENDIX A-2
MONTH: OCTOB5E5
clear day data
east, west-facing heat mirror
0.20 ground reflectance
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
BEAM 3877
DIFFUSE /7/.5
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
31.
5/5.53
averge day incident beam
clear dy inciden TEsom
x clear cby transmit ted
beam
307.7.1
23.7
5/5$53
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
-
/02.too
/832/
avcae dav inc*e
11soF~&1y incico
i
ifus? x clear day
transmitted diffuse
se
/ 7/, 5~
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
AYVLR AF.1IBANMED
I107
TAL-l33o.7
APPENDIX A-_Z
MONTH: MOVEHBSEe
clecr day data
east, west-facing heat mirror
(.20 ground reflectance
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
-BEAM 270.3
DIFFUSE / 75.0
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
/9/.
355.60
averae day incident beam x clear day transmit ted
clear day incident beam
beam
A2
/7./4=
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
TRANSMITTED 70-./8
INCIDENT
/25.3/
//2.5
x clear day
transmitted diff use
/z
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
3/
70./8 =
.- 0/
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
&EBAG_EJLAY
1 08
IBANSilED IDJ
:(2/d2 Mff
APPENDIX A-2
MONTH: DECEABER
clear chy data
east, west-facing heat mirror
Q20 ground reflectance
DAILY BEAM RADIATION
TRANSMITTED /72.37
INCIDENT
AVERAGE DAY INCIDENT RADIATION
-BEAM /89.8
DIFFUSE /337
averag clay incident beam x clear cay transmit ted
beam
clear chy incident
beam
/7/,.3
DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
58.0?
a veracie
eraae
Y inCdert Of -u-w x clear
diuy
dem day inc-ident diTuse_
transmitted diffuse
/33,T7
037
DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
2 30.-fo
TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT
.)
8.0
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LIGHT MODEL STUDIES:
DAYLIGH T LEVELS and QUALITY
APPENDIX B
116
APPENDIX B
Light Model Studies:
Daylight Levels
and Quality
A model of a typical south-facing unit,
structed at
con-
" = l'O", enables a remote control
light meter to be inserted for the measurement of
interior light levels.
Evaluation of the qualita-
tive aspects of daylighting design is
using the same model;
allows the critical
accomplished
for a model of ample size
eye to register impressions of
the spaces within through remote control imagination.
White architectural foam core backed with
opaque white brainbridge board is
used to model
the high reflectance surfaces from working plane
to ceiling.
Below working plane the surfaces are
mostly a light brown tone...craft paper and birch
wood modelling the ventilation louvers below the
insulated settees,
SOUQTH-
and foam core backed with craft-
paper modelling, the floors.
simulate the effects
FACING
UNIfT
These darker tones
furniture and floor coverings
have on actual light levels.
,
The model joints are
sealed against light leaks with opaque tape.
Mullions are modelled to scale as are other
obstructions to light such as exterior walls,
fire
117
F
6
stairs,
in
and reflective
louvers which must be modelled
a space to depth ratio proportional to the actual
are also investigated.
size.
Glazing material is
not modelled.
Instead,
light levels are reduced to 0.77 or (0.88)2 of the
actual readings in
order to allow for transmission
loss due to double glazing.
terior areas,
lit
Readings taken in
in-
only by light transmission through
interior transoms of single glazing,
by yet another factor of 0.88.
are multiplied
And interior spaces
gaining light from both exterior windows and interior transoms are reduced to 0.9 of 0.77 of the
original reading.
Light levels are measured at working plane
with the model outside oriented due south and
horizontal
to the ground so as to not alter the
amount of diffuse radiation from the sky vault.
In
addition to registering light levels within the
model,
simultaneous readings are taken outside with
a light meter,
protected from direct sunlight but
exposed to the sky vault.
The effect of a combination lightshelfoverhang,
louvers,
or louvers-lightshelf are
studied for south-facing sun control.
of exterior wall reflectances into the interior
The effect
of various windows on light levels and the effect
118
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z9:/'
LIGHT MODEL STUDIES:
EAST and WEST- FACING SUN CONTROL
APPENDIX
C
132
Light Model Studies: East and West-
APPENDIX C
Facing Sun Control
The model of a typical south-facing unit,
described in
Appendix B, is
permit tracking the sun for more refined shading,
used to help design
the east and west-facing building facades.
the turbulent winds at this height deny such an
The
option.
Interior vertical louvers, much like the
rectangular kitchen-living-dining portion of this
horizontal blinds used with the midheight south-
particular unit does not suffer from the glare and
facing windows,
heat gain problems caused by low sun altitude
solidity to the round,
angles; for glazing is
limited to the clerestory
element.
portion of the wall with one window for view below
working plane.
As determined in
west-facing clerestory is
light levels,
but is
Appendix B-4,
almost trunk-like vertical
Building-scale vertical fins not only
appear stable and permanent,
the
but control low
morning and evening sun angles,
hardly needed for interior
useful in
do not lend a desired image of
decreasing the con-
permit view, and
allow entry of light diffused by multiple reflections off the matte, highly reflective fin surfaces.
trast between other windows and their adjacent wall
In addition,
surfaces as well as for controlling the vector/
the ground and extend the height of the building
scalar ratio.
as lofty shafts.
The rounded bay element upstairs,
Their size is
commensurate with
that of the ventilation stacks which extend from an
however,
demands more than just clerestory glazing,
their size permits them to rise from
as two
inlet on the second level of each unit to the
of the unit's bays depend on this west-facing
outlet,
facade for light and view.
vertical shading fins couple as stack-effect
Thus, both clerestory
and midheight portions are double-glazed.
ventilators,
With
almost 100 square feet of glazing on this wall,
sun control is
four levels above.
an integration
As such,
some of the
of natural environmen-
tal control devices.
The west-facing semicircular bay has a
of paramount concern.
Although exterior adjustable vertical louvers
distinct advantage over a west-facing planar wall
133
in
that as the sun drops,
angle,
not all of the glazing
is inundated by direct sun.
parallel
in
to these windows angled south of west.
The remaining four fins
the shade; for all windows do not face directly
west, but wrap around to the north and south.
The
rays of the summer sun to the north are practically
Some of the glazing
receives glancing blows of light, while some is
not directly penetrating the space.
due west.
This
are oriented 350 north of
filtered from the
The setting sun is
makes the shading effectiveness of various vertical
room for most of the year except near summer sol-
fin arrangements somewhat difficult to predict due
stice, when it
to complex angles.
useful;
for in
light source,
Although the windows and fins are so oriented for
This is where the model is
a targetted shot of direct sunlight at this time,
combination with a heliodon and beam
the summer sun drifts high in
the play between sun angles and
day,
building facade can be studied.
the south-most window 3/4 of the year.
west,
fins serve as a ventilation stack for the four
The south-most fin is
hood requires five fins.
setting due west,
appearance.
The use of
This seems to crowd the
windows, the rooms inside appearing dark.
oriented straight
Such
esthetic factors ask for a new approach.
west, with the assumption that the sun setting
south of west is
are disconcerting in
each fin as a ventilation stack for one neighbor-
each of the five neighborhoods.
This establishes a stepped pattern on the bay
facade.
And the
two diverse fin orientations, west and north of
design assumes each of five vertical
separate units in
for the sun
most fins allows direct evening sun to penetrate
Three
facade designs are studied.
The first
fleeting,
The direct west orientation of the two south-
on
and 3 P.M. on December 21.
The period of
drops quickly to the northwest.
stationary light source to simulate a variety of
June 21 to 9 A.M.
preventing problems with glare and heat gain
direct solar penetration is
relation to the
critical sun angles from 6 A.M. and 6 P.M.
the sky vault all
until night before the sun sets.
The light model, described in Appendix B, is
placed on a heliodon adjusted in
sets well to the north of west.
blocked and that the equinox sun,
The second design assumes that only the south-
strikes the window at a shallow
most fin serves as a ventilation stack, forming one
134
U
wall of the building crenelation at which the
auxiliary heating system is exhausted.
is
wider than the rest, accomodating the ventilation
one stack with
stacks of two neighborhoods at once,
four inlets,
in
This fin
This results
one with four outlets.
a staggering pattern,
leaving more freedom in
the design of the remaining vertical fins.
fins are oriented to the northwest,
M
All
cutting out
much of the low angle sun until summer when the
sun's
trajectory is
the horizon in
high,
dropping quickly behind
the evening.
Only three other fins
are placed on the bay to avoid the appearance of
clutter and for more diffuse light penetration.
Although a perceptual improvement over the first
it
trial,
does not test as well as the former.
The third design is
very similar to the second.
Sun control was made more effective by increasing
the exterior depth of the fin from 3'
Number,
spacing,
to 4'.
and fin orientation are constant.
._
=
ELEVATION
0
135
2'
DESIGN#
APPENDIX C
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APPENDIX C
DESIGN # 2
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APPENDIX C
DESIGN # 3
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APPENDIX D
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM DAYLIGHT FACTORS
139
,'lA-IMEAJDED
APPENDIX
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APPENDIX E
WIND TUNNEL STUDIES:
141
INTERIOR AIR FLOW
Appendix E
Interior air flow caused by positive and
study,
the boundary layer assumes city texture
negative pressure areas on the face of the building
upstream of the building.
is
is
analyzed in
Tunnel.
MIT's Wright Brothers Memorial Wind
The closed-return variable density wind
placed in
by 10'
an open area of the tunnel,
downstream
of the turbulence-generating system.
tunnel has a 15 foot long test section with minor
and major axes of 7 1/2'
The model to be analyzed
Instantaneous velocity and turbulence inten-
following an
sity are measured by a "hot wire," a constant temp-
elliptical cross section.
erature sensor.
The "hot wire" consists of two
prongs connected with a current-carrying wire.
The
cooling effect that the wind has on the wire is
measured by the amount of current necessary to
maintain the wire's constant temperature.
The
current passes through a resistance and is
displayed
as electrical potential or voltage on a cathode ray
tube.
An integrator circuit averages the instant-
aneous voltages over six seconds and records the
average potential on a digital voltmeter.
The wind tunnel mechanically generates a
An
laminar air flow which passes over a set of para-
analog voltmeter measures the turbulence intensity,
bolic spires and a matrix of wooden blocks which
the root mean square standard deviation of the
simulate ground roughness.
integrated velocity.
impede the laminar flow,
These spires and blocks
Wind speed and turbulence intensity vary with
creating turbulence.
Their dimensions and spacing can be varied to allow
altitude.
the modelling of different boundary layers such
turbulence are measured at 26", 18", 6", 4", 2"
as lakes,
and 1" above the floor.
oceans,
or cities.
In this particular
142
Wind tunnel air flow velocity and
With 1/16" = l'-0,
these
elevations correspond to 416',
and 16'
288',
64',
show the velocity gradient and change in
32',
above the surface of the earth.
The scale of the tested model is
This is
96',
not in
typical two level unit is
in
1/2" = l'-0.
As such,
12" in
turbulence that would occur if
the modelled
scale with the wind tunnel.
height as opposed
scale with the wind tunnel.
This means the velocity gradient over the
face of the modelled unit increases to 42% of
free wind speed.
The velocity gradient over the
face of one unit properly scaled increases to only
8.33% of the free wind speed,
The tested model is
still
1/5 of that modelled.
within the parabolic
segment of increasing velocity with increasing
height.
It
is
below the constant winds aloft
speed.
The oversized model is
also within the para-
bolic segment of increasing turbulence to height.
At higher elevations,
the turbulence begins to
fall back to zero as free-field conditions exist
above the earth boundary layer.
The difference in
turbulence between the top of the unit and the
base is
greater in
the wind
tunnel and the corresponding velocity gradient and
scale with the wind tunnel air flow
which assumes 1/16" = l'-0.
to 1 1/2",
over the face of the unit as tested in
turbulence
the wind tunnel study than in
the natural environment.
The chart and graphs on the following pages
143
the model were in
APPENDIX
('
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144
,
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veeir
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145
Such disparities do not lessen the validity
of the qualitative test results if
openings occur in
the inlet
the same vertical plane.
In the model study,
part of the air sweeps up
the face of the building and a portion drops to
the base.
The rising air is
than that dropping.
of higher velocity
Air at the base may have a
greater chance to enter the unit due to slower wind
speeds and the damming effect of the floor.
In a properly scaled study of the entire
building,
one unit would experience either rising
or falling air flow,
not both.
With the base louvers opened and the transom
windows sealed, or'vice versa,
one vertical plane.
the air enters at
The effect of the velocity
gradient and the difference in
air flow patterns
over the vertical height of the unit are of little
consequence.
The velocity of air flow within the wind
tunnel is 7 to 8 feet per second.
This is
considerably less than average wind speed out-ofdoors.
It is
assumed that air flow patterns do not
change significantly with increased speed.
PO PERLY
SCALED, OAJE
UNIT EKPERIEJCE5 RSIAj
AIR.
Tests
conducted at Texas A and M College system verify
the validity of this assumption.
(Smith, The
146
The 1/2" = 1'-0 scale model for light studies
Feasibility of Using Models for Predetermining
is
Natural Ventilation).
windows are sealed with acetate;
An oil base smoke stream visually traces air
flow in
and about objects placed in
The smoke spray wand is
the wind tunnel.
manually controlled.
permits the model to be filled with smoke,
rendered airtight for the study.
Nonoperable
the operable clere-
stories are taped with acetate for easy removal;
and removable panels are applied to the exterior
This
of the "ventilation boxes."
and
The locations of air
entry and exit are thereby controlled by removing
the pattern of draining to be observed.
and replacing various pieces of acetate and panels.
A 2 1/2 story facade built both above and below the
tested unit better simulates wind behavior in
around a tall
and
structure.
The southwest corner of the model is
to face the air flow,
oriented
representative of the
prevailing summer wind in
Boston.
The following illustrations depict air flow
patterns as observed in
the wind tunnel.
indicate open windows and louvers.
building is
It
is
Arrows
The rest of the
sealed to infiltration.
difficult to determined the vertical
plane of air flow.
SUTH-
sie louvers,
FACING
tant.
But with properly angled jalou-
this can be controlled by the inhabi-
The pattern of air flow in plane, and its
distribution from level 1 to level 2 are of interest
in
RENDEVRE
OPERA8LE
147
these diagrams.
TO 4EV4,F~'/
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165
Overall, this study demonstrates the
flexibility of the natural ventilation system and
demonstrates
by the entire building are undoubtedly significantly
different.
the success of the flow-through
organization.
Natural ventilation can occur through level
1,
independent of level 2,
pressure inlet at level 1,
due to their awkward arrangement in
the wind tunnel.
The elevation of the tested unit is
then only 1/24
But no visible
difference occurs with the removal of the 5 stories.
2) Although the spires and block grid simu-
funnel up the stair
shaft, distribute evenly throughout level 2,
the 5 added stories were removed
of the total building height.
and through level 2,
Air can enter a positive
independent of level 1.
Also,
late city boundary layer,
and
the model is
exit from this upper level to an area of relative
below an average unit elevation.
negative pressure.
discussed,
changes in
openings do not seem to short circuit each other
3)
With air entering the
windward face at level 1,
As formerly
at a scale of 1/2" = l'O,
somewhat large for the tunnel wind gradiants and
Multiple inlet openings and multiple outlet
as might be expected.
the model is
located
turbulence with added height.
Subtle changes in building details or
furniture placement may produce significant changes
an open outlet at this
A minor change in
window
level does not prevent air from exiting an open
in
outlet at level 2.
design can divert air flow from near the ceiling
to near the floor for increased comfort.
There are several potential limitations to
The most obvious limitation is
the ever-
cannot be measured.
present question of wind behavior in and around
tall
is
structures.
modelled in
errors in
portionately modelled frame would not create this
2 1/2 stories above and below the tested unit make
total building height.
For example, if a deep frame
at the window head causes air to rise, a dispro-
Building facades modelling
for a model height of 6 stories,
This also implies that small
model construction can lessen the accu-
racy of the results.
Less than 1/4 of the building
plan.
Such
details are difficult tomodel, and their effects
the validity of the results of this investigation.
1)
air flow patterns.
only 1/4 of the
effect.
Wind patterns, as affected
4)
166
The white lighting model is
used for the
wind tunnel test.
The light grey smoke,
indicator of air flow patterns,
is
difficult to
read against the white model surface.
model,
a visual
A dark
producing higher contrast with the smoke,
would be more effective for reading and flow
patterns.
In spite of these limitations inherent in
the testing method,
most of the observations
seem intuitively correct.
considered valid for its
The investigation is
qualitative information.
167
STACK-SIZING CALCULATIONS
APPENDIX F
168
APPENDIX
HlOURLY
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170
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APPENDIX
cp COST ANALYSIS of AUXILIARY HEATING
172
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XS
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