Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 21
Four-Factor Model for Effective Project Leadership Competency
Abigail Redick, Idalia Reyna, Cynthia Schaffer, Deborah Toomey
aredick@gmail.com, ibr24@drexel.edu, cs537@drexel.edu, Deborah.Toomey@uphs.upenn.edu
College of Engineering, Drexel University, USA
Abstract
Most organizations today recognize that project leadership provides an important role within the
organization to ensure that strategic goals are met and that they support the organization’s
mission. Rapid change occurs in today’s global economy and companies must act quickly and
competently if they are to remain competitive and profitable. Previously, organizations were
accustomed to hiring a third-party company when major projects were required to be planned and
completed; however, now they no longer need this assistance as most recognize the value of
having their own internal project leaders. Change is inevitable in all industries—and strategic
change requires a strong leadership style along with all the necessary knowledge, competencies,
and skills. Leadership skills are critical to organizations; and knowing how to properly adjust to
the varying levels of staff and the industry function takes time and proper technique. Project
leadership is becoming more valuable in the workplace, and understanding how to recognize
strong project leadership and develop new leaders to effectively lead teams are important to a
company’s continuing success and growth in market share. Research shows that the methods and
skills for successfully leading teams is a direct reflection of project leadership. The object of this
study is to develop an effective model for leadership within a project-based environment. It was
found that the factors supporting such leadership competencies can be broken down into four
categories: (1) self-leadership, (2) managing others, (3) psychological factors, and (4)
environmental factors. These elements can be seen in the Four-factor Model for Effective Project
Leadership competency. It was also found that in order to give substance to any of the skills
required, a personal leadership philosophy should be created. Drawing information from personal
experience and unique challenges, as well as subject literature, the developed model shows a
breakdown of the four factors involved and an analysis of each factor. Successful project
leadership also places an organization at a competitive position in the market, bringing business
value while sustaining overall growth.
Keywords: Business Strategy, Project Leadership, Organizational Strategy, Management
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 22
Introduction
Successful project managers demonstrate both interpersonal and intrapersonal competency
skills in order to effectively lead project teams. These competencies represent the core of research
in development of the Four-Factor Model for Effective Project Leadership. The objectives of the
research are to: develop a competency model to be utilized for effective management of projects;
provide unique conclusions on effective management and leadership skills within project
management; recognize that project managers must identify and mitigate stress within the project
team in order to be successful; and, to introduce evidence that promotes strategic identification of
methods for interpersonal and intrapersonal management within a project team.
The Four-Factor Model identifies the leadership skill-set and objectives to be demonstrated
by successful project managers as the subject of our research. Project leadership requires personal,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal awareness in order to identify environmental and psychological
challenges and initiation of actions that effectively manage those challenges.
Literature Review
As it is considered a staple reference and guide for project management, A Guide to the
Project Management Body of Knowledge (5th ed.) was studied for this paper. Research was
conducted utilizing several leading scholarly publications in the professional and academic fields
of project management. These resources are industry-recognized theoretical and practical
applications into the subject matter of developing an effective model for leadership within a
project-based environment. Reviews of past and current published literature on project
management, project management leadership and the development of management skills is
referenced and provides subject matter expertise. Developmental theories of leadership, especially
within the context of project management, were studied and applied to development of the
competancy model for this project. The qualitative research material detailed above represents the
core of a data collection process that details pertinent features that define the Four Factor Model
of Effective Project Leadership Competancy model.
Methodology
This research was conducted through the review of past and current literature on project
management, project management leadership, and the development of management skills. The
qualitative research material as indicated above was part of a data collection process to detail the
pertinent features involved in forming the competency model shown in Appendix A. To illustrate
the impact of development of the skills noted, personal experiences were also drawn upon. The
personal strengths and weaknesses of the authors were measured and individual histories of the
project leadership, as well as team member histories were also considered. Through the above
literature theories and self-assessments, the Four-Factor Model for Effective Project Leadership
Competency was developed.
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 23
Four-Factor Model for Effective Project Leadership Competency
Project leaders ultimately have overall responsibility for full delivery of a completed
project and getting results. In order to achieve these results, leaders must possess leadership
competencies that are essentially important to lead a team successfully. “The ability to challenge,
inspire, enable, model and encourage must be demonstrated if leaders are to be seen as capable
and competent” (Barry, 2012). In order to be an effective leader, we have identified the necessary
model into four parts: Self-Leadership, Leading Others, Environment, and Psychology. Each of
the four parts is further subdivided to properly identify the true leadership skills and competence
necessary to effectively lead projects.
Self-Leadership
Of the Four-Factor Model mentioned, self-leadership is one of the specified quadrants.
Self-leadership consists of emotional intelligence, personal values, cognitive style, orientation
toward change, and core self-evaluation. “These areas represent a limited set of factors, of course,
but they have been found to be among the most important predictors of various aspects of effective
managerial performance-including achieving life success, performing effectively in teams,
competent decision making, life-long learning and development, creativity, communication
competency, job satisfaction, and job performance” (Whetten & Cameron, 2010, p. 61). As a
leader, learning about oneself will only help lead others. Learning to effectively control emotions
based on the environment or situation can be crucial. Knowing one’s strengths can assist in
training those who are led and knowing to communicate the task requirements to allow others to
succeed and feel empowered in the process.
Communicate and Relate
“Project leadership calls for clear communication about goals, responsibility, performance,
expectations and feedback” (Barry, 2012). A leader will need to communicate at different levels
to potential customers, internal company staff in other departments, direct project team members,
and higher management. Not only is communication important, but in the process, “through
effective communication, projects leaders support individual and team achievements by creating
explicit guidelines for accomplishing results and for the career advancement of team members”
(Barry, 2012). Effective communication also entails a leader being able to take self-criticism and
being able to truly involve them in the communication with understanding and empathy to adjust
their ways of communicating appropriately. Not every individual is the same on their level of
emotion and communicating, so taking that extra step to learn about others and the best method to
communicate with them is important.
Staying Positive
All eyes are upon the leader for decision-making, dealing with conflict amongst employees,
and dealing with unhappy customers; so having the right attitude to handle the various situations
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 24
that arise can make all the difference. “Having a consistent ‘can do’ attitude is akin to being
positive at all times, and always seeing a solution to a challenge or a problem.” (Hamilton, Byatt,
& Hodgkinson, 2010). “Such an outlook can make a huge difference in the face of ‘road-blocks’
when they appear” (Hamilton, Byatt, & Hodgkinson, 2010). A positive attitude can help cope with
daily tasks and will provide fewer stressors when trying to stay optimistic, while completing tasks
and meeting deadlines. “Others tend to follow people with a can-do attitude, not those who give
us 200 reasons why something can’t be done” (Barry, 2012).
Empower and Delegate
In order to empower and delegate the leader must have trust in the team/employees. “You
demonstrate your trust in others through your actions—how much you check and control their
work, how much you delegate, and how much you allow people to participate.” (Barry, 2012).
Delegating work at the appropriate time, and to the appropriate individual or team, gives the
employees independence and confidence to pursue end-results on their own; “However, although
one can give someone else power, one must accept empowerment for oneself.” (Whetten &
Cameron, 2010, p. 445). Empowering employees not only means delegating appropriately, but
also providing staff the proper resources, the proper authority, and some decision-making in order
for them to be truly empowered and effective in their delegated tasks.
Great leaders do many things, but perhaps their best characteristic is a natural and authentic
ability to inspire excellence while maintaining strength and showing humility. These are the
people who will lead followers to success. The true reflection of a leader’s ability is measured not
only in a company’s bottom line, but also in the success and empowerment of each individual.
Most great leaders can command confidence and trust by encouraging. Anytime there may be
failure, leaders know when to admit their fault and show willingness to learn in the process to
avoid future mistakes.
Leading Others
Being able to lead others is another component of the Four-Factor Model that contributes
to the various ways in which a leader can be effective. While self-leadership, as mentioned in the
previous section, relates to the ways in which personal leadership accountability is held, group
leadership contributes to serving the group as the facilitator of motivation, successful teambuilding, and conflict resolution. Each of these aspects of leading others contributes to the overall
function and nature of the team itself. When a project leader is able to effectively motivate others,
build cohesive teams, and resolve conflict without affecting the personality of the team, he or she
heightens the potential of successful outcomes of the project and the team.
The most important resource that a project has is its people. In order to create and manage
a high-performing team, a leader therefore needs to start with the right people. It is logical that a
successful project manager must have good interpersonal skills in order to effectively lead the
team. In addition, the leader should help ensure that the team has an optimal mix of skills, and be
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 25
able to work well together as a team. Team dynamics is unbelievably important in a project, and
the leader needs to be able to manage this to ensure that the team does not get off-course.
Motivation
As stated by John Adair (an authority in the world of leadership development) in his book
Leadership and Motivation, “Leadership and motivation are like brother and sister. It is difficult
to think of a leader who does not motivate others” (Adair 2006, pg. 7). When a motivating
environment is established within an organization that is equipped with competent employees and
members, the performance levels increase. One way for project leaders to increase performance is
to effectively use the determinants of task performance in correlation with motivation and ability.
Organization scholars have been able to pinpoint the determinants of performance through a simple
formula as follows:
Performance = Ability x Motivation
where
Ability = Aptitude x Training x Resources
Motivation = Desire x Commitment
(Whetten & Cameron, 2010, p. 327)
We see that performance is a direct product of ability and motivation. Ability is determined
by the aptitude of the individual, the training that the organization equips them with, and the
resources they are given to assist them along the way. As a leader, one must also be able to equip
his or her employees and members with a motivating environment that provides a balance between
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Providing external incentives while incorporating tasks that are
intrinsically driven allows members to not only be rewarded for their efforts, but also find
satisfaction in doing them (Whetten & Cameron, 2010, p. 342). Leaders must be able to motivate
their members in order to produce results that are effective and adequate for the task at hand.
Cohesive Teams
One of the responsibilities for team leaders is to build cohesive teams through team
development. Teams don not form and function overnight, and must be nurtured to cultivate a
personality and identity as a unit while maintaining a common focus of a goal or end result. In
order to properly develop, it is a team leader’s obligation to allow the team to progressively grow
through the four stages of team development in order to become cohesive. These stages include
forming, norming, storming and performing. Psychologist Bruce Tuckman created this four-stage
model and regarded this path of growth as the cycle in which teams generated higher performance
levels. While specifically looking at each level of development, we are able to notice the ways
that team leaders should interact with their team members vary between the four stages (Whetten
& Cameron, 2010, p. 498).
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 26
During the forming stage, leaders should focus on establishing clear objectives for the
group as well as clear objectives for individual members of the group. Having a clear sense of
what the goal is provides the team with a clear sense of direction during the first stage of team
development. Team leaders should concentrate on establishing structure within the group by
building trust and relationships with and amongst, the group’s members during the storming stage.
Building relationships with team members leads to a more cohesive team. Leaders must also
remain positive during this stage in order to resolve conflict and provide support for team members
who may not identify with the personality of the team yet. During the norming stage, leaders
typically withdraw themselves from the group while allowing team members to take on more
responsibility to continue progress while still being supportive and encouraging of team growth
(MindTools, 2014). During the performing stage, which is the final stage of the four stages of
team development, the team leader’s focus should be on continued encouragement for the team to
improve, innovate, and foster their ideas through their established roles. The team leader
establishes a sense of shared responsibility while encouraging their performance to be exceptional
(Whetten & Cameron, 2010, p. 505). By being able to effectively guide the team through these
four stages, there will be a heightened potential for quality performance from a more cohesive
team.
Conflict Resolution
Regardless of the nature of the project or the personality of the team, conflict inevitability
occurs. This is generally due to the nature of working within a group of dynamic individuals. As
conflict arises within organization groups and teams, it must also be resolved. The role of the team
leader allows for conflict resolution to occur within an authoritative nature of influence.
There are several conflict management strategies that are regarded as successful ways to
resolve conflict within a team. The Model of Conflict Management, which is a general model that
seeks to allude to a “successful dispute resolution”, provides team leaders with a summary model
to contribute towards resolution achievement (Whetten & Cameron, 2010, p. 401). According to
Whetten & Cameron, there are four core elements to conflict management:
(1) diagnosing the sources of conflict and the associated situational considerations; (2)
selecting an appropriate conflict management strategy, based on the results of the
diagnosis combined with personal preferences; (3) effectively implementing the strategy,
in particular the collaborative problem-solving process, which should lead to (4) a
successful resolution of the dispute.
(Whetten & Cameron, 2010, p. 401)
A visual representation of this model can be seen in Appendix D. Effective team leaders
must be able to use a variety of tools and tactics to resolve conflict. Whether leaders decide to
resolve conflict through the approach of forcing, avoiding, compromising, accommodating or
collaborating, there must be a balance of variant approaches in regards to the nature of the conflict
and the parties involved.
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 27
Environmental Factors
The lower left quadrant of the Four-Factor Model for Effective Project Leadership
Competency takes into account environmental factors. Items to be addressed in this section are
related in part to the environment and organization: strategic alignment of projects to company
goals, and vision of company and project. Additional consideration is given to leadership and how
the actions taken affect the surroundings with the chosen power and influence strategies and ability
to solve problems effectively.
Strategic Thinking
Leading a highly productive project team means attention should constantly be given to
strategic alignment. According to Meredith & Mantel (2009), there is now a greater push to “use
projects to achieve more strategic goals, and filtering existing major projects to make sure that
their objectives support the organization’s strategy and mission.” (p. 6) . Should the project not
tie into existing strategy and mission, the project risks losing resources to other projects that do.
This is considered so important to some companies that they are now viewing project management
as a strategic competence necessary for survival of the company (Miller, 2009).
It is clear that strategic thinking will be critical in leading a project team to a successful
outcome. Shifting the mindset to think in strategic leadership terms will be important. A
comparison chart transitioning from thinking in traditional project management terms into a
strategic project leadership style can be seen in Appendix B.
Vision
Shifting gears to look towards strategic project leadership is only one part of the
environment quadrant. A project leader must also concern the team with the overall vision of the
organization. According to Meredith & Mantel (2009), there are three decisions that must be
made at project initiation: how to tie the project to the parent firm, how to organize the project
itself, and how to organize activities that are common to other projects. The project vision and
how it relates to the corporate vision must be instilled in all project team members as well—not
just understood by the project manager. As Turner (2009) states, the differentiation of a leader
from a manager is that “the leader starts by building relationships and selling the vision”, and once
this is complete, only then can one determine how it is to be accomplished (p. 9). Knowing and
understanding the mission and vision for the task at hand is how a manager would think; but
transferring that knowledge to the team is how a leader responds to a task and begins to motivate
others to do the best job they can.
Power and Influence
Power and influence are under the environmental category because they are political in
nature. Power is about the leader’s ability within an organization which can be due to political
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 28
and hierarchical structures. Person power may also be developed through a level of expertise,
personal attraction, effort, or legitimacy.
Power and influence, while different, do go hand-in-hand in creating a successful project
leader. One without the other is almost useless to the manager. As indicated in Whetten &
Cameron (2010), a study done with 90 individuals showed that successful leaders made others feel
powerful because they had “learned how to build a strong power base in their organizations or
institutions” and they had also used their power to “help peers and subordinates accomplish
exceptional tasks” (p. 283). Using the influence gained through power is unique to the person.
Whetten & Cameron (2010) inform that the strategies involved in influence (called the three R’s)
are Retribution, Reciprocity, and Reason (p, 298). In addition, leaders will be better situated and
enjoy more success if they have the ability to direct their influence both up and down the chain of
command. Again, looking to Cameron & Whetten (2010), this theory is supported when they state
that the leaders who are able to exert their influence in this manner have subordinates tending to
feel they have a higher status and higher morale within the organization (p. 284). A visual
representation of the model they designed for power and influence can be seen in Appendix C.
Psychological Factors
Development of management and leadership skills is essential for a project manager to
recognize conflict, lead positive change, and mitigate stress among project team members.
Personal, interpersonal, and group dynamics are at play within a project team and skilful
management of the psychological factors that impact not only project success, but personal
satisfaction, must be addressed during project planning as well as throughout the project life cycle.
The Essential Management Skills model (Whetten D. & Cameron, K., 2011, p. 19)
categorizes the essential skills and defines the activities within each subgroup. Within the Personal
Skills category are creative problem solving, managing stress, and development of self-awareness.
Interpersonal Skills to be effectively developed are managing conflict, motivating others,
communicating supportively, and gaining power and influence. Finally, within the Group Skills
for leadership development and practice are leading positive change, building effective teams,
empowering, and developing.
Stress
Stress represents a significant risk for a project if not properly managed. Stress can be
attributed to having a significant negative impact on productivity, safety, and cost. “An estimated
one million workers are absent on an average working day because of stress-related complaints,
and approximately 550,000,000 workdays are lost each year due to stress.” (Whetten and Cameron,
2011). A project manager must proactively plan for how to recognize and mitigate stress among
the project team. There are four key sources of stress (Whetten & Cameron, 2011) and
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 29
corresponding management strategies for eliminating the stressor. Table 1.1 outlines the causes
of different types of stress as well as strategies for managing the stress among the project teams.
Type of Stressor
Time Stressors
Table 1.1
Cause
Work overload
Lack of control
Encounter Stressors
Managerial Strategy
Effective time management
Efficient time management
Delegating
Collaboration and team building
Emotional Intelligence
Role conflicts
Issue conflicts
Action conflicts
Situational Stressors
Unfavorable working conditions Work redesign
Rapid change
Anticipatory Stressors Unpleasant expectations
Goal setting
Fear
Small wins
Summary
The implications for this research include unique conclusions on effective management
and leadership skills within project management. The potential applications for this study are
primarily academic, but stand to offer an opportunity for self-reflection and study for anyone in a
leadership position. The resultant Four-Factor Model for Effective Project Leadership
Competency can serve as an introduction for both aspiring and seasoned project managers seeking
to acquire an enhanced understanding of team cohesiveness and the effect it can have on
organizational project and program success.
Conclusion
Through this research it is clear that leaders should generate a personal leadership
philosophy. Leaders have a platform of power than should encourage and enable their teams to
perform cohesively and collectively. Also, it is evident that various skills of leadership strategy
are required; these can be learned through dedication and persistence. Through this process we
learned that adaptability and commitment along with a desire to succeed are essential, as are
interpersonal skills.
Most importantly, we learned that getting the project members to work as a team is perhaps
the greatest challenge a leader will face. It requires a strong leader to be able to facilitate the team
bonding and team culture required to make a project successful. It is also important to note that
being a boss does not necessarily make a leader—bosses manage, whereas leaders inspire. In order
to be an effective leader in this sense, the components we explored revealed that the leader must
be willing to use authority effectively and efficiently while building relationships amongst team
members, thus growing trust. Anyone can manage, but not everyone can lead. One of the most
important things to remember as a leader is that there is not a black-and-white answer for what
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 30
makes a successful leader. There are shades of grey in many styles, techniques and skills that can
blend together in numerous ways to develop a successful and inspiring leader.
Through the analysis of project management and leadership research and development it is
clear that successful project managers must be able to exhibit interpersonal and intrapersonal
competency skills in order to lead and develop project teams. The Four-Factor Model of Effective
Project Leadership provides the foundation from which project leaders should establish their
thoughts, intentions, and actions in order to accomplish the end goal of their project as well as
enable their team to be successful. The management and leadership skills assessed and discussed
throughout this paper provide the groundwork for team leaders to not only make a positive impact
within their respective organizations, but also lead their team towards successful project-based
results. This paper has striven to provide a comprehensive look at what it takes to be a successful
and effective leader. A wide-angled approach was taken by looking into the subsections of the
Four-Factor Model for Effective Project Leadership Competency to try and create a cohesive
picture of what it takes to be a high-performing project manager and leader.
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 31
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Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 32
Appendix A
Four-Factor Model for Effective Project Leadership Competency
• Communicate and Relate
• The Power of Positive
• Empower and Delegate
• Strategic Thinking
• Vision
• Power & Influence
• Motivation
• Cohesive Teams
• Conflict Resolution
Self
Leadership
Leading
Others
Environment
Psychology
• The Human Factor
• Stress
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 33
Appendix B
Note. From project management to Strategic Project Leadership. Reprinted from Shenhar, A. J.,
Milosevic, D., Dvir, D., & Thamhain, H. (2007). Linking Project Management to
Business Strategy. Newtown Square, PA: Techniques of Speaking .
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 34
Appendix C
Note. Model of Power and Influence. Reprinted from Whetten, D. A., & Cameron, K. S. (2010).
Developing Management Skills (8th ed.). New York, NY: Prentice-Hall.
Journal of IT and Economic Development 5(1), 21-35, April 2014 35
Appendix D
Note. Summary Model of Conflict Management. Reprinted from Whetten, D. A., & Cameron,
K. S. (2010). Developing Management Skills (8th ed.). New York, NY: Prentice-Hall.
Acknowledgment
We gratefully acknowledge the supervisory and editorial guidance rendered by Dr. Victor Sohmen
(Associate Clinical Professor, Project Management Program, Drexel University) in developing this
paper.