EYF CT
ON
07
STAGGER
BIPLANE, COMBINATIONS
AT
HIGH ANGLES
DECAIAAGE
AND
OF
OF
THICK AIRFOILS
INCIDENCE
by
N. J. MEDVELEFF and N. N. SINITZIN
Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement
for the Degree of
MASTER
OF
SCIENCE
from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1926
Signature of Authors
Certification by the Department of
Professor in charge of ResearchŽg
Chairman of Departmental Committee
on Graduiate Students
Head of Department
TABI
I.
Introduction
II.
Object of investigation
OF CONTENTS
III. Airfoil used and methods of attack - - - - - - IV.
Assembling jig and supporting apparatus - - - -
V.
Corrections for supporting appara-us- - - - - -
VI.
Presentation and discussion of results
-
-
-
-
VII. Conclusions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VIII.
List of References - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
151295
-1
I.
Introduction
There have been previously made a considerable number
of tests on effect of stagger and decalage on biplane combinations
in different countries and especially in England.
As far as it
is known, however, there have been no tests made upon biplane
combinations of thick airfoils.
Modern practice of airplane design,especially in
commercial aviation, where the question of maximum pay-load
carried is the one of necessity, turns its attention once and again
to airfoils of high lift, which would permit a higher wing loading
and hence reduced wing area without sacrificing the landing speed.
The class of the wing sections possessing a much higher
maximum lift coefficient is that of thick airfoils.
The most important and immediate problem in commercial
aviation, which (problem) goes together if not ahead of the question
of getting more revenue, is that of safety of operation, which
in its turn insistently reminds us that there is still a great deal
to do in order to make flying absolutely safe.
It is well known that there is some danger of stalled
flight, as it brings the machine to the very border, where the
autorotation can start and further develop into the spin, - a
manoeuver undoubtedly extremely hazardous for an airplane.
In a steady flight compensation for decrease of speed
is given by increase of angle of attack to secure lift capable
of sustaining the airplane.
It is no longer true after the angle
of attack corresponding to maximum lift is passed, as with speed
I
III II
I
-
I-2'
decreased the increase of angle of attack causes still further
drop in lift. Airplane begins to descend rapidly, which in conjunction with loss of control and possible small disturbancemay
result in a spin. As there are on record quite a number of the
accidents which occured due to non-recovery from a spin, the
analysis of that question becomes of vital importance.
Object of investi ation and limits of work
II.
The main purpose of the research was to discover whether
there is any possibility to reduce, if not to prevent entirely,
the liability to spin by the use of a proper biplane combination
of thick airfoils, for which, as was suggested by Professor E. P.
Warner, solution might easier be found,
-The investigation aimed to give an estimation of the
characteristics of wing combinations of thick airfoils at various
stagger, decalage and also gap to chord ratio, and bring out
qualities beyond the critical angle and aerodynamic efficiency
within the ordinary flying range.
The tests were confined to the limits of angle of attack
between *10o
and +320,
within which region only autorotation can
take place and all the properties of a combination in this respect
can be fully displayed.
III.
Airfoils used and methods of attack
Experiments were conducted in the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology 4 foot Wind Tunnel on NPL balance at constant speed
4-5.
40 mph. with standard 18" x 3" GBttingen 387 steel airfoils of
constant chord and thickness ratio.
JAn attempt was made to cover as broad range of different
combinations of stagger, decalage and gap to chord ratio as it was
deemed rational and justifiable.
It was intended also to make
a number of runs with increased speed, which, unfortunately, could
not be done due to the possibility of overstraining the balance.
The method of approaching to the solution of the problem
is at once suggested by the consideration of the fact that the
probability of stalling is more possible with a machine with well
pronounced burble point or sharp peak of Zc carve than when this
curve at the critical angle is more flat.
For this reason the results were considered and inferences
made on the base of the shape of Zc curves (coefficient of the
normal force versus angle of attack), which were plotted for each
combination tested.
The criterion of greater or less tendency to autorotation
of a biplane combination was the shape of Zc curve in the region
of itt maximum.
Namely, the combination with furthermost maximnnm
point for the curve, which in the same time is itself well flattened
on a considerable range of angle of attack before Zc maximum, can
be judged as the best for non-spinning qualities.
The. magni tude of
Z force itself has no immediate influence upon the non-spinning
qualities of a combination, but it clearly shows in what direction
its aerodynamic characteristics are affected. Drop of Zc at lower
-4-
angles means a loss of lift, possible decrease of L
thereby
affecting the performance of the airplane.
The best all-around combination is therefore that which
has Zc curve with higher ordinates, with pronounced flattening
at a considerable range of angle of attack and furthermost point
of maximum.
IV.
Adustable jig for assembling the model and
apiara tus for su-oortino it in Wind Tunnel
At the very outset of the conducting research the -writers
were confronted with the question how to secure the accuracy of
settings of the wings for different stagger, decalage and gap to
chord ratio.
Arrangements used by earlier investigators of the
similar problem for thin airfoils were either cumbersome and
inconvenient through the necessity of being placed in the Wind
Tunnel together with model (R & M 872) or were not able to
secure beforehand the desired values of variables for a given
combination at a time, as in earlier German, British, and American
tests (see Reference List).
And yet upon the precision of the work, especially in
decalage changes, where the difference of such a small value of
an angle as 1-1/20 between two successive settings of wings was
required, depended tbhe whole result of investigation.
The necessity
of having some kind of device enabling the rapid assembly of the
wing combination at any desired set of variables was especially
urgent because a broad range (nearly 90) of different combinations
-5.-
was planned to be investigated.
Such a device was worked out on the principle of an
adjustable jig, and is adaptable to rapid dismantling and assembling
of the airfoils for any desired set of the assumed variables.
The definitions of stagger, decalage and gap as they
are given in N.A.C.A.T.R. No. 157 were put in the foundation for
constructing the jig, which with model assembled for stagger +25%,
decalage +40
and G = 1.25 is shown in Fig. 9.
As the stagger, decalage and gap are the three variables,
properties of which are to be analyzed, it is worthwhile to.give
their definitions here for ready reference of the reader.
Stagger is the amount of advance of the leading edge
of an upper wing of a biplane over that of a lower, expressed as
a percentage of gap or in degrees of the angle whose tangent is
the percentage just referred to.
It is considered positive when
the upper wing is forward, and is measured from the leading edge
of the upper wing along its chord to the point of intersection
of this chord with a line drawn perpendicular to the chord of
the upper wing at the leading edge of the lower wing, all lines
being drawn in a plane parallel to the plane of symmetry.
A little retreatment from this definition was made
in expressing the stagger as percentage of the chord instead-of
that of the gp, as is often the case in practice and which is
•the most convenient here, because the chord was kept constant
throughout the whole investigation, while the gap was one of the
6-
---
three fundamental variables.
Decalage is the acute angle between the wing chords
It is positive if the angle divergent forward, and
of a biplane.
negative in the opposite case.
Gap is the distance between the planes of the chords
of the upper and lower wings of a biplane, measured along a line
perpendicular to the chord of the upper wing at any designated
point of its leading edge.
The jig can be applied to any kind of wing sections,
either of the same or different chords, and for any set of stagger,
decalage and G ratio.
C
It consists of two main parts (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2), made
in pairs either of wood, or preferably, of metal, and of a number
of blocks (Fig. 3, 4, 5, 6 and II)
G ratios
of different height for various
and of different angle of inclination of the upper
surface for various decalages.
All these blocks are also in pairs
as is seen from Fig. g.
The application of the device to the assembling of any
kind of biplane combination is clearly understood from the
consideration of Fig. 7. Lines a, b, c, d, etc. determine the
position of leading edge of the lower wing for a required stagger;
a block inserted between upper and lower main parts gives a
desired
&ag
chord
ratio; and a bevel block (or with parallel edges
for zero decalage) placed under the lower wing furnishes a necessary
decalage.
Upper wing is always in the same position.
_After the wings are properly placed they are rigidly
tied up by the wedges of soft wood, while a connecting strut (see
Fig. 10) on the top and an adjustable cross-bar on the bottom are
set up and tightly fastened to the wings.
The model then takes
a form of a rigidly connected system, can be taken out of the jig
and placed in the Wind Tunnel.
The cross-bar (Fig. 12) was designed by the members of
the Wind Tunnel Staff of M. I. T. and was used before in similar
experiments.
Its movable blocks on parallel guides are set
apart at such a distance as to bring the ends of wing spindles
right into the holes of those blocks (Pig. 10).
V.
Corrections due to surorting apparatus
These corrections included the effect due to the
resistance offered by the apparatus to the relative flow of the
air and interference effect due to spindles altering the airflow
about the tip of the model.
To obtain the effect of apparatus
upon the drag and lift it was tested alone in the ordinary way
with the wind on over the whole range of incidences.
To compensate
for interference effect both spindles were projected by 7/8' longer
than when with wings, as the practice of that Wind Tunnel
established.
Two runs were made: with spindles in the most out-
ward position, corresponding to maximum gap, and in most inward
position, that for the minimum gap.
Average value of drag was
taken giving inappreciable error (1.6% maximum).
Zero readings
(with no wind) for the model appeared different for each angle of
I
I
-8-
attack, the difference though being small.
Here also average
zero reading was taken with negligible error (1.15% the highest).
Such small errors are well permissible in the case under consideration where relative merits of combinations are compared,
the exact absolute magnitudes of the coefficients not being of
importance.
VI.
Presentation and discussion of results
The results are presented in the form of tables I - 11,
charts 1-12
and a subjoined diagram, showing the relative merits
of the various wing combinations as regard to non-spinning
qualities and aerodynamic features as well.
All coefficients are expressed in pounds per square
foot per mile per hour and were calculated by the usual formulae:
L
S
C
2S
Ze = Lc CosoL
+ De Sinc-
The beginning and. end of autorotation was deterýined
by the equation:
dLc
+
Dc
=
0
dtL
The character of the airflow, as set up by a given
combination, is indicated also.
The property of the combination
to create a smooth steady flow of the'air around itself may
-.f%
possibly prevent the turniag of the airplane into a spin in
a stalled flight, when a small distarbance is sufficient to start
spinning.
Unfortunately, this quality is possessed in a greater
degree by the comboinati3ns, which are perhaps the worst both
from non-spinning and aerodynamical points of view.
those with negative stagger and negative decalage.
They are
The steadiness
of the airflow, however, around these combinations was remarkable;
permitting the reading of drag to the third decimal figure with
ease, and almost no turbulent effect was present.
The most unfavorable combination in this respect is
that with stagger 0%, which, except for higher G ratio and
C
positive decalage, furnished the most turbulent flow of the air,
preventing any measurements beyond the critical angle.
As a rule
zero stagger, combined with low gap-chord ratio and negative
decalage (also high gap-chord ratio and large negative decalage)
gives a combination very poor aerodynamically with no good nonspinning qualities either.
Change to positive decalage together
with the introduction of high gap-chord ratio improves very
considerably aerodynamic characteristics of the combination
(combinations nos. 19, 20, 29, 46, 50 and 51),
though not de-
creasing much its tendency to spin.
Combination No. 50 with zero stagger, + 2-1/21
decalage
and G = 1.25 is the best aerodynamically of all tested and has
a limited (though not a short one) range of autorotation, but
'nfortunately autorotation starts at an early angle of attack (200).
-10**
Introduction of positive stagger (charts nos. 11 and 12) together
with low gap-chord ratio and negative decalage give the best
combinations as far as non-spinning qualities are concerned,
whereas aerodynamically they are not as good.
1, 2, 3, 4, etc.)
(Combinations nos.
On the other hand positive stagger combined
with high gap-chord ratio and positive decalage give combina-
tions much better aerodynamically but poor with respect to early
angle of a~torotation, though the range of autorotation is the
shortest.
(Combinations nos. 67, 68, 56, etc.)
Effect of gap-chord ratio is not appreciable as far
as autorotation is concerned, except for zero stagger and high
positive decalage (chart No. 10, combinations nos. 12, 19 and 51),
but is of importance aerodynamically.
As it might be anticipated,
the higher gap-chord ratio gives the greater values for Zc due
to the fact that shielding effect of the lower wing on the upper
one is decreased.
This is,
however, not true in all instances
(chart no. 9) due to influence of varying stagger and decalage,
the last one being probably responsible for rather erratic and
not quite consistent curves of effect of gap to chord ratio,,
As to the effect of decalage, the consistency here is
almost complete, perhaps without any exceptions. Namely, negative
decalage is very favorable for non-spinning qualities of the
combination, shifting the maxium point of Zc curve to the right,
whereas it considerably decreases the aerodynamic efficiency of
combination within flying range of angle of attack.
On the other
malls
band, positive decalage greatly improves aerodynamical characteristics
of the combination, but increases its tendency to spin in a very
marked degree.
That rule does not step out clearly with high negative
stagger due to a great shielding effect, but is very well pronounced
for high positive stagger (charts nos. 2, 3, 4, 7, 8).
VII
Final conclusions
Conclusions are not of a very satisfactory sort, as,
unfortunately, for a combination to possess a quality of the least
tendency to spin at high angles, means to be very poor aerodynamically for angles within the ordinary flying range.
To
imorove the non-spinning qualities of a biplane combination means
to make a material sacrifice in lift.
The best non-spinning combination, which begins to
autorotate as late as 260,
to chord ratio
is that of +25$ stagger,
.75 gap
and -2-1/20 decalage.
The least range of autorotation has the combination of
+50o stagger,
1.00 gap to chord ratio and +4o decalage.
The best combination aerodyna=ically is 0% stagger,
1.25 gap to chord ratio and +2-1/20 decalage.
As 4 compromise the best all-around combination is +5NO
stagger, 1.00 gp to chord ratio
and -2-1/20 decalage (no.3),
which combines the average values of lift (between those of very
high and very low) and sufficiently late start of awtorotation (24),
-r12
As an alternative, a combination of less steady airflow with
the rest of the things being the same as before mentioned is
that of +25% stagger, 1.00 gap-chord ratio and -1-1/29 decalage
(no. 7).
As to the airfoil alone, representing the properties
of a monoplane, it is seen from chart and table no. 1
and
subjoined diagram ("Combination" no. 40) that airfoil alone
occupies almost exactly the middle position between the two
extremes of biplane with respect to tendency to autorotation
and in the same time possesses very high aerodynamic characteristics
for angles of flying range.
The autorotation range of the airfoil
alone is very limited also.
These are very considerable advantages
which speak in favor of monoplane and may give explanation of the
extensive use and success obtained by monoplanes with thick airfoils.
The experiments made can not be absolutely conclusive,
as other wing sections might be more favorable than that employed,
also there may be an advantage in using two wings of different
sections and different chords.
Some influence might be expressed
from'transverse overhand of the upper wing, change of aspect ratio,
etc.
It should be noted also that in compating coefficients
no account was taken of the change of lift and drag at the wing
tips; therefore, the conclusions can only be regarded as showing
the type of result to be expected and not the actual numerical
values.
4
~13s.
VIII
1.
References
Zeitschrift f¶r Flugtechnik und Motorluftschiffart, January 1I,
1913:
"Mitteilungen aus der Gittinger Model Versuchstanstalt",
by A. Betz.
2. "Engneering", V. 101. Jan. 1, 1916.
by J. C. Hunsaker.
3.
Technical Note No. 70 of N.A.C.A.:
a Biplane", by F. H. Norton.
4.
Technical Report No. 157 of N.A.C.A.:
Aeronautics".
5.
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
Reports and Memoranda:
"Stable biplane arrangements"
"The Effect of staggering
"Nomenclature for
No. 549
Oct.1918
The Auto-Rotation of Stalled Airfoils and its
relation to the Spinning Speed of Aeroplanes,
by E.F. Relf, A.R.C.Sc., and T. Lavender.
No. 595
Mar.1919
The Rotation of an Airfoil, about a fixed axis,
by H. Glauert.
No. 670
Mar.1920
The Maximum Angular Velocity of Aeroplanes, by
F. H. Bramwell.
No. 733
Sept.1920
Preliminary Note on the Effect of Stagger and
Decalage on the Auto-Rotation of a R.A.F.15
Biplane, by H.B. Irving and A. S. Batson.
No. 774
-Sept. 21
Biplane investigation with R.A.F. 15 section,
by W. L. Cowley and C.N.1H. Lock.
No. 787
Jan.21
Lateral Control of Bristol Fighter at Low Speeds,
by Bradfield.
No. 846
Aug.22
, The Lateral Stability of S.E. 5a
flight, by E. F. Relf.
in gliding
No. 857
Dec.1922
Biplane Investigation with R.A.F. 15 section,
Part If, by W. L. Cowley and L. J. Jones.
No. 872
May 1923
Biplane Investigation with R.A.F. 15 section
Part III, by W. L. Cowley, A.G.Gadd, L.J. Jones
and Silvia Skan.
-14-
References
(continued)
No. 975
April 1925
Autorotation Measurements on a Model Aeroplane
with Zero Stagger, by F. 3. Bradfield and
L. P. Coombes.
No. 976
Nov. 1925
a
Some experiments on a model a B.A.T. "Bantam"
Aeroplane with Special Reference to Spinning
accidents.
No. 1000
Sept. 1925
The Lateral Control of Stalled Aeroplanes,
General Report by the stability and control
panel.
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