2550
Page 1 of 14
FOREST SERVICE MANUAL
INTERMOUNTAIN REGION (REGION 4)
OGDEN, UT
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
Supplement No.: 2500-2011-1
Effective Date: March 14, 2011
Duration: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
Approved: HARV FORSGREN
Regional Forester
Date Approved: 03/04/2011
Posting Instructions: Supplements are numbered consecutively by Title and calendar year.
Post by document; remove entire document and replace it with this supplement. Retain this
transmittal as the first page(s) of this document. This is the first supplement to FSM 2550.
New Document(s):
2550
Superseded Document(s) by
Issuance Number and
Effective Date
None
14 Pages
Digest:
2550 – Makes numerous updates throughout and incorporates direction previously contained in
FSH 2509.18. FSH 2509.18 is removed from the directive system.
Defines criteria for managing and measuring soil quality. Adds specific definitions for soil
quality management. Updates direction for maintaining soil quality.
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 2 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
2550.4 - Responsibility
2550.44 - Regional Foresters
In addition to the responsibilities set forth in FSM 2550.44, the Region 4 Director of Natural
Resources is delegated the responsibility and the authority to:
1. Ensure Forest standards and guides and Manual supplements are compatible with
Regional policy and objectives.
2. Collaborate with researchers to address soil quality validation monitoring needs identified
in the Region and to improve efficiency of effectiveness monitoring.
3. Ensure monitoring data, sampling protocols, and analysis methods meet Regional and
National corporate standards.
4. Collaborate with, and incorporate the findings of, other efforts assessing soil quality
condition and trends.
2550.45 - Forest and Grassland Supervisors
In addition to the responsibilities set forth in FSM 2550.45, Forest Supervisors may delegate to
their resource staff specialists, the responsibility and the authority to:
1. Provide direction to adhere to soil quality standards in the Forest Plan and during its
implementation.
2. Ensure that Desired Future Conditions are compatible with the maintenance of inherent
soil quality and function.
3. Evaluate the effectiveness of soil quality standards and monitoring procedures within the
appropriate ecological scale, and recommend adjustments to the Regional Forester.
Recommend changes in management practices or prescriptions when warranted by
monitoring results.
4. Propose revised standards as needed, based on ecological unit characteristics. Coordinate
with the Regional Office, Research and Development, other Forests, and partners within
the sub-Region having similar ecological units to ensure consistency.
5. Provide training in the application of soil quality standards and monitoring results.
6. Assist District Rangers with soil quality monitoring of specific management activities.
Project specific monitoring plans should be integrated with other related monitoring
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 3 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
efforts to the degree possible. They should be designed to support the overall Forest Plan
monitoring and evaluation effort.
7. Compile Forest-wide monitoring results.
8. Report monitoring results to the Regional Forester.
9. Provide quality assurance to District monitoring efforts.
10. Ensure adherence to corporate data standards, protocols, and analysis methods.
District Rangers have the responsibility to:
1. Ensure that project level plans contain land management prescriptions consistent with
soil quality objectives and guidelines. Identify management measures necessary to meet
soil quality objectives and guidelines.
2. Conduct soil quality assessments where needed to determine existing soil conditions.
3. Conduct appropriate soil quality monitoring to determine if soil quality objectives and
guidelines have been met. Consult with soil scientist or watershed specialist and other
appropriate resource specialists to evaluate the need to adjust management practices or
apply rehabilitation measures.
2550.5 - Definitions
Activity Area. An area impacted by a land management activity. Activity areas include
such areas as harvest units within timber sale areas and prescribed burn areas. Riparian
and other environmentally sensitive areas may be monitored and evaluated as individual
activity areas within larger management areas. Depending upon the management activity
and type of analysis, some locations and uses within an activity area may be excluded
from any analysis of soil resources. Some examples of uses that may be excluded are
specified transportation facilities, dedicated trails, and mining excavations and dumps. It
is recommended to describe the activity area for soil resources within planning and
project implementation documents.
Bulk Density. Soil bulk density is the mass (oven dry weight) of fine earth (particles < 2
mm) per volume of moist (10 kPa) fine earth.
Coarse Woody Debris. Dead organic materials such as plant stems, branches, roots, and
logs in all stages of decay with a diameter greater than three inches. Coarse woody
debris is material above the soil surface. Included are both natural and management
induced material.
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 4 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
Detrimental Erosion. Detrimental erosion includes erosion rates that cause long-term
productivity losses from an activity area or soil losses that are beyond those acceptable
for the activity area.
Detrimental Soil Disturbance. Detrimental soil disturbance is defined in Region 4 by soil
displacement, soil compaction, soil puddling and severely burned soil as shown below:
Detrimental Soil Displacement. Detrimental soil displacement includes areas
where 1 meter by 1 meter or larger exhibits the loss of either 5 cm or ½ of humus
enriched top soil (A horizon), whichever is less.
Detrimental Soil Compaction. Soil compaction is generally evaluated from 5 to
30 centimeters below the mineral soil surface. Specific depths for measurement
are dependent upon soil type and management activities. Detrimental soil
compaction is increased soil density (weight per unit volume) and strength that
restricts root growth, reduces soil aeration and inhibits water movement.
Measurements of potential soil compaction may be qualitative or quantitative.
Exhibit 01 provides a set of indicators that can be used to measure soil
compaction. A determination is generally made as to whether any observed soil
compaction is detrimental or non detrimental soil compaction.
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 5 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
2550.5 – Exhibit 01
Indicators and Methods for Measuring Soil Compaction
Indicator
Soil
structure
change
Measure
Calibrated
ocular
examination of
soil layers
Measurement Standard
Evidence of change to platy
structure or lack of structure
(massive) from granular, blocky
or sub-angular blocky structure.
Soil
strength
Calibrated
shovel
penetration
resistance
Shovel penetration is difficult
relative to pre-disturbance
levels.
Soil
strength
Calibrated
penetrometer
readings
Bulk
density
Soil samples
and lab
analysis–
sampling
methods vary
by soil
characteristics
Soil samples –
sampling
methods vary
by soil
characteristics
A reading increase over predisturbance levels that
correlates to the measurement
standards for soil structure
change, shovel penetration
resistance and or bulk density
increase. This value must be
adjusted for soil moisture
conditions at the time of
sampling
Significant change in the
distribution of Bulk Density of
the activity area soils from
undisturbed conditions.
Bulk
density
Threshold values by soil texture
are used to determine
Detrimental soil disturbance.
Threshold values are those
where significant root limiting,
and infiltration reduction
conditions exists. An example
of threshold values is shown in
exhibit 02.
Reliability
Moderate – can be described
but not quantified –
observations should be
calibrated with bulk density
readings.
Moderate – difficult to quantify
except indirectly by calibration
with bulk density and or
penetrometer readings; can be
combined easily with ocular
exam for induced platy
structure.
High – consistent quantitative
measurements in relatively rock
free soils.
High – consistent quantitative
measurements; can also be
correlated with soil strength.
High – consistent quantitative
measurements; can also be
correlated with soil strength.
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 6 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
2550.5 – Exhibit 02
Threshold Bulk Density Values by Texture
(USDA NRCS, National Soil Survey Handbook, Part 618.06 1996)
Soil Family Particle Size Class
Sandy
Coarse Loamy
Fine Loamy
Coarse Silty
Fine Silty
Clayey (fine) 35-45% clay
Clayey (very fine) >45% clay
Bulk Density (g/cc)
Root Restriction
initiation
1.69
1.63
1.60
1.60
1.54
1.49
1.39
Threshold Root
Restricting Bulk
Density (g/cc)
>1.85
>1.80
>1.78
>1.79
>1.65
>1.58
>1.47
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 7 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
Soil Puddling. Soil Puddling is generally evaluated at the mineral soil surface.
Visual indicators of soil puddling include clearly identifiable ruts with berms in
mineral soil, or in an Oa horizon of an organic soil. Reduced infiltration and
permeability are associated and visually present in areas with soil puddling. Soil
puddling may occur in conjunction with detrimental compaction. The guidelines
for soil compaction (defined above) are to be used when this occurs. Soil
Puddling can also alter local groundwater hydrology and wetland function, and
provide conduits for runoff.
Severely Burned Soil. The severely burned soil guideline applies to prescribed
fire. Severely burned soils are identified by ratings of fire severity and the effects
to the soil. A severely burned soil is generally soil that is within a High Fire
Severity burn as defined by the Forest Service Burned Area Emergency
Rehabilitation Program (FSH 2509.13) and Debano et. Al. 1998. An example of
a high fire severity rating is provided as exhibit 03. Soil humus losses, structural
changes, hydrophobic characteristics and sterilization are potential effects of
severely burned soil.
2550.5 – Exhibit 03
Example of High Fire Severity Rating
High soil heating, or deep ground char, occurs where the duff is completely consumed and the
top of the mineral soil is visibly reddish or orange on severely burned sites. Color of the soil
below 1 cm is darker or charred from organic material that has heated or burned. The char layer
can extend to a depth of 10 cm or more. Logs can be consumed or deeply charred, and deep
ground char can occur under slash concentrations or under burned logs. Soil textures in the
surface layers are changed and fusion evidenced by clinkers can be observed locally. All shrub
stems are consumed and only the charred remains or large stubs may be visible. Soil
temperatures at 1 cm are greater than 250 C. Lethal temperatures for soil organisms occur down
to depths of 9 to 16 cm.
Erosion. Erosion is the detachment and transport of individual soil particles, or
aggregates of particles, by wind, water, or gravity. Management practices may increase
the hazard of soil erosion when ground cover is removed and soil particles are detached.
1. Surface or particulate erosion occurs as the loss of soil by gravity (dry ravel), by
wind, or by gravity and water, both raindrop splash and overland flow (rill and/or
sheet erosion).
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 8 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
2. Mass wasting occurs when large masses of soil and/or rock fall, slide, or flow
down a slope.
Effective Ground Cover. Effective Ground cover consists of vegetation, litter, and rock
fragments larger than three-fourths inch in diameter. Effective Ground Cover is
expressed as the percentage of material, other than bare ground, covering the land surface
and includes live vegetation, dead vegetation, litter, cobble, gravel, stones, and bedrock.
It may include management-induced materials.
Litter. The surface layer (Oi-horizon) of recently deposited and decomposed plant
remains, mainly leaves and twigs (branches less than three inches in diameter).
Decomposed plant material (Oe and Oa horizon) is sometimes called "duff" and would
not be included as litter.
Nutrient Cycling. The ability of the soil to accept, hold, and release nutrients.
Porosity. Soil porosity is the volume of voids per total volume. Total porosity (P) is
related to bulk density (Db) and the specific gravity of solid particles (Ds) by the
equation P = (1-Db/Ds). The specific gravity of soil mineral particles is generally about
2.65, and that of soil organic matter is about 1.4.
Soil Compaction. Increasing the soil bulk density and decreasing the soil porosity by the
application of mechanical forces to the soil.
Soil Conservation Practices. Soil conservation practices are mechanisms used to protect
soil quality while managing for resource goals and objectives. They can be
administrative, preventive or corrective measures. They are identified during project
planning and design. The R1/R4 FSH 2509.22, Soil and Water Conservation Practices
Handbook, contains a process for developing specific conservation practices for use on
National Forests and Grasslands.
Soil Displacement. Soil displacement is the movement of soil from one place to another
by erosive or mechanical forces.
Soil Disturbance. Any activity or natural phenomenon that alters the existing physical,
chemical, and/or biological properties of the soil.
Soil Hydrologic Function. See Soil Hydrology.
Soil Organic Matter. The organic fraction of the soil exclusive of undecayed plant and
animal residues.
Soil Puddling. Soil is displaced where changes in infiltration and permeability occur.
Visual evidence includes rutting with identifiable berms in mineral soil.
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 9 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
Soil Quality Guideline. Specific direction to aid in the design of projects and activities to
help achieve objectives and desired conditions.
Soil Quality Indicator. A quantitative or qualitative measure used to estimate soil
functional capacity. Indicators should be adequately sensitive to change, accurately
reflect the processes or biophysical mechanisms relevant to the function of interest, and
be cost effective and relatively easy and practical to measure. Soil quality indicators are
often categorized into biological, chemical, and physical indicators.
Soil-loss Tolerance. Soil-loss tolerance is the maximum rate of annual soil erosion at
which plant productivity can be sustained indefinitely. It is dependent on the rate of soil
formation and type of vegetation being managed.
Subsoiling. Subsoiling is any treatment to loosen a compacted soil without inversion and
with a minimum mixing of the soil. This loosening is usually achieved by the lifting
action of soil dry enough so that shattering occurs, but not so dry as to form large clods.
2550.6 - Technical References
In addition to the technical references listed in FSM 2550.6, the following references are used in
support of the soil management program of Region 4.
Brown, James K.; Reinhardt, Elizabeth D.; Kramer, Kylie A. 2003. Coarse woody
debris: Managing benefits and fire hazard in the recovering forest. Gen. Tech. Rep.
RMRSGTR-105. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station. 16 p.
Debano, L.F., Neary, D.G., Ffolliott, P.F. 1998. Fire’s effects on ecosystems. New
York: John Wiley and Sons Inc. 333 p.
USDA, NRCS. 2010. Field Indicators of Hydric Soils in the United States, A Guide for
Identifying and Delineating Hydric Soils. Version 7.0, 2010.
ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/NSSC/Hydric_Soils/FieldIndicators_v7.pdf
USDI/USDA Technical Reference 1737-19. 2003. Riparian Area Management:
Riparian-Wetland Soils.
ftp://ftp.blm.gov/pub/nstc/techrefs/Final%20TR%201737-19.pdf
Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils. Most current version found at:
http://soils.usda.gov/technical/fieldbook/
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 10 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
Graham, R. T. 1994. Managing coarse woody debris in forests of the Rocky Mountains.
Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT. 1994. 13p. map; 28 cm.
USDA Forest Service, unpublished document, 2001. Region 4 Forest Service Soil
Quality Monitoring Methods. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Ogden, UT.
USDA Forest Service, unpublished document, 2010. Region 4 Forest Service Soil
Interpretations Guide. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Ogden, UT.
Harvey, A.E. 1997. Decaying organic materials and soil quality in the Inland Northwest:
a management opportunity. USDA, Forest Service, General Tech. Report INT-225.
Howes, S., J. Hazard, M. Geist. 1983. Guidelines for Sampling Some Physical Conditons
of Surface Soils. R6-RWM-146-1993. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region.
Page-Dumroese, D.S., M. Jurgensen, W. Elliot, T. Rice, J. Nesser, T. Collins, and R.
Meurisse. 2000. Soil quality guidelines for forest sustainability in the Northwestern
North America. Forest Ecology and Management 138:445-462.
Page-Dumroese, D., A.Harvey, M. Jurgensen. 1995. A Guide to Soil Sampling and
Analysis on the National Forests of the Inland Northwest United States. GTR INTGTR-326. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2007.
National Soil Survey Handbook, title 430-VI. [Online] Available:
http://soils.usda.gov/technical/handbook/
2551 - SOIL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
2551.03 - Policy
1. Soil resource management is consistent with the goal of maintaining or improving soil
quality and soil hydrologic function.
2551.1 - Assessments, Analysis, and Monitoring
Management activities create various degrees of soil disturbance, but ecologically sustainable
land stewardship can minimize adverse impacts on soils. Soil quality is primarily determined by
evaluating surface soil properties. This is the critical area where plant and animal organic matter
accumulate, begin to decompose and eventually become incorporated into soil. It is also the
zone of maximum biological activity and nutrient release. The physical condition of this zone
plays a significant role in soil stability, nutrient cycling, water infiltration, and energy flows.
The presence and distribution of the surface soil is critically important to productivity.
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 11 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
2551.11 – Assessments
Soil quality existing conditions are evaluated by using an appropriate condition asssessment
method. See FSM 2550.6 for examples of Soil Quality Assessment methods. Other appropriate
soil quality assessment methods include:
Region 4 Soil Health Assessment Protocol (Unpublished)
Soil quality condition assessment protocols that are used must be documented and shown to be
appropriate for the type of project or analysis that is being completed.
1. Soil Quality Assessment Management Implications. Soil quality assessment evaluations
describe existing conditions. Degradation of soil function may reflect past or current
events. Management activities responsible for changes in soil quality condition should be
identified. If necessary, corrective action should be taken to reverse unfavorable changes
in soil condition.
Existing management activities need to be evaluated to determine if the current
management activity is contributing to the loss of soil function. In some cases, current
management activities may not have caused the loss of soil function, but may be
preventing recovery of functions. Management activities that prevent recovery of soil
function should be avoided.
2551.3 - Standards and Guidelines
Soil quality standards and guidelines provide soil management indicators that help determine
when changes in soil properties would result in significant change or impairment of soil quality.
Soil quality standards and guidelines provide for the maintenance of soil properties that affect
soil quality and hydrologic function. Soil quality standards and guidelines are met through
management applications. The standards and guidelines are used to define management
practices to improve or maintain soil quality and watershed condition. Soil quality standards and
guidelines may be determined at Regional, Forest plan, or individual project levels. Soil quality
standards and guidelines will vary depending upon desired conditions as well as treatment type
(Page-Dumroese et.al. 2000). They may be included as direction at plan and project level
decisions.
The soil management goal should be to maintain soil quality. Existing, predicted, and
cumulative levels of soil quality condition are used together to determine that standards and
guidelines are being met.
1. Examples of Soil Quality Standards. The following are examples of soil quality
standards that may be included at plan and project levels. Other soil quality standards
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 12 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
may be used to provide the most appropriate direction to maintain or improve soil quality
and watershed conditions.
a. Soil resource management must consider the maintenance or improvement of soil
productivity and soil hydrologic function.
b.
Integrate the maintenance or restoration of inherent soil quality, long-term
productivity, and function into desired future conditions.
2. Examples of Soil Quality Guidelines. The following are examples of soil quality
guidelines that may be used at plan or project level decisions. This is not an inclusive list
or a required list of guidelines. Other soil quality guidelines may be used to provide the
most appropriate direction to maintain or improve soil quality and watershed condition in
the project or activity area.
a.
Detrimental Soil Disturbance Guideline.
(1) In an activity area where existing conditions of detrimental soil
disturbance are equal to or below 15 percent of the area, management
activities should leave the area in a condition of 15 percent or less
detrimental soil disturbance following completion of the management
activities and foreseeable future activities.
(2) In an activity area where existing conditions of detrimental soil
disturbance exceed 15 percent of the area, management activities should
include mitigation and restoration so that detrimental soil disturbance
levels are less than pre management activities and moved back toward 15
percent or less following completion of the management activities.
b. Effective Ground Cover Guideline. The minimum effective ground cover,
following the cessation of disturbance in an activity area, should be sufficient to
prevent detrimental erosion. Minimum amounts of ground cover necessary to
protect a soil from erosion are a function of soil properties, vegetation types, slope
gradient and length, and erosivity (precipitation factor). The minimum amounts
of effective ground cover are generally determined locally by soil or vegetation
type. Rock fragments, litter, and canopy might be treated independently,
depending on the model utilized to estimate erosion hazard ratings.
c. Above-ground Organic Matter Guideline. Some litter or coarse woody debris
may be required to retain organic matter necessary to provide soil ecological
functions needed to maintain site productivity on forest and rangelands. The
aboveground organic matter also provides for on-site moisture retention.
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 13 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
(1) Litter. Local guidelines should be followed for litter retention based on
factors such as soil and vegetation types.
(2)
Coarse Woody Debris. The minimum amount of large woody debris
required to maintain to sustain soil functions varies by ecological type.
Coarse Woody Debris guidelines apply to ecological types that are capable
of producing forested and woodland ecosystems. Guidelines for these
minimum amounts are ascertained through research studies or developed
by Forests based upon local factors such as soil potential and vegetation
types. Studies that are available to assist in determining minimum amount
of Coarse Woody Debris include Harvey 1987, Russ Graham 1994, and
Brown 2003.
3. Application of Soil Quality Standards and Guidelines. Use soil quality standards and
guidelines during project planning to guide the selection and design of management
activities. Plans for project activities in areas that have already been impacted by
previous management should consider cumulative effects to anticipate soil damage.
Plans for projects where activities are expected to cause damages that do not meet soil
quality guidelines must include provisions for mitigation of the damage. Some options
for avoiding, reducing, and mitigating project activities are listed in exhibit 01.
Approved regional, state and local best management practices should be used where
appropriate to mitigate negative effects to soil quality.
R4 SUPPLEMENT 2500-2011-1
EFFECTIVE DATE: 03/14/2011
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
2550
Page 14 of 14
FSM 2500 – WATERSHED AND AIR MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER 2550 – SOIL MANAGEMENT
2551.3 – Exhibit 01
Mitigative Measures for Limiting Soil Disturbance
Soil Property or Condition
Soil
Displacement
Soil Compaction
Soil Puddling
Ground Cover
Above-ground
Organic Matter
Avoid or Reduce Effects
Limit ground operations,
Use above ground equipment,
Restrict type of equipment,
Train equipment operators.
Operate over deep snow or
frozen ground,
Avoid operations on wet soils
near field capacity,
Operate over slash,
Limit amount of traffic off of
dedicated roads and trails,
Restrict size and type of
equipment,
Restrict vehicle traffic to
dedicated roads and trails,
Use areal equipment.
Avoid operations on soils
with moisture above
field capacity.
Limit cover removal.
Limit organic matter removal,
Retain large woody debris
Matter.
Mitigate Effects
Redistribute humusenriched soil
Subsoiling through
depth of compaction
Surface tillage
Redistribute cover
Mulch Plant Seed
Redistribute organic
Import coarse
woody debris
Mulch