ADDRESSING ORGANIZATIONAL RACISM:
A FEMINIST MODEL
by
CYNTHIA E. COHEN
B.A., Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut
(1976)
Submitted to the Department of
Urban Studies and Planning
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements of the Degree of
MASTERS IN CITY PLANNING
at the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
June, 1984
Cynthia E. Cohen 1984
The author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce and to
distribute copies of this thesis document in whole or in part.
.
I~~
Signature of Author
4 partment of Urban Studies and Planning
June 19, 1984
T
Certified by
Accepted by
--- e
V
,/
,Y /
Th7
/
"
Supervisor
/
Head MP Committee
OF TECHNOLOUY
AUG 10 1984
LBPARIES
DeweV
ADDRESSING ORGANIZATIONAL RACISM
A FEMINIST MODEL
by
CYNTHIA E. COHEN
Submitted to the Department of Urban Studies and Planning
on June 19, 1984 in partial fulfillment
of the
requirements
of the Degree of Masters in
City Planning
ABSTRACT
The
thesis
presents
a
model
of
addressing
racism in
white-dominated women's organizations based on the experiences of
several
feminist
organizations
and
organization
development/systems
theory. The model is applied to the Cambridge
YWCA,
an organization which is changing to address a culturally
more diverse constituency.
Broader applications of the model are
discussed.
The model
embodies a whole-system approach, including creating a
structure to manage the change; building relationships based on
reciprocity between the organization and racial and linguistic
communities;
changing the policies of the brganization to make
its
programs more
relevant and accessible
to women of color;
addressing organizational dynamics which present barriers to
change;
and
addressing
individual
resistances
to change,
including
learned racist attitudes.
It
draws extensively on
documentation
of an outreach project conducted in 1978-1980, in
Hartford, Connecticut's Black and Puerto Rican communities, by
the Sexual Assault Crisis Service.
This model is applied to the Cambridge YWCA, with specific
recommendations
for short-term and
long-term goals for the
organization, in its efforts to become more relevant, accessible
and empowering to women of color.
Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Lisa Peattie
Professor of Urban Studies and Planning
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Although
the responsibility for this thesis is
have supported me in
Florinda
many people
writing it.
and members of the board of The Oral History Center have
Pla
maintained
fully mine,
that organization during the leave of absence I required to
finish this thesis.
Peattie,
Lisa
set me on a productive course for weeks at a
my advisor,
time with a single question.
Several
women from the Cambridge YWCA talked very openly with me about
organization's
that
especially
efforts
to
address
racism.
I
would
like
to acknowledge Louise Vrande who took the time to talk with
me on several occassions.
Sarah
Michaels
the
Harvard
the
office
word
and
School
near
processor.
the
Also
others
in
the "Computer and Literacy Project" at
Education allowed me to take over the part of
of
order to write this thesis on their
windows
in
at
Harvard
the
School
of
Education,
Karen
Watson-Gegeo and Barbara Craig introduced me to ethnographic analysis.
Tia
Cross,
an anti-racism educator,
and
shared
all
of
library
of her files with me.
research,
but
it
welcomed me into her Vermont home
Not only did this save me hours
provided
3
validation
and
a
sense of
in
community
with
me
provided
and
Merrill
Jeanne
also
corner of Vermont when I was writing a
peaceful
a
Solbert
Ronni
work.
this
first draft.
This
thesis
has
women
at
other
drawn extensively on the work of Donna Landerman and
the
undertook
the
documented
it
with
project
that
Sexual
Crisis Service in
Hartford,
Project with courage and persistence,
Outreach
with
Assault
unusual thoroughness and openness.
provided
me
with
a
sense
of
who
and who
My involvement
possibility
and
direction which has transformed all of my work since.
Nancy
Ryan
and
multicultural
talked
with
Debra
work
me
Robbin
spoke with me about the development of
in
New
Bedford Women's Center,
and Jeanne Entine
about
the
attempts of Women for Economic Justice to
address racism.
Several
people
discussed
drafts:
Janice
Irvine,
Louise
Dunlap,
Pamela
Wescott,
Freada
Klein,
Janet
French.
Nancy
ideas
proofread
Cole
with
and
me
and
read and commented on
Nancy
Kahn,
edited
Cole,
Sarah Michaels,
Robin Becker and Lindsay
the
final
version,
and
supported me through the last hours of writing.
Finally,
my
in
tenure
confidence
program
different
at
MIT.
in
me.
have
always
ways,
several people have supported me through
My parents' have consistently communicated their
Frank
Jones
welcomed
and
members
of
the HUD internship
me fully into the "minority" community
4
there.
Traweek,
In
addition,
Louise
conversations with Mary Rowe,
Dunlap,
Lois
Craig,
me.
5
Ruth Perry,
Sharon
and Leona Morris have sustained
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
...................
.7
"It's
a Sensitive Issue Around Here":
Cultural Diversity at the Cambridge YWCA...........11
"Unlearning Complicity":
Feminist Model for Addressing Racism.................41
Applying the Model to the YWCA........................82
Conclusion..----.--....*o...........*.**.*.****o....106
Footnotes..--..-.*--.-o---.-----.......oo......112
6
INTRODUCTION
Overview
This
develops
thesis
color,
accessible and empowering to women
can become relevant,
organizations
of
model through which white-dominated women's
a
and
model to a particular organization,
the
applies
The
Cambridge YWCA.
memos and reports based on this research have been presented
Although
to
the Cambridge YWCA,
change
agents:
organizational
in
this thesis is
administrators
consultants
written for a wider audienCe of
and
affirmative
action
and anti-racist educators,
officers,
people who are
positions to facilitate the process of cultural diversification in
white-dominated
to
similar
many
women's
organizations.
in
structure
its
characteristics.
unique
The
Y
is
The YWCA is
an organization
and functions,
as
presented
but with its
a
case
own
study to
the nature of the problem and the application of the model
illustrate
to a particular set of circumstances.
The
is
model
organizations,
and
systems
Sexual
project
theory.
Crisis
Connecticut.
to
It
the
on
supplemented
Assault
Hartford,
based
of
experiences
several
feminist
with ideas from organization development
draws
heavily on research conducted by The
(SACS),
Services
During
the
course
Black and Puerto Rican women,
7
a
rape
of
a
crisis
center in
two year outreach
SACS was transformed from a
virtually
all
organization
cultural
white
whose
clients,
racial
and
--
organization
political
organization
staff
groups
in
and
a
diverse
the major
Nearly every aspect of the
structures,
social networks,
culturally
reflected
board
the city.
decision-making
analyses,
into
counselling protocols,
and more --
was changed,
either
in
support of or as a result of the Outreach Project.
I
chose SACS as the basis for this model because it is one of the few
white,
middle
cultural
class
and
well-documented
project
for
near
the
women's
organizations
racial
biases
effort.
I
its
was
such
personally
--
conclusion
project,
through
which has addressed its
a
systematic
involved in
and
Lhe outreach
long enough to have acquired a feel
but peripherally enough to have perceived it
on an
organization-wide level.
My
personal
and
organizations
within
an
grew
organization
ways.
to
of
to
prevented
as
me
fears
a
from
out
women
white.
racism
in
women's
While working
of culturally and racially exclusive
of
color
in
respectful and empowering
I felt how painful and dehumanizing
I
racism
saw that my own fears of anti-Semitism
acknowledging
prevented
about
two sets of experiences.
break
involve
concerns
organizations, I saw how difficult it is for
On a personal level,
for' me
other
out
white-dominated
patterns,
is
professional
my
own white privilege.
Those and
me from acting effectively to make changes in
the organizations in which I held leadership positions.
8
I
Later,
came
to
and
girls
from
several
the context of my work in
cultural
community oral
projects. I developed a much deeper sense of their particular
history
positions
as
tensions
in
inherent
Haitian
women
women
life and respecting more about the
bicultural
with which they faced their situation.
Portuguese
Colombian
their cultures, understanding more about the
of
women
resourcefulness
young
women
Cambridge in
in
communities
know
girls
who
remain
who
of
can't leave their houses unchaperoned,
who
need
these
I came to know
markets
for their crocheted ponchos, and
linguistically
isolated
from the larger
community.
Most
culturally
sensitive projects which addressed "women's issues".
lack
of involvement in
of
"consciousness,"
women
participated
enthusiastically
in
Their
feminist organizations does not reflect a lack
but
the
unavailability
of
accessible
organizations and a lack of support for potential leaders.
The
--
women's movement in Cambridge is as vital as in any American city
with
shelters,
women's
gyms,
companies,
more --
and
women
of
centers,
multi-service
anti-nuclear
but it
color.
newspapers,
agencies,
groups,
bookstores, battered women's
schools,
organizations
concert production
of clerical workers,
has barely touched the lives of many of the city's
It has ignored their needs and has been deprived of
their strengths.
What
to
needs to change in
cover
stories about,
order for a Cambridge-based women's newspaper
and be read by,
9
Portuguese women teaching in
Cambridge
studies
local
schools?
elementary
programs at Harvard,
can
How
MIT,
UMASS,
the
resources
Simmons, Wheelock,
colleges become accessible to community women?
organizations
of
women's
and other
How can women's
of all kinds provide services which are needed by women
of color, and support them to become leaders themselves?
With
in
into
what conceptual frameworks and tools can an individual intervene
white-dominated
resources
organizations
which
to facilitate their transformation
are useful to women in
the city's cultural and
racial communities?
This
to
thesis proposes answers these questions.
synthesize,
organizations
in
and
an action-oriented way,
my
work
with
communities in Cambridge.
10
women
It
represents an effort
my experiences in
feminist
in
cultural
the
various
"IT'S A SENSITIVE ISSUE AROUND HERE:"
CULTURAL DIVERSITY AT THE YWCA
This
chapter
describes
the
Cambridge YWCA in
cultural
diversity.
It
dynamics
within
organization
and
ethnic
manifested
communities,
and
a brief history,
and its
relationships with racial
resistances
the
a description of
to
change which are
both individual and organizational levels. The chapter
on
the
illustrates
a
the
includes
relation to issues of
problems inherent in
white-dominated
organization,
even
the cultural diversification
of
racism is
an
when
addressing
explicit organizational priority.
for this chapter has been drawn primarily from interviews
Information
with
conversations
also
on
women
eight
with
the
the
Y's
board
and
staff,
and
several
organization's affirmative action officer.
I
observed a meeting of the Racial Justice Committee, and reviewed
several documents relating to policies and programs.
Historical
Perspective:
"An
Advance Towards Sisterhood at a Snail's
Pace"(1)
The
more
Cambridge YWCA is
an organization attempting to make its
programs
relevant to women of color, and to involve more women of diverse
cultural
and
racial
backgrounds
in
11
all aspects of its
functioning.
These
Women's
Christian
Christian
Temperance
movement.
In
YWCA
its
Negro
attending
from
the national
white
a
and
out
middle
of the Women's
class
women's
in
branches
the
North.
In
Southern
established as "subsidiaries" of local
were
partly as a way to prevent southern Negro leadership
chapters,
white
in
years, between 1893 and 1919, the national
early
branches
grew
Association
Union,
segregated
maintained
States,
inclusion,
towards
efforts
including both
and the local branch.
organization
Young
long and varied tradition,
a
on
and
exclusivity
racial
The
draw
efforts
and
regional
national
conferences.
In
this way,
Southern whites were protected from socializing as peers with Blacks.
the
by
However,
organizations,
women's
and,
legislation
and
services
integration
1970,
"an
fully
the
YWCA
national
supported
anti-lynching
In
the national convention adopted an
1946,
committing
the
organization
to
full
the
blacks into the "mainstream of association life."(2)
of
the
Cambridge
branch playing an important part,
the
YWCA adopted the "elimination of racism....by whatever means
necessary"
as
favorable contrast with other national
in
the 40's, worked for the integration of the armed
charter,"
with
national
Lerner
in
housing.
"interracial
In
1930's,
as
its
describes
primary organizational imperative.
the
national Y.'s efforts to include women of color
advance toward sisterhood at a snail's pace."
anti-racist
and
Historian Gerda
multi-cultural
fulfilled.
12
organization
The vision of a
has
yet
to be
On
the
local
participated
level,
in
disbanded
in
charter,
the
the
1946,
activities.
BUSINESS,
spelled
Committee,
and
Y
in
segregated
when,
Y
of
group
issued
Black
backwards)
failed
an
order
These
clubs
were
itself
meet
with
younger
recruit
because
its
to
desegregate
all
the SSENISUB Club (that's
women,
renamed
to
to
dissolved
clubs.
Black women
following its adoption of the interracial
continued
It
was
recently
the years between 1920 and 1945,
National
One
membership.
in
aging
the
a
World.Fellowship
predominantly
members,
Black
however,
and
members could no longer
sustain it.
the sixties and seventies, Black women did become involved in
Through
Y's
the
ongoing
and
programs
committees.
Partly
influence,
a Black executive director was hired in
leadership
to
renovations.
the
During
organization's
plant,
organization
this
time,
through
1976,
their
who provided
through
a series of major building
however,
with major portions of the
financial and human resources focussed on the physical
programs
suffered
and nany active volunteers left,
including
many of the women of color.
In
the
last
four
in
the
involved
years,
Y.
professional
staff --
manager
and
white.
--
People
of
the
fewer
Areas
and
of
fewer
particular
Black
women have been
concern
include
the
all white except for a recently hired financial
pool,
whose staff and users are virtually all
color who are on the staff tend to be concentrated
13
in
positions of low status and pay.
26 members are Black.(3)
positive contrast: 6 of its
city's
other women of color,
of
participation
The
has
year,
women
no
of
directors;
consistently
remained
of
including members of the
Portuguese, Haitian and Chinese linguistic
Spanish-speaking,
communities
The board of directors presents a
low
over
In the last
time.
color other than Black women sat on the board of
151 women volunteering in the committee structure, the
only non-Black "minorities" were one Hispanic and two Asian women.(4)
Y's
The
legacy
and
segregation
and
of
women
both
the
one
of
contrasts.
of exclusivity,
patterns
efforts
dramatic
all
is
It
includes
a history of
contrasted with persistent
to make the Y accessible and relevant to women
backgrounds. These efforts, which have been led by both white
and
women of color, have consisted of policies which addressed
the internal workings of the organization and racist patterns in
society at large.
Policies,
such as "the interracial charter" and
"the
one imperative" have clearly moved the organization forward,
have
also
and
norms
faced resistance
as
well
as
but
-- on the level of organizational systems
from
individuals--
implementation.
Overview of Organizational Structure and Programs
14
at
the
point
of
The
Cambridge
YWCA
is
situated
in
Central
Square,
Cambridge,
a
location
ideal for reaching and serving many of the city's racial and
cultural
communities.
IV
neighborhoods,
Along with the adjacent Cambridgeport and Area
the Central Square area includes the homes of many
Hispanic,
Afro-American,
organizations,
Haitian
businesses.
and
and
It
is
individuals,
Greek
also
a
major
public
transportation node.
The
over
Cambridge
70
is
YWCA
part-
and
projects
involve
Cambridge
site,
a
full-time
hundreds
Adult
and
a
which
staff
of
volunteers.
recently
initiated
Services
Youth
Physical
Health,
swimming,
committees
addition
Marshfield.
"Displaced Homemakers" program,
an
overall
dance
and
the labor market.
Department
fitness
exercise
15
day-care,
and a summer camp.
Education
education.
provides
and Recreation Department
program,
classes,
and
to the Y's
job counselling and referral to middle-aged
provides
provides
Its
Service Department sponsors a variety of classes
after-school and teen programs,
The
In
with 5,000 members,
four broad program areas:
women entering (or re-entering)
The
members.
oversees a "suburban branch" in
it
The YWCA offers services in
Its
complex organization,
which
includes
and
nutrition
The
Residence,
may
stay
women
last
year, houses 98 women, who
to two years.
Its clients are generally
renovated
for
up
women
and women leaving institutionalized settings
home,
leaving
young
travellers
students,
transition:
in
such as mental hospitals.
are
programs
These
and
volunteers
which
directions.
program
paid
professional
of
Committees
a committee structure,
staff
jointly
volunteers
in
determine
address
also
such as planning and evaluation,
matters,
organization-wide
through
administered
volunteer
development, public and community relations and public policy.
member
twenty-six
The
each
organization;
board
committee
and
board
resources
for
and
members'
and
to
also
As
skills.
power
of
trustees, all women by a recent
oversees the two million dollar corporation.
decision,
The
of directors determines policy for the
members also serves on at least one other
its
six-member
A
committee.
of
board
in
the
here
at
personnel
put
Numbers
the
has
a dual purpose: to provide
input into the organization's programs,
opportunities
director
Cambridge.
administrate
financial,
provide
structure
Y.
for women to develop leadership
it, "The YWCA is a center for women's
of
women
You
can
have
learned to manage and
learn a lot of skills here:
and program development skills. Women can learn
about management and apply the learning anywhere."(5)
16
The
Y's
from
annual
operating
from the Y's endowment,
The United Way,
and
rental
fees, and from donations.
straining
funding
of
under
financially
and
costs
the
to
renovations
have
renovations
attention
to
Currently,
recent
cutbacks
been
membership
the organization is
in
social
service
maintaining an old physical plant. (Last
of
of its
part
drawing revenues
from program,
the organization lost $130,000 in
for instance,
year,
budget exceeds $700,000,
residence.)
the
completed,
Now that major building
is
organization
programs and to its
the quality of its
revenue because
turning its
relationships in
the community.
The
current
Y's
programs
and
of
leadership
Y
is
has
improving
quality
the
of
Under
the
a director who assumed the position two years ago,
the
consolidating
administrative
functions.
The organization
back substantially on overhead costs, established evaluation
cut
and consolidated its
for programs,
committee structure.
completing a year-long planning and evaluation process in
just
to clarify the organization's priorities.
effort
with
emphasize
the process of making significant changes.
in
standards
is
directions
a
3-5
director.
year
"We
plan,
should
and
cut
large
a
part is
("The Y is
saying NO,"
It
an
coming up
said the
back on the number of programs and strive
for excellence at what we do.")(6)
For
instance,
children's
as
program
a
result
efforts to improve its
of
has blossomed:
17
participation in
quality,
the
the after-school
program has jumped from 12 children in
In
a
change
Affirmative
with
particular
Action
Committee
implementation
of
organization's
collective
wherever
it
renamed
itself
members
from
member
by
expanded
its
mission
power
toward
whatever
means
the
to include the
necessary."
all levels of the organization,
support
staff,
and
to thrust the
elimination
the Racial Justice Committee (RJC),
the
1984.
salience to this study, last year The
the national YWCA's "one imperative:
exists
of
1982 to 52 children in
of racism
The committee
and recruited new
including a resident,
a
both the executive director and
president
of
the
projects:
it
planned
trainings
for the entire YWCA staff and instituted a program to honor
individuals
for
board.
The
and
outstanding
new
RJC
implemented
has
initiated
one-session
contributions
several new
racism-awareness
to racial justice. It
is
currently planning a multicultural fair for the fall.
Diversity of Representation Within the Organization
The
current
diversity,
situation
the
like
contradictions.
backgrounds
In
be
to
historical
working
together
in very successful endeavors.
organization,
people
positions
low
of
organization's
relation to cultural
some parts of the organization,
seem
decision-making
at the Cambridge YWCA in
of
color
are
prestige and power.
18
not
legacy,
embodies
people of diverse
and
sharing
in
In other aspects of the
present,
or
work only in
Very few women from the city's
bilingual
communities
general,
communication
are
involved
at the YWCA in
class
across
and
any capacity.
status
lines
In
seems
problematic.
On
the
positive
involved
in
national
levels.
includes
6
planning
process
Racial
side,
positions
of
women,
which
Committee
women
have
leadership in
Currently,
Black
Justice
Black
for
been
and continue to be
the YWCA,
instance,
one of whom is
the
on both local and
board of directors
chairing the first
the Y has ever undertaken.
long-term
The newly formed
consists of both Black and white women who
are proud of its work and enthusiastic about its mandate.
Two
--
of
the four program areas --
The Youth Program and The Residence
serve multicultural constituencies,
corresponding
is
programs
and involve people of color on
administrative
committees.
also
diverse,
multicultural
racially
themes.
Recently
and
The
its
distributed
staff
of
the youth
programs
highlight
fyers
announce
the
Children's Programs in both Spanish and English.
In
the
addition,
city's
events
and
Shange,
an
concert
with
Committee,
the Y has recently been renting rooms to groups serving
refugee communities,
and has co-sponsored
programs
Readings by Angela Davis and Ntozake
with them.
International
a
new
Women's
organization
Day
Celebration
called
all drew multicultural audiences.
19
several special
and
a
benefit
Women of Color Organizing
In addition,
some weekly
programs
classes
have
designed
refugees
Presente
from
Central
(a
specific
for
cultural groups: sewing
by the League of Haitian Families and a support
co-sponsored
for
group
been
America co-sponsored by El Centro
Central
Square-based
providing
organization
crisis
intervention services to refugees from El Salkvador).
the
Furthermore,
affirmative
has
policy
action
itself
committed
in
and
hiring,
a
to
it
is
more
rigorous
likely that the
outreach efforts for the position of financial manager will
extensive
a
become
Y
precedent
until
the
professional
staff
is
more
representative of the diversity of Cambridge communities.
Finally,
to
YWCA
part
is
complete the positive side of the picture, the Cambridge
of
elimination
a
national
as
racism
can
commitment
organization
its
"one
which
imperative."
be a source of motivation,
has
adopted the
This
national
support and legitimacy for
efforts of the local branch. Women of color who hold positions of
the
power
and
branches
can
regional
kinds
of
eye-opener
color...in
in
prestige
instance,
a
of
be
one
the national organization and in
both
important
an
to
resource
the local branch.
other
For
Black member of the RJC told me that when she attended
conference
things
because
the
I
Ohio
in
Y
is
she "really had a chance to see the
involved with....It was really a kind of
had never realized there were so many women of
positions...of
leadership.
So
coming
experience made me really willing to do some work."(7)
20
back
from
that
the
However,
the
women
diversity
Action
YWCA is
of
are
far from fulfilling its
Cambridge.
In
"sensitive
right
Officer,
because
using the Y has declined
For
instance,
manager,
who
professional
into
of
with
is
staff
professional
the
now,"
number
an
Ethiopian-born
positions
and
of
exception
white.
The
of
racism and cultural
of
Black women working at and
the last five years.(8)
the recently hired financial
Black
woman,
the
entire
two Black women previously hired
left after very brief tenures.
professional positions is
programs
empowering
according to the Affirmative
significantly in
members as significant: it
committees
issues
the
is
women of color in
board
fact,
potential in
The lack
seen by most staff and
makes recruiting women of color into
more
difficult,
and
it
perpetuates
perceptions of the Y as a "white-dominated" organization.
Although
the
people
these
clerical,
upward
as
peer
are
disproportionately
maintenance
mobility.
expertise
such
organization as a whole employs about 20% "minorities",
which
represented
in
lower
level
and receptionist positions, with few paths for
Job qualifications tend not to reflect the kinds of
many
working
class and Third World women possess,
knowledge of community networks, bilingualism, -and styles of
support
particularly
effective
with
women
of
similar
backgrounds.
Almost
the
everyone
with
whom I spoke at the Y saw the swimming pool as
most obvious indication of "the problem": both its
21
staff (of
some
17
and virtually all its
part-time lifeguards and instructors)
in direct contrast to the swimming pool of
stands
(This
users
are
white.
the
YMCA, just down the block, which is used by Blacks, Hispanics and
Affirative
The
whites.)
she
circumstance,
who
more
need
extensive
not
has
the
racial
work;
and 2)
1) lifeguards work
tending to exclude people
herself
the pool supervisor,
it a priority to reach beyond her personal and
made
white networks when seeking lifeguards. Also, since many
professional
of
results from two sources:
says,
or - two two-hour shifts per week,
one
white,
attributes
officer
of the pool's users directly to the all-white staff. This
homogeneity
only
Action
the lifeguards are drawn from the Y's own classes,
the cycle tends
to perpetuate itself.
The
the
pool
swimming
structure
committee
by
affected
the
for
policy
Programs
also
are
education . classes.
extends beyond staff and users to show how
and
exclusive
members
surprisingly,
determine
story
of
the
the
leadership
use
of
committee
Health,
development
efforts
are
by
whites.
Not
the
and
pool
subcommittees
which
Physical Education and Recreation
drawn from the users of the pool and its
physical
In 1983-1984, of 51 positions on 5 committees, 50
were filled by whites; only one was filled by a Black woman.(9)
services
Adult
because
and
is
acknowledged
as
another problem area,
primarily
classes are consistently underenrolled by both women of color
white
program .--
women.
It is difficult to determine which aspect of the
its content, format, staff, publicity, or some combination
22
--
are
the
by
responsible
Y's
policy
grants,
fees.
to
funding
to
Recently,
the
provides
YWCA
job
director
under
the
action
of
the
the
program's
services.
and
force.
outreach
and
program.
director
linguistic
in
This
her
communities
middle-class
Services
Department,
which
In spite of extreme pressure for
hiring, a white woman was hired as
In
reported
spite
that
of
few
several
women
attempts
at
of color use the
director said that she felt unsupported at
hampered by its
that
Adult
and referral to middle-aged women entering
requested two months in
said
the
job
new
outreach,
Y,
did receive public funds to initiate a Displaced
counselling
re-entering)
affirmative
She
quality programs at costs which are affordable
easier to fundraise for children's programs.
Program;
Homemakers
be
which are supported
many of the city's women. People at the Y have indicated that they
is
the
is
strategy may contribute to low attendance; it is
provide
believe it
(or
that, unlike the youth programs,
It
adult programs must pay for themselves through tuition and
This
difficult
for the low involvement of women of color.
policies that all outreach material must
advance from the Public Relations Office.
experience, women from the city's racial and
have
an
image
and lesbian organization,
of
the
YWCA
as
a
white
and do not feel comfortable or
welcome there.(10)
In
addition
participating
concern.
about
to
concerns
in
the
about
the
numbers
of
women
of color
particular programs at the Y, people also expressed
diversity
of women of color who are involved in
23
the
organization.
Portuguese,
and
Puerto
instance,
Of
Rican,
the
the
Board
lingustic communities --
city's
Colombian,
El Salvadoran,
Haitian,
Greek
are almost totally absent.
For
of Directors consists of a total of 26 women: 6
Black and 20 are white; no other cultural groups are represented.
the
were
entire
either
women.
in
from
several Asian communities --
the
are
Women
151
white
Black except two Asian women and one Hispanic
or
The virtual absence of bilingual and bicultural staff,
maintenance
barrier
women who served on committees in 1983-1984, all
to
and
the
security
involvement
positions,
of
women
is
from
except
seen
as a significant
the
city's linguistic
communities.
In
summary,
some
characterized
by
organization
white
that
sponsor
adult
how
make
to
with
programs
of
the
diversity;
exclusively
white.
Cambridge
other
At
first
YWCA
are
of
the
aspects
glance
it
seems
an organization with a biracial board would hire an
professional
organization
the
cultural
are
paradoxical
all
of
a
staff,
culturally
programs
and
somewhat
diverse
attended
contradictory that an
children's
program
exclusively by whites.
would
Ideas about
all of the Y's programs more accessible and relevant to
women of color can be found within this seeming paradox.
Other Relevant Dynamics Within the Organization
There
appear
to
be significant problems in
24
respectful communication
differences in power. Although this was not raised as an issue
across
by
of
interactions
data:
additional
racial
and
differences.
My
even
positions of
the same class and in
of
women
status communicate with reasonable
same
the
approximately
respect,
cultural
across
led me to this hypothesis, which I would need to confirm
observations
with
I particularly observed the quality
at the YWCA themselves,
women
race
across
communication
but
lines;
ease and
across
class/status differences tends to be much less open.
For
the
instance,
both
include
to
seemed
residents
incident
Black
in
confronted
a
In
definitions
of
white
the front desk and the
staff
and
ease
warmth;
both groups
white women. I was told that they sometimes
and
a
which
with
interact
together.
socialize
who
receptionists
member
Black
peer
I
example,
another
also
told
of an
of the Racial Justice Committee
the
during
was
anti-racism
workshop
about
the process sounded clear and respectful,
racism;
and
the confict was resolved with mutual satisfaction.
However,
across
communication
For
differences tends to be
a Black receptionist
instance,
reported to me
much
less
that
her
from
women of color who called in, were not implemented,
never
open.
class/status
recommendations
programs,
work at the Y are in
the
communities
and
poor
based on requests received
and she was
Since most of the people of color
informed of the reason why.
who
class
for
positions of lower status, and since many of
of color are disproportionately comprised of working
people,
any difficulties which the Y's professional-
25
staff
have
in
communicating
openly
across
class lines could have
serious racial consequences.
There
which communications between women with
were other incidents in
different
directors
program
mentioned
of
that
one said,
director;
executive
learned
the organization seemed problematic.
levels of power in
several
"There is
unresolved
felt
they
unsupported
by
Two
the
not two-way communication."
conflicts
between
supervisors
I
and
supervisees which had culminated in restricted in communication.
Feelings
of
isolation
dynamic.
organizational
the
Y,
who
board,
felt
among women on the staff is
felt themselves to be learning a great deal
and
through
their
involvement,
support
staff
and
never
have
sense
as a whole.
lunch
personal
the
of
bi-monthly
functions
competition
of
in
the Y, both on the
One program director said that staff people
together,
is
and
that
the executive director never
most
strongly
her program.
while
isolation,
level,
lack
women who worked
in programs, told me they felt unsupported by the
expresses interest in
This
direct contrast to feelings of women on
In
reported that they were excited by their work at the
supported,
organization
anothefr critical
also
manifested in
co-ordination
across
expressed
on
the
(and may partly result from)
programs.
Although
meetings of the directors of different programs,
there
are
each area
totally autonomously from the others and are, in effect, in
with
each
other
for use of the Y's financial and human
26
resources.
Relationships With Cambridge's Cultural Communities:
YWCA's
The
and
neighborhoods
instance,
remains
institutions
of
the
This detachment from
Cambridge.
institutions and communities manifests itself in many ways.
Cambridge
For
staff seem not to be rooted in
board and professional
this
at
point
from
detached
in
of Cambridge agencies providing
network
the
the organization as a whole
time,
to and mobilizing women and people of color. The director is
services
present at community events and does not communicate on a regular
not
basis with other agency heads.
As
example,
another
to
actions
was
sending
a letter
itself,
this
the
one
protest
of
the
racist
Racial
major
has
of actions could hardly be further removed from
failed
which
to
involve
have
been
practices,
the
maintenance
bilingual
and
bicultural
detachment
is' reflected
characteristics
special
Similarly, the public policy
itself
in any visible way in the
identified
by
the
city's cultural
housing, employment, safety, access to education, police
communities:
director,
While a laudable effort in
to the president of NBC.
choice
issues
on the Johnny Carson show by
jokes
dynamics of Cambridge communities.
committee
Justice Committee's first
of
staff
in
various
for
example,
project
for
of neighborhood health centers, adequate
people's
municipal
lack
of
institutions.
This
awareness about the
neighborhoods and communities. A program
who
women
in
had
in
the
27
attempted
Newtown
to
raise
funds for a
Court-Washington
Elms
Housing Project didn't know the ethnic composition of the project.
None
of
members of the professional staff grew up in
the
and
many members of the board do not live in
the
board
in
didn't know much about the political situation in
she
Cambridge Chronicle
the city because she never read the
which
relationships
of
communities
from
emanate
programs,
the
a
exist between the Y and these cultural
do
are limited in nature.
city
particular
instance,
for
to
services
One member of
indicated that, although she had recently returned to live
Cambridge,
The
the city.
Cambridge,
program
of
area
In some cases they
the Y. The children's
are networked with other agencies providing
children and resources for children's programs.
these relationships revolve around a particular event,
cases,
In other
such as
a co-sponsored concert or weekly support group.
events and program-level
These
providing
as
part
the
an
organization
is
what
women
of
to women and children,
services
of
relationships have been significant in
but they are not perceived
overall outreach or community relations strategy for
as
a
No mechanisms exists for translating
whole.
learned through a jointly sponsored event about the needs of
a
particular
cultural
community
into
the
Y's
program
planning or outreach strategies.
In
some
groups,
of
the
the
Y
interactions
presents
which the Y
does have with community
itself as disproportionately concerned with
28
its
own
action
interests.
goals
seem
to
their
communities.
staff
questioned
about the Y's budgetary or affirmative
supercede
the
staff
members'
abilities to
concern about the needs of women of color and
sincere
their
project
Concerns
two members of the adminstrative
instance,
For
the
whether
co-sponsored
events
with
community
were "effective," because these events had not caused women of
groups
color to become members of the Y.
From
Cambridge.
from
the
difficult.
they
has
which
can
Cambridge
with
perspective, the organization's detachment
Y's
that
means
to recruit volunteers,
Efforts
outreach,
relationships
YWCA's
it
often
lacks
sufficient
to plan programs which are relevant to many of the city's
information
more
the
dynamics
community
women.
of
has consequences both for the Y and for women of color in
communities
They
nature
limited
The
When
directors
sometimes
not
built
speak
only
feel
of
workers and board members are
particular
programs
conduct
representing an agency
unsupported,
reputation of credibility in the community.
a
for
the
intentions
of
their own particular
program, not for the organization as a whole.
The
Y's
to
see
concerted
Cambridge
communities is reflected in the
the organization's goals for cultural diversification.
of
vagueness
Although
from
detachment
there is a general consensus that people at the Y would like
it
serve
efforts
acknowledgement
more
in
that
people
relation
of
color,
there
are no ongoing or
to any particular community,
strategies in
29
nor any
relation to different communities
in
Individual outreach efforts stand
themselves be very different.
would
isolation,
credibility.
This
communities
Cambridge
East
in
rules)
parents'
awareness
or
to
build
true until the Y becomes a
of
an
in
and
they
less
have
access
to
the
to go to the Y, Portuguese girls
order
need
to
travel
for
instance,
would
their
community
(probably against their
in which no one speaks their
organization
which
of
none
programs
the
reflect any
of or sensitivity to Portuguese culture. They would need to
totally
access
maintained
of their community.(11)
"boundaries"
outside
of
to
Y's resources would be very different if the Y
of
the
of
reciprocal
Portuguese
It
East
Cambridge.
Y's
professional
parents,
the
kind
some
Organization
girls'
In
Cambridge,
into
language,
Their
momentum
Cambridge communities.
that
means
outside
geographically
move
create
remain
probably
services.
organization's
first
will
to
point of view of Third World women, the Y's detachment from
the
living
not
tend
and itself a member of,
presence in,
From
and
Americans,
or
held special programs in
several members of the
would also be different if
and
or
relationship with the Cambridge
staff
support
if
the
Y
spoke
maintained
Portuguese,
or knew the
some kind of presence at
Portuguese festivals.
Organizational
The
preceding
Dynamics Which Present Barriers to Change:
sections
consist
primarily
30
of
descriptions
of the
YWCA:
Cambridge
its
and
organization,
the
more
relationship
its
with
and
racial
ethnic
Cambridge. This section, and the two that follow, are
in
communities
the involvement of women of color in
background,
presenting
analytic,
interpretations of the patterns which are
described above.
relatively low participation in the YWCA of women from the city's
The
communities, particularly on the professional staff, as well
cultural
as
the
organization's
in
communities
lives
of
racial
and linguistic
city, both lead to a lack of awareness about the
of
color and the communities in which they live. To
these
that
phenomena --cultural exclusivity, detachment
and lack of awareness-- are present, they form two
communities,
from
the
the
women
extent
the
from
detachment
mutually reinforcing cycles.
In
relation to the internal functioning of the organization,
of
--
system
as
organization's
how
image
it
users,
difficult
the
staff
relationships
to relate in
of
communities
makes
it
difficult
to
design
outreach strategies which will draw more women into the
and
programs
makes
about
information
the lack
to
members or volunteers.
with
communities,
lack
In terms of the
of
awareness
know where and how to become a presence, and
mutually beneficial ways. This,
in
turn,
leads to an
YWCA as irrelevant and "outside" of the communities of
Cambridge.
The
stories
about
the
use
of
the swimming pool and the Displaced
31
Program
Homemakers
organization's
Once
an
much
harder
image
to
of
participation
illustrate
and
organization
content
the
both
its
has
ability
relationship
the
between
to involve people of color.
an image as white and middle class, it is
staff
recruit
the
is
the
programs
only
perpetuates
even if
to attract clients,
and
itself
useful.
the image.
This
the
absence
of
Interventions planned for
should take into account the mutually reinforcing nature of
YWCA
these dynamics.
A
related cycle involves the community's image of the organization as
or
whether
organization,
susceptible
important
is
This
lesbian.
not
to such an image.
address
to
it
is
because
comprised
of
any
women's
lesbians,
is
Homophobic attitudes funcion in racial
and
ethnic communities, as they do in white communities, to constrain
both
men and women from stepping outside of culturally prescribed sex
roles.
in
To the extent that part of the Y's resistance to reaching out
fact does reflect lesbian women's efforts to sustain a homogeneous
(and
fears
seemingly
therefore
one
reinforce
organization
must
communities,
and
sexual
within
as
race,
opposed
communities
can
to
To
norms in
or
then these two sets of
interrupt this cycle of fear, the
respectful
establish
preference,
difference
another.
develop
environment,
safe)
relationships with cultural
which safety for everyone (of
ethnicity)
is
based
on
any
respect for
the narrowness of homogeneity. Homophobia
best
be
addressed
by
members
of
communities after trusting relationships have been established.
32
those
A
second
organizational
in
differences
power.
cooperation
are evidenced in
lesser
endowed
These
of
with
barriers
is
the
community
agencies
evidence
that
can become more powerful.
empowered
cannnot
organization
the YWCA manifests
communication
and
between
the Y and
seeks to interact.
productive conflict resolution.
with
power are consistently
which those with control over fewer
resources
feeling
hiring,
with which it
those
to creating contexts in
not
the
from too little positive feedback, from fears
result
little
effective
for
responsibility
committed
are
in
several relationsips between supervisors
conflict and from lack of skill in
There
inherent
the affirmative action officer and program
between
supervisees,
to
Barriers
power.
in
directors
is
On several different levels,
differents
and
change
establishing respectful and open relationships across
in
difficulties
to
establishing respectful and open relationships across
in
difficulties
barrier
by
the Y who
Staff people working in
their
own
with
involvement
the
expected to present a convincingly positive
be
image to the community.
The
ability to acknowledge differences in
within
those
organizations,
pervasive
account
differences
crucial
for
culturally
diverse
because of the inequalities inherent in a society with
racism.
in
is
power and work productively
The
need
for
these
skills should be taken into
plans for transforming the YWCA into an organization more
accessible to women of color.
A
third
organizational
barrier
33
to
change
is
the
lack
of
organization-wide
effort
at
program
coordination.
organizational
areas
of
important
because
generally
not
must
the
planning
YWCA
outreach
useful
With the exception of the very recent
and
function
evaluation,
efforts
very
the four major
autonomously.
conducted
in
one
This is
program are
other programs; thus each program director
to
build her own individual set of relationships within a particuar
The organization lacks the ability to respond to community
community.
as
needs
they
become evident.
feelings of isolation which accompany the barriers to
the
reinforces
the lack of coordination
In addition,
communication and cooperation mentioned above.
Financial
barrier
constraints
to
director
mentioned
because
the
generating
that
the
difficult
that
money
seed
organization
to
it
is
to
Adult Services.
The associate
was very difficult to start new programs
classes
existing
any
relation
in
the Y as a fourth
would be relevant to women of
which
programs
designing
particularly
color,
are seen by several women in
were
not
full,
for new efforts. It
operating
out
of
and
is
therefore not
important to note
the belief that it
is
find public or private support for adult programs. This
part
of
a
self-perpetuating cycle:
It
is
difficult to
belief
is
secure
outside support for programs which address mostly middle class
constituencies
and
are
poorly
attended.
The
Y has been unable to
commit the resources to step outside of these constraints.
Range
of
Attitudes
Towards
Racism
34
and
Individual
Resistances to
Change
People
leadership positions at the Y reflect a range of attitudes
in
the
towards
everyone
diversification
cultural
with
whom
I
spoke
multiculturalism,
and
organization.
director,
The
a
containing
cauldron
of
positive
expressed
in
it
include
organization.
the
their
Nearly
attitudes towards
visions
for
the
for instance, would like the Y to be "a
differences;
of
acknowledgement
joyful
the
all
these communities should be brught to
bear
on every aspect of the Y."
The president of the board envisioned
that
a
strongly
Racial
the
that
from
multicultural
perspective
could
be the "thread
A Black member
ties together all of the Y's diverse programs."
which
of
women
of
resources
Justice Committee has consistently raised her concern
committee
the
should become more diverse,
itself
representing
more of the city's cultural communities.
On
the
other hand,
behaviors
with
a
leadership
is
positions
at
the comments and
the
Y.
The most
most people's ignorace about the cultural
in the city of Cambridge, and their unwillingness to make
priority
to
educate
themselves or to establish relationships
people and organizations in communities of color. This ignorance
results
from white ethnocentrism,
unconscious
idea
in
manifestation
communities
it
women
of
striking
racist attitudes also surface in
that
assumption
people
of
that
a narrowness of vision based on the
white
culture
is
more important.
The
color ought to assume that they are welcome at
35
the
Y,
even
cultures,
their
fails
It
though
to
traditions,
the
probably based on a similar narrowness of vision.
is
take
into
the
and
organization in no way reflects aspects of
account
overt
racism
the
value
which
of
most
various
people
cultural
of color in
Cambridge have experienced in white-dominated institutions.
Related
to
is
Cambridge
people
white
of
color
resentful
with
in
communities
the
Black
women
who
are
present
in
the
instance, a woman on the adminsitrative staff felt
black
on the board don't make themselves more
women
be more likely to attend events if
Black women already involved
the
attending
organization
in
assume
since
cultural
She felt that women of color
by
validity
to
of
events.
visible
would
onto
For
that
ignorance
tendency to place responsibility for reaching out to
a
organization.
women's
the
more
were
this assumption,
a
Y
there.
it
While
there
is
obviously some
seems unfair to ask Black volunteers
disproportionate share of the outreach work,
paid professional positions in
especially
the organization are filled
by whites.
Several
women
underlying
was
like
in
leadership
positions
at the Y suggested that the
problem relating to cultural diversity in
community people's
another 'way
color. . Again,
to
perceptions
place
the organization
of the organization.
responsibility
This seems
for change on people of
there might be some validity to the idea that the Y in
36
fact
is
and
safer
perceive
it
programs,
to
more
be.
staffing
affirming
than
people
the organization's
However,
in
the community
outreach policies,
and public relations efforts should be
patterns,
the focus for change.
One
on
woman
the
staff confided that she did not, in
professional
the imperative to eliminate racism because she felt it
fact,
support
would
diminish the Y's commitment to empowering women.
it
as
case
"another
important
of
fears
differences
among
important because it
women
overshadow
which
commonalities: fears which are probably held but
with
identification
someone else's problem more
making
women
our own." This candid comment is
than
expresses
of
She perceived
not expressed by many women at the Y.(12)
Addressing Racism on Levels of Policy AND Consciousness:
local
The
imperative
that
racism
and
that
it
interpretations
of
racism
and
the
to eliminate it are still evolving. Its behavior indicates
is
it
institutional
within
official
YWCA's
seen as both a matter of policy and of consciousness,
is
perceived
levels.
express
Y
The
both
a
to
operate
on
both
individual
and
as an organization and the individuals
commitment
to
change
and
significant
resistances to that process.
Two
events demonstrate that both organizational policy and individual
37
the
probably
the
conducted
Committee.
had
always
of
a
was
Racial
color.
case of the affirmative action hiring, the policy
been
place job listings where they are likely to
clear:
of individual commitment on the part of members of
matter
Justice. Committee to undertake a special outreach effort
round of applicants did not produce a qualified woman
policy alone, while necessary, was not sufficient, to
The
results.
training
But
it
another interesting interplay
illustrates
on
change
the
at
both
non-attendance
also
individual
Interestingly,
none of the
pool workers attended this "mandatory" training --
limited
it
of
level
was a matter of organizational policy to make
event mandatory for all staff members.
their
The focus of
policy and individual attitudes.
clearly
was
event
reflecting
will
of the Racial Justice
the
organizational
part-time
made,
imperative
In
consciousness.
the
one
entire
anti-racism
between
the
members
the
the
produce the desired
The
by
staff
on
for
first
the
when
workshop
the
and the eliminatin of racism on all job descriptions, etc. But
action
the
and
manager
"minority" candidates; cite the Y's commitment to affirmative
attract
it
of the affirmative action policy in hiring
application
financial
In the last six months,
create change.
significant anti-racist events at the Y were
most
two
rigorous
the
to
necessary
are
commitment
their limited sense of identification with the Y and
interest
has
received
addressing
in
no
formal
will reflect individuals'
give
probably
racism.
response.
So
If
far,
their
a response is
willingness to be confrontive.
It
new definition to the policy on mandatory attendance
38
at
anti-racism
and also clarify the relationship between
workshops,
part-time staff and the organization.
Efforts
to
facilitate
diverse
organization
YWCA's
the
should
transformation
a culturally
account resistances on both
into
take
to
organizational and individual levels, and the interplay between them.
Conclusions:
The
YWCA
all
of
city's
the
flexible,
be
necessary
record
of
fledgling
services
cultural
involve
to
Because
Y
is
women's
groups
particular
it
are
which
communities:
evaluate
programs,
develop
leadership;
the
and
city-wide
of
broad and
different
could
provide credibility to
trying
to organize or provide
The Y's resources
the city's various racial and
to plan, advertise, implement and
fundraise;
comfortable
very
organization with a
cultural communities.
ability
to
girls
and
a
responsibility,
fiscal
within
the
women
among those most needed by women in
ethnic
Its mandate is
communities.
could allow for as wide a variety of programs as would
and
backgrounds.
are
the potential to be an important resource for women in
has
structures
through which to
rooms for meetings; and expertise in
many aspects of organizational functioning.
The
Cambridge
diverse
YWCA could be well on its way to becoming a culturally
organization
in
which women of different
39
races and cultures
share
in
already
the
has
organization's
many
of
organization:
some
is
it
biracial;
the
resources
pieces
recently
attended
a
becoming
actively anti-racist;
put
The
multicultural
board
and
people
workshop
which
of color; most of its staff has
introduced them to the idea of
the oranization has recently committed
to a more rigorous application of affirmative action.
itself
In
an anti-racist,
It
acknowledges the importance of actively anti-racist
whites
for
decision-making.
programs are culturally diverse; its
of its
both
roles
of
and
to become a more fully diverse organization, the Y needs to
order
all of these pieces together into a coherent and effective whole.
organization-wide
current
provides
a
unique
opportunity
planning
to
and
devise
evaluation
process
a long-term strategy for
coordinating efforts across all levels of the organization.
Strategies
account
to
the
organizational
of
isolation
organization
facilitate
resistances
and
and
build
the
Y's
which
transformation
are
evidenced
must
on
take
both
into
the
personal levels. They should address the dynamics
communication across differences, as they help the
relationships
communities.
40
within
the
city's
cultural
"UNLEARNING COMPLICITY:"
A FEMINIST MODEL FOR CONFRONTING ORGANIZATIONAL RACISM
Overview
The
of cultural diversity at the Cambridge YWCA leads to
description
several questions:
The
Y
seems
remains
few
relatively detached from many Cambridge communities;
women
many
of
are
not
from
its
the
those
programs
perceived
credibility
of
to be caught in a cycle: as an organization it
as
an
communities are involved with the Y;
seem not to be relevant,
as
relevant;
in
or at least
general
the
Y's
organization committed to the well-being
cultural communities in the city seems low.
How can
the Y break out of this cycle?
How
can
the
culturally diverse parts of the Y, such as the
board
of directors and the youth programs,
for
parts
of
the
organization
become
which
resources
are
still
white-dominated?
How
can
the
involvement
Y
incorporate
it
learns
from
the
that it does have with communities of color into
programs,
outreach strategies,
How
the
can
what
Y
identify
and
and organizational policies?
41
address
the
individual and
organizational
resistances
policies
from
being implemented?
process?
How can people be held accountable?
What
are
information
effective
and
necessary
to
be
research
designed
which
prevent
Who should coordinate the
efficient
develop
to
well-intentioned
ways
to
gather
clear goals?
Could that
organizational
address
the
and
individual resistances to change?
a
women's organization into an organization which is
white-dominated
culturally
'diverse.
organization
is
(For
various
cultural groups in
organizations
constituencies.
facilitators
diverse
thesis,
an
when
is
it
the geographic area which the organization
which
have made concerted efforts to broaden
Hopefully
this
framework
could
be used by
anti-racism educators to design interventions which
and
the YWCA and organizations like it
help
those
culturally
be
this
The model is based on the experiences of white-dominated
addresses.)
feminist
to
of
relevant to, and accessible to women from the
controlled
their
by,
purposes
the
considered
jointly
can
the transformation of
chapter presents a model for understanding
This
to answer questions like
listed above, and become fully accessible and relevant to women
of color.
This
model
successful
Sexual
project,
heavily
draws
and
Assault
funded
on
well-documented
the
experiences
outreach
Crisis Service (SACS),
by
the
National
42
in
of
project
Hartford,
Institute
a
particularly
conducted
by the
Connecticut.
The
for Mental Health, was
designed
to
"reach
investigate
rape
their
crisis
successful
and
needs
services
in
in
the
area of sexual assault,
that meet those needs."(1)
increasing
Hartford,
and create
SACS was extremely
the accessibility of its
services to Black
Puerto Rican women: forty-two women of color received services in
1979,
compared
format
the
of
rape.
of
composition
its
protocols
In percentage terms,
its
outreach strategies,
counselling victims of assault, and its ideology about
for
cumulative
transformation
of
effect
these
all
the identity of the organization:
in
organization,
feminist
its
members
anti-racist feminist organization.
identity
a
was
organization's
changes
was
a
rather than being
referred
multicultural
new
full year.(2)
and board, the content and
staff
volunteer training programs, its
The
values,
this
virtually every aspect of SACS was
course of the project,
the
changed:
1977.
to 28% after the project's first
the project began,
During
only eleven in
with
an increase from 6% Black and Puerto Rican clients before
represented
a
out to Black and Puerto Rican women in
to
it
Embodied in
as
a
the new
new organizational culture: an expanded sense of the
mission,
new
ways
of
getting
ways of socializing members,
work done,
different
and different relationships
with the communities in Hartford.
Fortunately,
NIMH,
of
these
and brief papers that were written during the course
articles,
the
project.
experiences
of
were thoroughly documented in reports to
changes
The
SACS
model
and
of
presented
here
is
grounded
in
the
other women's organizations which have
43
attempted
analyses
of
two
Against
personal
notes
co-director
This
Women
final report to
from
of
written
papers
interviews
during
the
project and
In
group.
with
a
addition,
former
I
director
have
used
and present
the New Bedford Women's Center, the director of Women
and written descriptions of anti-racism efforts
karate school in
analysis
,
Aegis: A Magazine on Ending
in
appeared
anti-racism
Economic Justice,
a
efforts as well as their
previous
from observations of counsellor training sessions and
women's
white
perspectives
at
which
articles
Violence
for
of
for this chapter has been drawn fom SACS'
Information
a
limitations
the
incorporates recommendations based on
It
strategies.
successful
NIMH,
changes.
similar
New York and in
a support group in
California.
has also benefitted from discussion with Tia Cross, an
anti-racism educator and consultant.
The Importance of a Whole-System Approach:
In
that
the early and mid-seventies,
there
composition
universal
was
of
something
a
analysis
movement
of
many white feminists began to realize
wrong
about
which
women's
white and middle-class
the
built its theory on a
ostensibly
oppression,
and
which
claimed
to
empower all women.
Early" attempts
because
to
address
the
problem
were
less than successful
white feminists generally tried to incorporate women of color
44
into
their
organizations
in
reflected
Organizations
both
the
NAACP,
these
were
guilt
as
their
made
non-racist.(3)
a
without
reconsidering
analyses
piecemeal
and
efforts,
their
as
if
A flyer translated into Spanish,
single
isolated
Black
events
realistically
the
cultural bias
ways
to
of
working.
appear
to
be
job listings sent to
issue of a feminist journal --
women's
intended as much to relieve feelings of
to broaden an organization's perspective and
constituency.
At
SACS,
for
wondered
was
why
instance,
before
the
Outreach
Project, white women
Third World women didn't come to the organization.
"It
speculated...that Black and Puerto Rican women were not concerned
rape
about
that
their
White
--
they were too busy just getting by.
Or perhaps it
weren't sufficiently raised'
'consciousnesses
was
about what
women defined as women's issues: if only they would change, the
problem could be solved."(4)
Gradually,
provide
at SACS realized that the organization's ability to
crisis intervention services to Black and Hispanic victims of
assault
sexual
They
women
depended
recruited
volunteer
on
Third
six
having
women of color as counsellors.
World women to join a regularly scheduled
training program, but nothing about the training itself
was
changed:
it was led by whites, it reflected an analysis of rape based
on
experiences
the
techniques
women
of
of
which
ignored
color.
Five
white
women,
and
advocated
intervention
the circumstances and perspectives of most
of the six women of color dropped out before
45
the training was completed.(5)
The
ineffectiveness
can
be
of
view.
of such hasty attempts to involve women of color
understood
most clearly,
Beverly
her
described
Smith,
a
I think, by considering
Black
feminist
activist and scholar,
about such an experience in
feelings
their point
an article which
appeared in 1979:
feminist
legitimate
recent
among
12
women
think
giving
about
Black
to
asked
by our participation.
on
panelists.
women
they've
me
being
constantly
activities
feminist
focused
are
At a
conference I was the only Third World woman
academic
talk
by
we
feminists
Black
As
the
of
I
was the only woman whose
color.
I am furious that white
dealt with Black women and with racism
total responsibility of speaking for and
women.
It's
overwhelming
to
me
and
it's
tokenism. (6)
The
of
cumulative
many
develop
angry
effect
women
of many failed outreach efforts and the words
of
color
finally led some white feminists to
a new analysis of the problem.
racism
is
a
their
own
system,
in
racist
movement
capable
role
multicultural
movement
pervasive
and
create
of
diverse
organizations
racial
and
that whites had to acknowledge
dynamics.
In
order
to
create
a
empowering all women, it was the
of
not the women of color.
that would have to change,
to
They began to understand that
and a movement which is
In order
empowering to women
backgrounds, strategies for change
cultural
would have to be as broadly focussed as racism is
46
pervasive.
with its
be
can
organization;
all of its
the
interaction,
their
definitions of and relationships
its
as
seen
complex,
many parts, or sub-systems,
of
groups,
for
socializing
In
norms.
organizational
systems, and structures
sub-systems
These
members.
healthy
that
the
major
organizations,
are
always
various
in
changes
one
the
other
parts of the organization
remain
changes
generate
will
sub-system
so
sub-systems,
such as governing structures,
relation to one another, according to particular rules
in
functioning
new
They
organisms.
dynamic
communications
groups,
social
task
or
that the change
means
environment will change.
Organizations
consist
the
govern
which
and
boundaries
organization's
of
levels
rules
the
and
sub-systems
this
terms,
systems
all
address
must
effort
In
Analysis:
Systems
in
aligned with one another.
the racial and ethnic composition of the clients
when
For
instance,
and
staff of an organization becomes more diverse,
organization
might
structures
for
accomodate
a
communication,
Like
any
systems
have
to
change
might
decision-making
wider
and,
organism,
operating
range
of
in
response.
to
have
values,
other parts of the
more
For
change
diverse
instance,
in
order to
styles
of
most likely, lower levels of trust.
exist
organizations
within
larger
systems.
47
in
environments:
For the
they are
Cambridge YWCA,
for
city
of
"supra-systems" include the National YWCA,
these
instance,
Cambridge,
a statewide coalition of day-care providers,
of
job training agencies.
the
and
Healthy organizations
the
local
network
are
"open
systems," exchanging information with relevant portions of
and adapting accordingly.
the environment,
Becoming
organization's
diverse
culturally
more
shift
relevant environment,
of its
definition
a
requires
as it
in
an
relates
to different organizations and networks of agencies.
Finally,
from
what
geographic
which
of
reflected
one
in
As
is
the
in
another,
These
outside.
borders
govern
part
have boundaries, ways to distinguish what is inside
systems
or
boundaries
membership
can be tangible,
or cultural,
fees,
such as
such as norms
appropriate behavior and values to which people who are
every
These norms and values are
must ascribe.
organization
aspect of the organization:
how work gets done,
how people relate to
how the organization presents itself
words and pictures, and how conflicts are addressed.
organizations
organization
shift.
The
(people,
values,
attempting
to
more
become
diverse,
culturally
incorporates
elements
languages, decision-making
address.
vice
their boundaries
of
the
styles, etc.) which it
What was once on the "outside" is
versa.
In addition,
"inside",
and
permeable;
information flows more freely.
48
cultures
is
now on the
the boundaries become more
However,
groups
which
organizations
to
attempts
early
In
backgrounds.
diverse
accessible
Many feminist
and
change,
major conflicts grew out of
cases,
other
the
and relevant to women of
or folded
split
organization
the perspective of 'hindsight, it
From
altogether.
fully
are
automatically.
occur
the process have stopped short of creating
begun
have
which
don't
changes
these
clear that few
is
of these groups had created a structure to manage the change.
A
to
Structure
by a director, a collective,
whether
for
specifically
includes
those
is
comprehensive
as
as
or a special task group convened
purpose.(7)
this
The management of such a change
establishing clear goals, developing plans of action to meet
and evaluating progress.
goals,
white-dominated
there
Change
Change:
culture of an organization needs to be coordinated,
the
transforming
the
Manage
must
organization
In
the case of transforming a
into a culturally diverse organization,
be systems through which the organization can use what it
learning
outreach
through
efforts,
for instance,
to inform new
policies and programs.
The
to
structure
and
organizational
to
overcome
manage
them.
change must be capable of identifying both
resistances,
institutional
and create strategies
It must devise ways of holding people and groups
accountable for their parts of the process.
In
summary,
white-dominated
then,
a
whole-systems
approach
organization culturally diverse is
49
to
making
an approach which:
a
-addresses all levels of the organization;
-changes
the
relationship
between the organization and its
environment;
-changes
the boundaries between the organization and various
cultural communities; and
the
-changes
prevailing
and
norms
of
values
the
organization.
In
order to be effective,
goals
to
are
such changes must be managed,
strategies are evaluated,
met,
Individual
resistance,
organizational
and
and structures are created
and facilitate organizational learning.
accountability
maintain
so that clear
which
will
inevitably
occur, must be identified and overcome.
Clarifying Motivations
"The
first
thing
wants
to
involve
think
it's
prepared
what
to, give
disadvataged'
They
I
would question is
women
of
why
an organizaion
A lot of times people
color.
do, but they really aren't
they
should
up
any power.
Their desire to 'help
their
feelings of superiority.
betrays
own
end up using Third World people as tokens --
the
to relieve
their own feelings of guilt."
-Debra Robbin,
Feminists
who have been in
leadership roles in
be
color.
clear
Donna
about
their
Landerman,
organizations becoming
is
crucial for individual women
motivations
for reaching out to women of
diverse culturally agree that it
more
to
Co-director, New Bedford Women's Center.
the
director
50
of
the Outreach Project at
SACS,
wrote that it
to
be
to
participate
important for women in
is
clear about their motivations in
in
the
process
positions of leadership
order to convince other women
and to keep themselves going during
inevitable periods of frustration.(9)
Initially,
response
many
to
who
color,
she
a
address
and
racism in
but often eloquent --
confronted
vision.
racism
For
in
instance,
their organizations in
criticisms from women of
the
movement with
women's
on several occassions Black
and scholar Audre Lorde criticized feminist academic conferences
was addressing.
1979
"The
to
--
angry
have
persistance
poet
began
She was one of only two Black women who spoke at
conference
On a panel entitled
Political" she questioned why other Black women and
is
Personal
honoring Simone de Beauvoir.
Third World women weren't found to address the conference:
Poor
third
and
the
between
marital
the
then
your
daily
slavery
daughters
theory
need
do
houses
third
deal
there
and
prostitution,
is
a difference
dehumanizations
because
it
is
in
of
our
white American feminist
with the differences between us,
differences
aspects
and
of our oppressions,
you do with the fact that the women who clean
and
on
tend
your
children
while
you
attend
feminist theory are, for the most part,
world
feminism?
I
that
place
deep
know
manifestations
and
not
resulting
what
women
who line 42nd Street....If
conferences
and
world
urge
women?
each
What
one
is
poor
the theory behind racist
of us here to reach down into
of knowledge inside herself and touch that
51
terror
whose
and loathing of any difference that lives there.
face it wears.
See
Then the personal as the political can
begin to illuminate all our choices.(10)
As
remarks
Lorde's
reasons
personal
their
being
reinforcing
with
making
their
which
avoiding criticisms
Gradually,
acknowledged
racism and sexism,
they began to
the
mutually
and realized that efforts
realities
the
in
which
of
of all women.
As anti-racist
white feminists were able to build.
color,
they
discovered many personal
up
for
more
life-enhancing
purposes;
they
a greater sense of integrity; they opened themseves up to
experienced
new
they were interested in
women
freed
became
guilt
for
continuing this work: energy once consumed by denial and
for
reasons
and
control over their lives were doomed to failure
contexts
relationships
racism
Feminists have found that
more diverse have changed during the course
of
addressed
created
racism.
addressing
analyses
women's
they
unless
are both political reasons and
politically "correct."
effects
increase
work
as
political
develop
to
for
At first,
seen
there
combatting
culturally
their work.
and
for
motivations
organizations
of
suggest,
worlds
people and cultures, with new music and food and ways
of
of understanding which enriched their lives.
It
increasing
clarity,
color
in
to understand motivations for combatting racism and
important
is
the
the
cultural diversity of organizations.
less
likely
The greater the
it is that strategies to involve women of
will themselves perpetuate racist patterns which are entrenched
the larger social system.
52
White-dominated
reach
out
to
women's
organizations
which
are
just beginning to
women of color could help clarify their motivations by
considering the following questions:
What
do
we
(as individuals and as an organization)
have to
gain
by
creating a culturally diverse organization?
What do
we
have
kinds
to
lose? Why is
this process important to us? What
of commitments are we able to make to see it
through?
What are we willing to give up?
Building Relationships within Communities
White-dominated
relevant
and
interact
with
accessible
community
color
people
The
communities.
which
organizations
know
to
women
are
about
its
will
program,
a
presentation
particular
request
at
community,
time
conceptualize
to
or
talk
these
a
staff
place
want
to
with
sets
of
more
let
women
in
the
and will want to recruit women of
It
meeting
an
become
various racial and ethnic
for staff positions or as volunteers.
make
to
of color will inevitably need to
and organizations in
organization
trying
ad
of
in
individuals.
might request time to
an
agency serving a
a newsletter,
or simply
I have found it useful to
activities as "building relationships"
between the organization and the community.
The
interactions
people
involve
and
some
between
organizations
a
of
white-dominated
a
kind of exchange --
particular
organization
the
community almost always
of information,
53
and
resources,
time,
or
Feminist
services.
when
their
groups
found these interactions most successful
particular communities were based on
with
relationships
the principle of reciprocity.
For
instance,
Black
and
Puerto
victims,
it
Rican
was
perceptions
active
when SACS began to do "outreach" to inform the
also
and
type
of
approach,
with
prevented
the
Project
plans
the
two
the
on
organizations
capable
of
imposing
and
ideas
This
as a base,
preconceived
determined
of
communities'
program development.
reciprocity
was
the
soliciting their ideas,
communities."(11)
it
project,
services for
incorporating them into the
and
from
its
Outreach workers "sought the
and
analysis
of
about
of participants,
experiences,
ongoing
Project's
learning
of sexual assault.
involvement
opinions
communities
program
In the first
stage of
that
were
willing
to
there
provide
no
crisis
intervention services within the community itself.(12)
In
both the Black and Puerto Rican communities,
unique
found
how
women
kinds
of
services
accesible
to
perceived
as
domination.
began
access
and social factors which influence
historical
sexual
experienced
a
The
assault,
outreach
and
them.
In
tool
SACS workers
the
would make SACS resources
Black
racist
of
link
historical
and therefore what
rape
community,
(as
between
well
as
was
sexist)
rape and racism
during slavery, when white men had unrestrained sexual
to
Black
women.
During the Reconstruction Period,
54
fake
accusations of rape were used as justifications for the
lynching
of Black men, which was the cornerstone of a system
designed
to
still
are
keep
present,
workers
by
white
Blacks
in
"in
their place."
These patterns
the sexual harrassment of Black female
bosses,
and in the unequal sentencing of
Black and white men accused of rape.(13)
In
the
Puerto
are
culture
places
as
perceived
to
on virginity.
bringing
shame onto their entire family;
as "dirty" or "ruined".
order
to
community
Rican
its
make
education
women,
training
SACS
its
they were
In this cultural context,
anyone about the assault.(14)
intervention
crisis
programs
relevant
services
and
to Black and Puerto
had to change to counselling procedures,
program,
(These
strategies.
the high value which the
Women who were assaulted were
many women chose never to tell
In
women's reactions to sexual
related
strongly
assault
seen
Rican community,
and
changes
its
outreach
are
described
materials
in
the
and
next
section of this chapter.)
In
this
case,
community.
and
and
about
was information that was shared between SACS and the
SACS workers told about the organization and its
presented
community
it
basic information about sexual assault.
services,
Members of the
talked about their feelings and perceptions about the issue,
their
experiences
in
55
seeking
help.
SACS
used
this
to
information
modify
its
and
outreach strategies,
the
form
information
as
a
better
of
way
as
the
of
volunteer training
counselling protocals,
returning it
services.
to the community,
in
a sense,
in
Many organizations use the sharing of
basis for relationships based on reciprocity,
involving women of color in
an organization which is
and
in
the early stages of becoming culturally more diverse.
In
cases,
other
actual
resources
be
shared
between
and ethnic communities.
For
in the Cambridge Women's Oral History Project
instance,
I found several opportunities to provide services in
(CWOHP)
members
of
various
caseworker
in
the
received
from
instance,
a
Portuguese
older
Americans
women
to
planning
the
augment
at
sessions
girls'
club.
create
a
made
outreach and project design which I
for the help in
exchange
this
In
communities.
who had helped me recruit both
(COPA),
a
for girls.
group
was
I was able to
schedule with several special training
CWOHP's
COPA,
new
one
Organization of
Cambridge
and teenagers for the oral history project,
start
in
providing
effect
programs for this
Later, the CWOHP sought additional funding to
Portuguese
available
version of its
on
sliding
a
slide presentation,
scale
for
and
community
education in the Portuguese community.
In
relationships between white-dominated organizations and racial and
ethnic
communities
the
a
organizations within various racial
and
organization
white-dominated
can
principle
56
of
reciprocity
is
especially
important
because
overcome.
systems
of
This
mistrust
which
often
communities
have
often a history of mistrust which must be
is
on white-dominated
create.dependencies
experienced
participate.
based
This
students
benefits
social
service
and fail to involve members
in decisions about programming.
rarely
many
there is
from
Communities of color
research
in
which
they
is especially true in cities like Cambridge where
are doing field work, and many political organizations
are testing their ideologies.
Outreach
efforts
also tend to be more successful when they take into
account
"where the community is
In
literal
the
neighborhoods,
sense,
scheduling
meetings,
and
figurative
sense,
perspectives
to
be
using
it
and
medium
of
is
the
means
programs
locating
to
existing
events in
occur
at
communication
appropriate
regular community
channels.
In
the
means taking into account the various community
presenting
accessible.
presentations
this
at" both literally and figuratively.
information in
Especially
in
cases
likely to be controversial,
communication
can
be
formats which are likely
where
the
content
the language,
especially
of
style and
important.
For
instance,
for its outreach to Hartford's Puerto Rican community, SACS
developed
a
assault
and
fotonovella
SACS'
,
which presented information about sexual
services in
a comic book format which was familiar
and comfortable.(15)
The
York,
following story from The Community Karate School in
Brooklyn,
describes a series of attempts to involve women of color in
57
New
its
all
white classes.
geographic
was
sense,
Offering
important.
eight-week self-defense
proved to be an even more important way to meet the community
classes
"where
It illustrates how going into the community, in a
it
was
at:"
women
could
participate in
making a longterm commitment to study karate.
Women
in
the
privilege"
them.
school
felt
the school without
.rm79
that their "skills were remaining a
and were not being shared with other women who needed
At first they just assumed that their school was "open to
all,"
but didn't make any "actively welcoming moves."
began
to
do
open-houses
to
outreach
and
be known in
to
women of color in
classes.
They
their
the
to
schedule,
community
a
few
significant
grant
woman
and
make
But it
classes
mre accessible by
wasn't until they went out into
demonstrations
for neighborhood groups
women joined their classes.
World
changes
the
few women joined their
arranging for child care and publicizing
did
Third
but still
occurred
when
a
grant
CETA
The most
allowed the
School to give eight-week self-defense classes for free.
Karate
The
tried
sliding scale fee.
that
They began
the community through these efforts and through a
leafletting campaign,
the
earnest by holding
offering free self-defense classes.
concerted
changing
Then they
who
also
had
for paid positions,
provided
already
joined
the
class
and a Third World
did
on a
outreach
full-time basis.(16)
White-dominated
relationships
persistence
organizations
based
and
on
gain
reciprocity
flexibility
in
credibility
and
reaching
58
by
out
by
building
demonstrating
to
their
communities.
As
members
of
trust,
they
which
for
important
who
operates,
exist
what
instance,
how
communities,
within
and
influence,
for
learn,
to
It has been
sexism
are the sources of women's
what
of this information can be used to develop more relevant
All
power.
about communities.
learn
groups
conflicts
has
has been one way which members of
define
they
feminist
and
differences
circumstances of a
the
members of a particular cultural community
organizations
white-dominated
about
information
with
Working
project
a
more
share
community.
on
and cultural communities begin to feel a sense of
racial
programs and more effective outreach strategies.
In
boundaries:
communities'
"us"
"them"?
and
boundaries
can
ideology.
Ultimately,
stretch
so
that
how
does
How
far
does
the
form
of
so that it
itself
boundaries,
take
to
gain
of the
sense
a
a
community distinguish between
a
the
community
language,
outreaching
the
is
try
should
organization
white-dominated
and racial communities,
cultural
with
relationships
building
extend?
values
location,
organization
These
will
or
want to
not wholly outside of these communities'
women
of
color can come into the organization
without needing to leave their cultural identities behind.
All
of
this information about communities --
perspectives,
needs,
create
and
their
their
programs
communities.
The
channels
resources -
which
are
for
their boundaries,
communicating
their
information, their
should be used by the organization to
sensitive
and
relevant
to
different
process of creating new programs and incorporating
59
new
within the organization,
occurs
members
discussed in
and is
the
following section.
Within the Organization:
Changing Policies and Changing Consciousness
a white-dominated organization
When
to
accessible
ethnic
and
other
words,
is
there
these
individuals,
they
In
also transforms itself.
of
process
outreach
inreach
.
which
occurs
On the level of the
changes consist of new policies; on the level of
take
changing
dynamically
a
organizational
with
organization,
but it
communities
cultural
simultaneously
not only builds relationships with
color it
of
women
seeks to become more relevant and
the
of
form
organization,
new
these
understandings.
two
sets
of
In
a
changes
reinforce each other.
As
positions of leadership develop new understandings,
individuals in
they
For
act on those by creating and reinterpreting policies.
to
seek
it
instance,
Cambridge
World
YWCA,
was
based
on
women
the
commitment
of
individual
on their awareness of the importance of Third
their professional
staff, which led the organization
to apply its
affirmative action policy more rigorously.
Conversely,
it
in
which
is
often changes in
individuals
women at the
learn.
60
policies which create the context
For instance,
when SACS hired women of
color
as
outreach
stereotypic
workers,
reactions,
unconsciously.
They
were
relationships
time
develop
women
on
based
respectful
to
white
also
were
confronted by their
attitudes
given
an
which
they
held
to
build
opportunity
across class lines, which allowed them over
more
understandings
realistic
of
cultural
similarities and differences.
An
to
organization's
cultural
ability
diversity
to transform itself
depends
on
both
from white-domination
effective
policies
and
individual consciousness and commitment.
Changing
Policy:
consider
the
Organizational policies should also be reviewed to
relevance
of the organization's programs to women from
the various cultural communities it
for
SACS,
instance,
had
to be changed in
The
counselling
of
defini-tion
attempting to address.
that many aspects of its
found
program
order to be relevant to women of color.
protocol,
which
"appropriate"
issues. directly
is
previously had limited its
crisis
intervention
topics to
related to the assault, was expanded. It was
found
that many women of color, most of whom were low-income,
often
had
which
required attention before the assault victims were able
to
women
foreign;
issues
health,
housing,
and
employment needs
with their feelings about the assault.
deal
many
be
pressing
in
of
color found the "counselling relationship"
they
order
In addition,
needed
to
to
develop
61
to
talk about emotionally neutral
feelings of trust.
Also, many
Third
World
dealings
women
with
necessitated
encountered
institutional
by
the
assault;
of these changes in
counsellor
training
needed
be
to
counsellors
the
addition,
often
and
had to be revised.
address
of
institutional
Puerto
of
need
be
Counsellors
establish trust in cross-cultural
to
families
in
to
necessary.(17)
racism,
relation to housing and welfare systems,
in
advocate
were
trained
needed
counselling procedures meant that the
program
identify
contexts,
in
health and criminal justice systems which were
prepared to advocate for clients if
All
racism
and
etc.
In
Rican victims of assault
this
counselling;
too
required
additional training for the volunteer counsellors.(18)
Policies
color
strategies
and
to
have
of
Ideally,
women
of
levels
various
networks,
comiunication
from
the
increasing
the
access which women of
organization should take into account the unique
the
characteristics
for
communities,
traditional
various
as languages spoken,
such
views
women's roles, etc.
of
communities should be sought for
organization,
from
clients
and
workers
all
to
policy-makers,
because
that
and programs will reflect the needs and resources of a
policies
particular
community
it
when
is
more likely, although not inevitable,
women
from
that
community
are
making
decisions and also implementing them.
Policies
color
to increase the accessibility of an organization to women of
should
address
both the internal workings of the organization
62
and
its
job
outreach
strategies.
so
descriptions
relationships
paths
for
with
Internal changes include writing new
that
responsibilities
appropriate groups in
include
maintaining
the community,
and creating
upward mobility for women of color working in
lower levels
of the organization.
Outreach
workers,
volunteers,
channels
of
is
most
the
that
instance,
generated
particular
incorporate
the
It
communities'
Black and Puerto Rican communities each
assault
on
In
racism.
were
police,
the
find that using personal networks is
organization
since
the
acknowledge
color
to
board,
efforts using
concerted
familiar
the
differently,
the outreach material
by SACS had to be expanded to incorporate different
perspectives
to
of
outreach material.
sexual
perceive
are
members
form of outreach in Third World communities.
perspectives into its
For
through
which
organizations
effective
important
recruiting
clients
and
communication
Many
community.
the
include
strategies,
and
strongly
the
issue.
In particular,
it
was important
historical relationship between rape and
regard
this issue, SACS found that women of
to
less likely to choose to report their assaults to
that
SACS'
outreach
materials
had to highlight more
policies that police reporting was a matter of
individual choice for women.(19)
Finally,
goals
new
of
fee
many
other policies will need to be adjusted to support the
accessible
scales
and
and
relevant programming.
funding
63
sources,
and
These have included
new criteria for hiring
workers
(such as bilingualism, or knowledge of community networks, or
in
experience
have
found
multicultural
that
increased
the
Several feminist organizations
work).
in their staff and board
diversity
required more structured decision-making processes.
In
order for an organization's new policies to genuinely increase the
learning about the lives of women in various communities and
be
must
that learning into the policy-making process.
incorporating
structures
the
Feminist
These
groups
both
coordinating the change effort.
have also found that it
and
organizational
efforts
Creating
one of the important tasks
this communication is
for
for the group which is
address
the organization
diversity of all levels of an organization,
cultural
is
important to identify and
individual
resistance to change.
have been unique to feminist anti-racism work,
and are
described in detail in the next sections.
Addressing Organizational Dynamics which Present Barriers to Change
On
from
the
organizational
barriers
general
organizational
centralized
(overly
departments,
resolving
information.
conflicts,
An
inadequate
or
learning,
organizational
and
often reflect more
such as inadequate decision-making
or
overly
diffused),
for
structures
inadquate
64
to change usually result
resistances
organizational weaknesses,
structures
between
to
level,
change
channels
as
for
dramatic
competition
surfacing
the
as
flow
and
of
cultural
will almost inevitably stress the system to the point
diversification
individual
or
identify,
and
or
address
Whatever
problematic.
the process should be prepared to
managing
is
group
and
visible
become
weaknesses
its
where
these
circumvent
orgnization-level
resistances to change.
At
organization.
In
collectives,
many
the
had
light
onto
other
the
committee
organization's
This
ongoing
structure
lack of
ambivalence
What happened was that
of the organizational transformation devolved
management
the
changes.
organizational
and accountability.
leadership
about
clear decision about which
to evaluate the decision-making
reflected
clarity
no
was
the change effort, no group or individual
authority
of
informal
seven workers, the
to
two
from
staff
manage
would
body
through
the Outreach Project increased the
As
there
Since
committee.
many feminist
would have maintained an all-white steering
structure
formal
made
were
decisions
paid
organization's
as was the case in
reality,
networks.
friendship
the
the
representatives from each committee and workgroup in the
with
in
Project,
ostensibly governed by a steering committee
was
organization
Outreach
the
before
example,
for
SACS,
of
staff
Project, and the steering
Outreach
the
virtually defunct.
became
the
committee was restructured to
steering
formally
ended,
reflect
the
new
organization.
The
lack
organization:
there
was
composition
of
a
65
As the Outreach Project
and
clarify
high
structures
took
its
of
the
toll on the
turnover of both staff and
volunteers;
many white women left the organization because no
clear roles were defined for them.
In
its
final report to NIMH, SACS reported that its previous
collective
...the
diversity
styles"
of
the
the
absence
of
goals,
of
patterns
priorities
insufficient
and
interactional
"In
procedures, more clearly
accountability
of
for
cohesiveness to insure effective
sufficient
and
proved
staff of the Outreach Project.
diverse
decision-making
defined
"frequently
structure,
authority
and
responsibility
are
advised."(19)
Some
degree
because
in
adapting
to
the
an
ways
for
A
change.
overview
organizational
create
inevitable in a major change effort,
is
disruption
some elements of the system will inevitably lag behind others
maintaining
the
of
responsible for
of the change effort can sometimes identify
dynamics
those
through that process,
structure which is
which
dynamics
present
to
barriers to change,
be confronted.
It is possible
to minimize the disruption to the organization.
Addressing Individual Resistances to Change
The
six
old
year
from
restrained
girl
in
drinking
Texas
at
who
had
to
be
bodily
the "colored" water foundtain;
the
eleven year old who was banished from the dinner table by
her
father
when
male
guest
who
old
girl
in
an
and
she
refused
to stop arguing with an adult
was making racist remarks; the fourteen year
all-white
66
suburb who registered for a Negro
history
class
taking
in
summer
Pre-Algebra;
funeral
of
her
the
high
when
all her friends were
fifteen
year
old who attended the
friend --
school
a young Black man --
even
though
so.
Reclaiming our resistance helps to challenge our notions
of
our
her
school
father threatened her with death if she did
as
"helplessness"
remembering
the
women.
At the same time,
received
for our resistance
white
punishment
we
us know how and why we came to comply with oppression.
helps
This
work
has also given rise to deeper emotional expession,
and we are risking more with one another.(20)
Just
organizational dynamics often present barriers to the change
as
effort,
so
do
individual
resistances
attitudes,
from
the
inability
generally
to
doesn't
to
only
of
see
is
special
think
to
invite
the
directors
of
individuals.
These
from unconsciously held racist
relinquish
power.
or from
It is not
happening: a program director chooses not
for
parts
or
privilege
what
between
guilt, fear and powerlessness,
time
the
and
result
the
or, project
lunch,
often
feelings
obvious
make
within
dynamics
outreach
new
phone
there is
projects
their
Rican outreach worker to
Puerto
deny
calls, a co-worker
a problem by discussing
which
are
successfully
multicultural.
Both
women
homogeneous
through
slightly
of
color
groups
individual
different
and
have
white
been
resistance
functions
67
women
found that meeting in
have
instrumental
in
to
The
for
change.
each.
helping
them break
groups have served
All-white
groups
have
a safe but challenging context in which women have been able
provided
work through the
surface and examine internalized racist learning,
to
and
fear, guilt, and anger which are associated with racism,
of
feelings
create
strategies
organizatinal
behavior
and
in
each other to take leadership, and
their
changing
for
difficult
(often
communities
supporting
strategies
creating
own
their
groups),
mixed-racial
own
own experiences and feelings, discussing sexist
their
within
dynamics
their
changing
Women of color have found these groups useful
policy.
validating
in
for
own
behavior
and
organizational policy.
There
are
dangers
potential
can
can
exacerbate
the
only
feelings
solution
of mistrust or exclusion.(21)
They are not
to overcome individual resistance to change:
some
facilitators
and
for
consultants
in
mixed
homogeneous
groups
create
very
powerful
proven
separate groups in
become a barrier to communication and separate groups
organizations,
have
racially
the fact that many organizational events are processed
organizations:
separately
creating
have
instance,
racial
worked
contexts.
with
However,
because racially
a specific kind of emotional safety,
they
tools for generating support among Third
World women and changing racist behaviors among white women.
I
will
believe
describe white women's anti-racism groups in detail because I
that
anti-racist
not
they
represent
education
and
a
uniquely
social change.
feminist
Although these- groups are
necessarily appropriate for every organization,
68
contribution to
the theories they
reflect
the techniques they use can be adapted to many contexts,
and
including culturally heterogeneous groups.
White
anti-racist
women's
(CR)
Consciousness-Raising
together
their
issues
CR
reproductive
sexual
and
member
groups
rights, freedom
and
assault
harrassment,
an equal share of time to relate
takes
established
validated,
The group as a whole reflects
but
norms
women
were
for dealing with emotions:
also
given
support for
Internalized and non-conscious attitudes were seen
change.
factors
inhibiting
the
effective political change.
appropriate
In
attitudes.(23)
in
which people
stories, using them as a basis for political and social
were
important
an
each
CR
to
a process in
These uderstandings become the basis for
experiences on a given topic.
emotional
the
social and political understandings out of
violence
groups,
feelings
as
create
CR is
on
access to traditionally "male" jobs, and more.
the shared
leads
the
based
It was the process of CR which surfaced many of the
physical
analyses.
as
which were developed early in
the recent feminist movement:
of
personal
on
to
action.
child-care,
In
groups,
personal experiences.
poliical
from
of
wave of the women's movement.
second
meet
model
were
groups
methodology
for
kind of personal growth which
For these reasons, CR was seen
addressing
internalized
racist
the late 70's, white anti-racism groups sprang up
various cities with active feminist movements.
At
SACS,
crucial
a
white
component
women's
of
69
anti-racist group proved to be a
the
organization's
successful
transformation
Throughout
Third
white-domination to cultural diversity.
entire Outreach Project, interactions between
the
and white women were often conflicted and
women
World
In
tense.
from
retrospect,
tension
the
understandable:
the
were insufficient
structures
decision-making
organization's
is
the increased diversity on the staff, and it took time for
to
policies
organization's
the
worker's
analyses
individual
were
their
racism.
White
mistrustful.
racist
unfairly
accused
the outreach
community
needs.
In additon,
women
mistakes; women of
made
White
women
acted
and
women
of
attitudes,
revealed
to
up
catch
women were just becoming aware of their own
white
internalized
color
of
to
them of racism.
in ways which
color
sometimes
The combined focus on both
and racial violence was bound to be "explosive".
sexual
white
women
women
and
of
Both
color found themseves in need of
support. (24)
The
white
women's
as
in
feminist
women
in
their
This description uses stories told by
commuities.
groups to illustrate how a supportive but challenging
such
environemnt
at SACS consisted of the same
group
anti-racism support groups which had been developed
the
elements
many
anti-racist
can
help
women
to
uncover
unconscious attitudes,
own privilege, and acknowledge emotions --
see
all with the goal of
changing behavior.
Perhaps
the
groups
has
most
been
element
essential
the
creation
70
of
of
white
safe
women's anti-racist
but
challenging
environments.(25)
uncover
racist
Safety
is
to
to
in
take
for
racism,
whites
chosen
basis
act
women
are encouraged to
and
groups
in
in
two ways.
First, members are
their own particular ethnic identities
oppressions which they face in their own lives.
responsibility
textbooks,
environments,
are based on an ideology which minimizes individual
groups
all
the
pride
acknowledge
Secondly,
these
attitudes, deal with feelings and changed behaviors.
created
encouraged
and
In
racist
the
to live in
internalize
media.
by
given
pervasiveness
the
attitudes
their
from
of
families,
Although individual whites may not have
a racist system,
of skin color.
responsibly
attitudes:
they are accorded privilege on the
They can choose to acknolwedge this reality and
interrupting
racist
comments,
behaviors,
and
institutional practices.(26)
A
major
women
goal
uncover
nevertheless
from
of
white
stereotypes
the
inform
descriptions
their
of
behavior.
several
racist
attitudes
become
These
attitudes
are
which,
The
anti-racist
although
although
this
unconscious,
following stories,
groups,
illustrate
taken
how
interalized by whites at a very young age.
generally
influence
and
unconscious,
by more recently acquired beliefs.
contradicted
behaviors,
women's anti-racism groups is to help white
usually
are
They still influence
is minimized once the attitudes
are surfaced and the accompanying feelings expressed.
Elly
Bulkin,
experiences in
a
feminist author and literary critic,
an anti-racism group:
71
wrote about her
Asked
remembered
two
complexity
of
I
was
sentences
further
explanation
a
word
of
Years
and
that
and
the
as
Yiddish into a stream of
on
without
me
by extension,
(and,
"they"
people
who
other
mid-fifties,
implied
the
I
my own language.
my
remember
parents
superiority of Northern liberals
right's for Black people in the South and thereby
about' civil
both that prejudice was a terrible thing
me
upon
impressing
the
in
with
speaking
to take clearly
were so alien to my white world that their
color)
later,
people, I
white
Black
impressing
thereby
that
to
existence could not be acknowledged in
very
could be defined in
it
intellectual
terms of basic civil rights
concept of racial equality.
For them,
was floating around someplace out there --certainly in
racism
and
Birmingham
equlity
in
Little
all
of
people,
Rock; and if I only
I
would
be
believed
in the
forever safe from the
my grandmother's message.(27)
corrosion in
woman
racism
own
referring
6,
and
English
and
color
I recall my immigrant grandmother,
dropping
"schwartzes,"
A
my
transcending
before
of
of
were
there
that
awareness
which symbolize for me some of the
instances
positions.
anti-racist
people
earliest
people
between
differences
died
my
recall
to
SACS
participated in the white women's anti-racism
who
group described her feelings about uncovering a racist memory:
would
go on Sunday afternoon trips.
All three of
My
family
us
kids would pile into the car with my Mom and Dad and drive
to
downtown.
Dad
to
used
72
take
us
for sightseeing rides
through
the
windows
up.
main
the
He would drive slowly through the back streets,
and
streets,
to
live
didn't
have
things
out
the
during
the
fifties.
drives
at the time.
I
was
woman
up
an
that
us
the
in
Sometimes he'd yell
"slums".
thought
I
lucky we were that we
how
"Saphire!",
window,
racist
This was
"Kingfish!".
nothing of these afternoon
When I recalled them in the group it was
In some ways, I felt
awful person for having participated in
this.
One
that it wasn't my fault, we were all brought
mentioned
in
tell
and a great deal of shame.
horror
with
We had to keep all the doors locked and
ghetto.
Realizing this, I was able to look on
homes.
experience
childhood
and
learn first-hand the kind of
ignorance that supports white arrogance/racism.(28).
Feminists
a
In most groups,
early session have
variety of techniques to help members recall and discuss such
Several
events.
that
surfacing such memories serves to lessen
that
found
impact on current behavior.
their
used
have
white
women's
when members recalled
groups have also found
anti-racism
specific childhood incidents of resistance
to
racism they felt less helpless about becoming actively anti-racist
in
the
summarizes
incidents
anti-racism group in
One
of
of
quotation at the beginning of this section
which
were
discussed
in
a
white
women's
California.
the most difficult concepts for whites to fully grasp is that
privilege.
accepted
The
present.(29)
Seeing
occurrences
privilege
a
from
73
requires
different
looking
point
at familiar and
of
view,
and
that something which we have come to consider "natural"
acknowledging
is
in fact being denied to others on the basis of skin color.
following
story,
describes
how
of
director
the
the
Outreach
In the
at
Project
SACS
white women's anti-racist group helped her to see
the
how white privilege operated in a particular situation:
I
a
had
recently
my
painful
experience,
on a series of short radio programs for station WKND.
working
Hartford....Things
Blacks
in
Cheryl
recorded
refused
manager
programs
the
purchased
for
asked
and
for the Black woman
I think,
co-ordinating outreach in the Black community] had been
woman
She
especially,
was a very
the lesson was learned.....Cheryl [a Black
expense
whose
experience with white privilege
I learned a lot, but it
work at SACS.
through
at
dramatic
When
programs.
bibliographic
two
because
WKND
going
were
reaches a lot of
shows on "Rape and Racism",
to air them.
documentation
Cheryl
materials,
when
well....but
the station
He said they were inflammatory
of
the
provided
in
the
articles
and
information
him
with
he refused to look at them.
Cheryl
came
back to the office very angry.....I went to the stations
with
Cheryl
Ken,
the
woman
the
in
and Jenny [the counselling co-ordinator] to meet
white
male
station
manager
and Carla, the black
a lower position in the station hierarchy.
We said
same things that Cheryl had said to them the week before,
we
showed
to
look
supported
them
at
the same documentation that they had refused
from Cheryl, and we assured them that SACS fully
what Cheryl was presenting.
74
They agreed to run the
shows
with
the same disclaimer that they refused to use when
Cheryl suggested it.
After
ignored.
said
When
me
that
and
was
to
trying
When I
They wouldn't look at her.
impress,
They
What was it that
my white skin.
was being ignored.
Cheryl
She had been
something it wasn't heard.
It
difference?
articulate
I had hardly
I was so busy being
that I got caught up in
assuming
that I was being listened to because I was saying it
better.
When
saying
When
I
we
there
that
is
clear that Cheryl was
that
skin
colors,
treatment.
childhood
accompanied
experiences
in
male dominated situations.
must
have
the
of the Whites.
know
white
own
meeting
superiority
powerful.
my
reinforced
situation
these
it
discussed it in the White Woman's Anti-Racism Group,
remembered
what
I look back on it,
the same things and just as clearly and articulately.
wasn't
is
said
the eye, and talked with me.
in
the
noticed
As
she
Cheryl was even angrier.
the same thing it was.
looked
made
we left,
we
I
is
had
felt
idea
of
being
like
her
treated like I
I began to feel
to
Cheryl.
The
inferiority and the
Even though we may intellectually
being treated differently because of our
were
it
of
very
an
hard not to be affected by racist
of
experience
being
effective
and
She was made powerless and ineffective.(30)
women
uncover
resistance
to
memories
racism,
about
and
early
racist
white -privilege,
by intense feelings -- of pain,
anger, fear,
go
unexpressed,
feelings,
which
generally
75
learning,
they
and guilt.
are
It
which create
resistance
to
change.
lose
of
their
some
thinking
about
prejudice
in
were
Once
they are validated and expressed, they
to
power
for
racism,
control behavior.
instance,
themselves.(31)
for
at
Women
Many people avoid
fear
of
discovering
SACS discovered that fears
at the base of their inability to act effectively, and to
often
relate respectfully with Third World women:
Fear:
of
the
of being
unknown,
Fear kept
women volunteers from coming into the SACS office after
white
speaking
from
of
Fear
women.
Fear of conflict keeps white
was no longer white.
staff
women
privileges,
seeing
our
racist
when they disagree with Third World
up
ugly
the
of
effects
our
racist
keeps us from honestly looking at ourselves,
socializaion
of
of
racist,
making a mistake, and of being hurt._
of
rejected,
the
called
being
keeps the volunteer from believing the
a black woman in the training program; it is
presentation
of
easier
believe
to
Fear of seeing the devastating truth
pasts.
oppression
our
"exaggerating,"
that
the
black
all
the
information
that
begin
to
turn
our
must
cannot
be
be
commitment and
correct...And,
once
learning
into
action,
example,
when
the white Women's Anti-Racism group decided to
out
come
at
we
speaker
we
often
the
reaction.
For
publicly....by offering to do a workshop for whites
a local university's conference
afraid
of
World
people,
Overcoming
fear
making
our
mistakes,
of
afraid
fear
is
on racism, we were afraid:
afraid of the reactions of Third
reactions
of
other
whites.
an important part of confronting our
76
racism and doing anti-racist work for whites.(32)
Guilt
is
another
Women
at
SACS
found
needed
they
that
can become paralyzing.
it
and
reaction,
common
experience
to
periods of
immobilizing guilt before moving beyond it to take action.(33)
women
anger
directed
their
own
them by women of color.
at
ways
to
reactions
the
Women at SACS found that
made it difficult to
anger
acknowledged
both
which
Other
self-respecting.
racism often experience intense
with
dealing
emotional
in
respond
are
who
White
anger
the
and
were
anti-racist white women could help them gain
perspective and respond productively:
cannot hear the underlying message of any angry
often
Whites
interaction
with a Third World woman because of the intensity
of
with
feeling
be
can
anger
this
an icy knife-edged coldness or a boiling
The white women at SACS have begun to develop a useful
rage.
to cope with some of these situations.
way
develop
a
response.
one
a
few
or
emotional
objectively.
more
Women's
could
critically
to
situation
the
and
carefully
Sometimes, if the anger is directed at
are
Within
Anti-Racism
White
come
of
individuals,
investment
By not responding
get together with other white women and
perceptions
our
clarify
can
we
immediately,
to
In our experience,
it is delivered.
which
other
able
the
to
white
women
with
less
pull the situation apart
supportive atmosphere of the
Group,
for
example, white women
and carefully examine the situation and try
honest conclusions.
77
What is true about what the
Third
World
about
racism
woman
we
actually
not
to
say
can we learn from it
with Third World women?
World
Third
are
women
always
What
This is
fair and
White women
the things at which they are angry.
let white guilt blind us to self-respect and limply
made
criticism
any
with
agree
What
do now to respond in a useful way?
that
in
not
must
saying?
interacting
and
can
accurate
was
black
by
Puerto Rican
or
women.(34)
For
white
women
more
culturally
--both
their
in
and
racism
and becoming
learning to effectively deal with emotions
diverse,
own
addressing
organizations
those
at
directed
them
-
is an important
component of overcoming individual resistances to change.
People
positions of leadership in white-dominated organizations or
in
facilitators
individual
women
resistances
to change.
likely
to
optimal
lack
can
organizaton
referred
could
be
them
should
to
supported
create
break
contexts in which
through
their
own
It should be anticipated that individuals are
the emotional and communications skills required for
in
functioning
techniques
in
intervening
to
remove
culturally
here
some
problems.
78
diverse
contexts.
Adapting
the particular circumstances of an
to
of
the
barriers before they become
The
Transformation
of
the Organization's Culture as the Culmination
of a Whole-System Change
of
the
policy,
in
All
changes outlined in
consciousness,
individual
communities,
in
the preceding sections --
composition
the
of
structures
for
organizational
learning
change
the
organization's
culture
in
another
which
in
are
reflected
styles.
to
its
in
As
future.
to
different
women
Their
language,
ambience -Before
organization,
-.
ultimately
and
in
comprise a
These changes build on one
of
organizational
priorities
and
color gain increased influence, they
influence
to
be
a
The feeling of the organization --
sea of white faces and English-speaking voices.
coincidentally
which
itself
was
to
more
this thesis, was located in a YWCA,
closely
associated
class suburban members than its
there
1976,
working
in
Visitors
were
only
professional
or
5
with
its white
Third World neighbors.
Blacks
and
one Puerto Rican
clerical positions in
th YWCA.
to SACS would encounter only White, English-speaking
employees
behind
women
men
or
felt on all levels, from
Outreach Project, in 1976, visitors to SACS would
SACS,
middle
decor.
can
reflects these changes.
the
encounter
In
the
with
feel a sense of ownership of the organization and investment
policy,
its
relationships
to generate new norms for appropriate behavior and new values
working
come
in
changes in
the
information
in the lobby.
79
desk
and few Third World
Since all signs in the building
were
posted in English,
Spanish-speaking visitors were likely
to feel unwelcome.
In
the SACS office itself, no one spoke Spanish,
on
the
women.
poster
which greeted visitors consisted of two White
People
seemed
conversation
There
and the logo
was
to
typically
frequently
was
a
each
loose,
great
other
informal
well,
and the
and personal.
of talk about feminist
deal
by Third World women of uneasiness when
Reports
activities.
know
coming into the office were not surprising.(35)
later,
years
Four
many
floats
Conversation
sees
frequently
or
office
in
wording
that its
identity
of
in
one
whites.
only
out of Spanish,
and
women
see
of
color
and one
meeting in
the
The SACS logo which appears on posters and
Third World women of a variety of ages, with
English
Spanish.
and
Black and Hispanic women
feeling more comfortable in the organization, and feel
report
a
in
freely
does
surrounding rooms on projects initiated by the
shows
brochures
longer
groups
Project.
Outreach
When
No
changes.
Outreach Project, one can see
the
after
work reflects -their own concerns.(36)
organization becomes culturally diverse,
white-dominated
changes:
something
composition
it
different
defines
to
its
its
mission differently,
members.
As
the
and it
its
means
organization's
changes, and as its boundaries expand, it will enjoy more
credibility in
racial and ethnic communities.
80
A
part
major
culturally
diverse
is
organization
the
organization
will
new
of
systems
become
have
institutionalizing
of new
on-going structures.
learned not only new systems of
adapting
more
white-dominated to a
a
from
transformation
of learning into the organization's
systems
will
the
of
able
being,
to the communities which surround it.
to
respond
programmatically
to
The
but
It
changing
needs.(37)
The
organization
operating
will
which
and
have
created
structures and styles of
allow for greater diversity of values.
decision-making
surfacing
also
processes
resolving
will
be
conflicts
clarified,
will
and
become
Ideally, its
processes
regular
parts
for
of
meetings.
Clearly,
the
transformation
It
organization.
communities
make
more
relevant
organizational
change and individual
This
chapter
white-dominated
model
is
involved
have
addressed all levels of the
relationships
building
with
based on reciprocity; changing organizational policies to
programs
addressing
has
will
used
has
and
dynamics
accessible
which
to
present
women
of
color;
barriers
to the
resistances.
outlined a
feminist model for addressing
women's
organizations.
as
basis
the
Cambridge YWCA.
81
for
In
making
the
racism in
next chapter, this
recommendations
to
the
RECOMMENDATIONS: APPLYING THE MODEL TO THE YWCA
This
chapter
applies
white-dominated
the
model
for
women's organizations,
cultural
diversification
developed in
of
the last chapter,
to the particular circumstances at the Cambridge YWCA.
Overview
The
model
focusses
on the organization -- as a system of interacting
parts
relating
to
calls
for
creation of a structure to manage the effort,
clarity
of
the
about
motivations
individual
that
an environment --
competence
barriers
application
of
this
It
and for
acknowledges the importance
and skills as well as policy, and requires
change
to
resistances --
individual
and goals.
as the locus for the change. It
--
both
organizational
be identified and addressed.
dynamics
and
The successful
model culminates in transforming the culture of
the organization.
The
Cambridge
addressing
racism
backgrounds.
color
wide
in
range
residence,
YWCA
It
is
and
an
organization
attempting
to
already in
the process of
reach women from more diverse
has resources potentially of great value to women of
Cambridge,
including
of
programs,
and
a
swimming
pool,
skills in leadership development,
a
a
phsycial plant which consists of a
and
activities.
82
many
rooms
for
meetings
and
The
YWCA
current
inconsistent;
situation
some
of
its
with
relation to cultural diversity is
programs are used and staffed exclusively
by
whites,
while others are fully multicultural.
As an organization,
it
remains
detached from the linguistic and racial communities which
surround it.
its
Although
organizational
in
power,
in
a
the
patterns of isolation on many levels.
and
strong
organization's
The Y is
caught
in which the limited participation of women of color in
cycle,
YWCA,
the
of
a
barriers to communication across differences
co-ordination,
of
commitment
by
dynamics which impede such a major transformation:
several
manifests
the
supported
an active Racial Justice Committee, the organization
and
leadership,
lack
mandate,
are
efforts
anti-racism
its
image
in
the
community
as
white, middle class
a
and its lack of relevant information about the cultural
organization,
communities of the city reinforce one another.
Individuals
in
inexperienced
and
attitudes
enthusiastic
commitment
ability
fears
to
and
leadership
in
positions
work.
They
relation
to
multicultural
in
behaviors
commitment
to
in
multiculturalism
the
organization
exhibit
a
range
are
of
from
racism,
ranging
to
belief that a
the
to the elimination of racism diminishes the organization's
Individual resistances to change,
empower women.
denial,
responsibility,
and
are
in
manifested
an
in
an
unwillingness
based on
to
take
ethnocentric lack of awareness about the
83
lives of people of color living in
Racial
and
immediate
many
linguistic
"environment"
diverse
about
full
provides
have
America
El
with
the Y interacts,
it
the
programs
Cambridge:
is
fact
in
Cambridge,
is
the
the home of
difficult to find exact
that
the
Portugese,
public
Spanish,
school
Haitian
and Greek gives some indication of their importance.
of
arrived
Salvador.
which
Although
size,
bilingual
numbers
Substantial
in
their
Chinese
Creole,
communities
communities.
information
Cambridge.
of
Many
immigrants
in
from
recent years,
these
recent
the
Caribbean
and
Latin
including many from Haiti and
immigrants
are
without legal
status.
The
rooted
early
themselves,
Afro-American communities are diverse in
city's
in
old
Black
Cambridge
and
Boston
migrants from Nova Scotia,
some
families, some descended from
others recent immigrants from
the south. Each of these groups draws on distinct cultural patterns.
The
variety
create
and
changing compositions of the city's cultural groups
a
complex
situation.
conflicts
between
some of the groups.
Cambridge's
serious
could
Central
people.
there
are long-standing
For instance, tension between
Portuguese and Afro-American communities has erupted into
violent
be
Furthermore,
incidents several times in the last six years.
especially
relevant
Square location is
Furthermore,
the
This
to the Cambridge YWCA, given that its
considered "Black turf" by many Portuguese
Portuguese
84
community
is
concentrated
in
East
all
out
to
particularly
are
the Y would face many challenges in
reasons,
these
women
Portuguese
challenges,
those
there
strong
against young women leaving the neighborhood unchaperoned.
sanctions
For
and
neighborhoods,
Cambridge
and
in
girls
Cambridge.
it
If
reaching
could meet
would provide some very important services while
it
addressing a serious city-wide racial/ethic conflict.
In
to
addition
conflicts
conflict
immigrants
groups:
within
differences
The
backgrounds.
roots
national
from
from
immigrants
and
also
community consists of three distinct
the Azores,
Cape
the
For instance,
outreach strategies.
designing
and
Portuguese-speaking
Cambridge's
are
there
groups,
communities which would have to be taken account in
within
programs
planning
ethnic
between
Verde.
immigrants from the Continent,
community
Various
have
political
in
roots
and
these
social
different
Spanish-speaking communities similarly have diverse
which
are
reflected
in
political
and
social
differences.
In
addition,
and
cultural
women
racial
An
effort
useful
both
different
in
are
the
controlled
roles
city.
by men,
in the various
Most of the formal
many of whom do not
priority on women's programs.
to end the white-domination of the YWCA and make it a more
resource
the
somewhat
communities
however,
organizations,
place a high
play
to
dynamics
the city's women of color must take into account
of
the
organization
85
and
the
nature
of
the
communities which it
is
attempting to address.
Preliminary Steps
Women
in
the
positions
problem
whole-system
the
of
addressing
approach.
elimination
organization
of
have
strategy.
The
women
color
of
of leadership at the YWCA should reconceptualize
racism
using
the
perspective
of
a
As it stands now, the YWCA's efforts towards
racism
been
and increasing cultural diversity in
isolated
events,
not
part
the
of any overall
organization's attempts to increase the involvement of
should
be
redefined
as an effort to transform the
organization itself.
A
structure to co-ordinate the change and to hold people and programs
accountable
for
designated
to
Committee
for
mandate
is
process.
be
given
several reasons.
of
tasks
strategy,
such
involving
members
multicultural
co-ordinate
multicultural.
the
as
fair.
of
the
effort
should
be
At the YWCA, the Racial Justice
the mandate to oversee the change
of
the
the
would
be
anti-racism
various
orgnizational imperative to
organization's
Furthermore,
which
leading
in
It is logical that the committee whose
implementation
racism"
fully
some
participation
the
should
the
"eliminate
on
manage
(RJC)
effort,
become
their
own
efforts to
the RJC has already taken
incorporated in
an overall
trainings for the staff and
community organizations in planning a
In addition, the RJC consists of a cross-section
86
of
the
organization,
executve
the
an energetic
the RJC would
It
order
mandate from the board of directors to propose organizational
a
goals
is
co-ordinate the transition,
ability to make things happen.
successfully
It
feel proud of
its
need
and support staff to the
both Black and white,
group whose members,
to
residents
and the president of the board.
director
dynamic
and
from
in
approval,
relation
to
the
would
RJC
cultural
work
Subject to the board's
diversity.
each
with
committee and program to
develop plans of action relating to that particular area.
In
of its
diversity
own
early
addition,
involve
process
committee
(It
the
RJC
should
broaden the
has already made this one of its
should be flexible about finding ways to
from several of the city's major linguistic and racial
women
If
communities.
women
they
committee,
the
own membership.
The
goals.)
in
might
do
not
have
time
to
formally
join
the
be willing to work as advisors, or to suggest
other women from their communities who could participate.
The
should
RJC
organization
consider
should
hire
and
for
what
purposes,
the
consultants and trainers to facilitate the
diversification.
process
of
training
which
sessions
should be led by people with more experience and skill, both
in
cultural
whether,
its
Following
members led this spring,
the
anti-racism
several felt that future
order to create a safer environment and to encourage challenges to
racist
comments..
Given
that the change process will need to address
87
dynamics
organizational
organization,
the
at
work
who
within
everyone
the
might be useful to draw on consultants from outside
it
organization
women
involve
which
certain
junctures.
information about the cultural
the Y have little
in
In addition, the fact that
communities of the city might point to a need for outside expertise.
at
racism
Y
the
motivation
both
and
change.
the
about
similar
the
for
questions
address
the
of
whole.
as- a
organization
of
to
would probably find it useful to read
RJC
the
experiences
processes,
of
.th process of clarifying motivations for
repeat
of
Members
should
RJC
diversity
the RJC works with each program and committee,
as
should
members
the
and
levels
personal
Periodically,
its
of
cultural
do we have to gain? What do we have to lose?)
What
(i.e.
the
increasing
and
own motivations for addressing
its
clarify
to
Members
organization.
on
be
should
RJC
the
activities of
One of the first
change:
for
Motivations
Clarifying
other
women
how
understand
who
have
motivations
been involved in
likely
are
to
change.
Setting
change
goals:
The
effort.
organization
the
Next,
from
multiculturalism
--
longest
RJC
should
propose clear goals for the
goal is clear: to transform the
range
of
white-domination
a
situation
in
which its resources are accessible, relevant
to
full
and empowering to women of color.
But
to
move
even
one
step
towards
88
operationalizing
this goal is
impossible,
because
not
have
the
various
program
directors and policy makers at the Y do
information about the characteristics and needs of women in
cultural
communities
in
Cambridge.
To whom,
in
fact,
does the organization wish to be accessible? In what ways?
On
the
YWCA,
can
basis
of
my own interpretation of dynamics in the Cambridge
and its relationship with the city's communities, I think the Y
set three short-term goals all of which should put it in a better
position
to make clear and specific long-term goals within one to two
years:
-Learn
about
the
lives
of
women of color in Cambridge and
their communities;
-Strengthen
the
ability
of the organization's leadership to
address racism and to work in
several
-Make
immediate
culturally diverse contexts;
changes in
organizational policy to
increase accessibility for women of color.
The
specific
short
terms
address
plans which follow propose strategies for meeting these
goals.
The
plans
have been designed to simultaneously
some of the underlying organizational dynamics and individual
resistances which have so far interfered with the change effort.
Using
the
Process
of
Gathering
Information to Build Relationships
With Communities
For
the
YWCA to be in a strong position to design programs which are
89
relevant
about
The
and
accessible to women of color, it needs more information
their
lives
process
community
and
better relationships with their communities.
for gathering information can be used both to strengthen
relationships
and to involve women of color in the Y. This
information-gathering
process
might
coordination
problems
of
and
several of its
Many
other
the
also
isolation
the
same
from
essential
elements:
of
the Y by involving
involving
the various cultural communities in
information
to present and how to present it;
communities
through
the
process
women
and
choosing what
becoming visible in
the
of gathering information; creating
useful for the individuals and communities involved through
infomation-gathering
plan
lack
processes for collecting information could be designed to
organizations
the
in
the
committees and programs.
incorporate
something
address
to
incorporate
process
the
itself;
and developing a specific
information into organizational goals that
increase the involvement of women of color at the YWCA.
A
subcomittee
of
the
RJC,
Women's Education Committee (overseeing
Adult
Services)
total
of five to ten members, would co-ordinate a series of workshops
on
the
teams
lives
of
communities,
one
and
of
two
women
to
and
at
Public
Policy Commmittee, consisting of a
in various communities. Women would work in
research
including
Spanish-speaking
Salvadoran)
the
particular
Afro-American,
community
least
racial
and/or
cultural
Portuguese, Haitian, at least
(Puerto
Rican,
Colombian,
and/or
one Asian community (Chinese, Vietnamese,
90
Other
Laotian).
and/or
RJC
the
would
document
the
write brief reports analyzing the implications for the
and
workshops
of
members
YWCA's programs and policies.
The
workshop
series
should
be
to generate more energy for coordinating it
and
link the Y to other organizations in an anti-racist endeavor.
The
in
considered
to
the
co-sponsoring
of
possibility
Commission
Cambridge
History
Women's
Center,
Radio
Centro
Association,
studies
Women's
of
Cambridge
The
all
the Multicultural Project, The
Civic
Unity Committee, Boston
Cambridge Organization of Portuguese
Presente,
are
Women, the Cambridge Peace
Concilio Hispano,
organizations
in
Cambridge Haitian
close
geographic
programs
in
area
universities
might
be
in
the
support the project through placement of student interns
to
position
Status
the YWCA with strong anti-racist/multicultural agendas.
to
proximity
The
Collective,
El
Americans,
American
the
on
the Margaret Fuller House,
Commission,
Oral
order
and access to equipment for documentation.
the
of
Each research team spends a month getting an overview
project:
the
community.
involved
people
the
with
in
YWCA
from
the
relevant community; talking with
Department, The Oral History Center, or relevant museums;
visiting
Throughout
First steps would include locating people already
key agencies; reading material from the library, Community
Development
and
feasibility of involving women from the communities in
the
Assessing
neighborhoods, restaurants, businesses, festivals, etc.
this
time,
members
of
91
the research teams should try to
identify
women
able
help
to
women
Y
the
co-ordinate
is
the
in
the'
needs
communities,
and
that
is
the city's various cultural.
from
for
looking
can
help present
to
women
help propose programs. It will probably be
to
women who could gain something for themselves or
locate
to
possible
gathering information so that it
women
of
it
also
and
information
about the lives and needs of
workshop
of
process
meet
better
a
and
communities. Members of the team would indicate that
their
in
communities who would be interested in
the
from
communities through participating in this process: a supportive
their
context
or
planning
about
think
to
particular
constituency;
officials,
or
workshop
such
school
public
college
for
the
might' feel
community
particular
credit
publicity,
need
health
as
Women from a
courses.
to
care
' If
teachers.
skills in program
women,
as
lives
their
to
communicate
providers,
this
or local
the case,
is
a
the
be designed in part to communicate to that particular
could
group.
the
At
end
of
feasibility
a
way
communities
phase
research
involving
women
from this community in planning the
that
will
possible to continue the planning process in
be
it
both the Y and the women from the various cultural
benefit?
If
so,
two
or
more
women
from
should
team
need
each
invited to join the research/planning teams. If
be
from a particular commuity have expressed an interest,
women
this
a decision should be made about the
should
community
no
phase,
Would
workshop.
such
the first
of
be
extended
some
(perhaps
additional
92
members
of
the
then
initial
support), or else the workshop
should be dropped from the initial
Planning
the
program
which
and
needs
Program:
will
of
individual
the
a
The augmented research teams should develop a
help members of the Y learn more about the lives
women
community- as
from
whole.
each
The
the
women,
series.
cultural
workshops
telling
social
situation
appropriate);
music,
poetry
or dance/
presentations
by agency people.
to
involve
think
in
issues
Cambridge,
situations
women
as
perspectives
problems,
and
case,
final
needs
of
The
native
countries
(when
films or slide presentations;
In most cases, it
would be desireable
to be presented.
In many cultural communities
so
time
should
be
allowed
for
developing
as well as for practical details. For instance, in early
women
might
share stories about their own backgrounds and
see what issues emerge from these discussions.
presentations
the
of
class,
background,
in
descriptions of
rarely meet in public contexts to analyze their
women,
sessions,
age,
about the
additional people from the commuity in panels, or to help
through
diversity
and
might include speakouts from
of personal stories,
and
political
community
should present both the strengths and the
communities.
women's
length
Care
should
experiences
of
In any
time
in
be
within
the
taken to represent the
the communities (such as
United
States,
educational
etc.).
event itself:
particular
program,
framework.
For
Each team should decide on the format for its own
although it
instance,
each
might be possible to create a common
event
93
might
consist
of a panel,
start.
The
acceptable
to
and
speakers
and/or
video-taped
agencies.
other
might
programs
various
be
for audiences of
suitable
sizes and compositions.
different
If
but this should not be imposed at the
and cultural program,
workshops
for
audio-taped
the programs should be
presenters,
use in
future trainings and for
might be possible to get donations of equipment
It
from local university media centers, or cable TV station.
the
After
Committee
should
summarize
additional
questions
each
through
event, members of the Racial Justice
each
event:
After
which
was
what
learned
unanswered.
remain
and
They
any
identify
should
think
YWCA program and activity to determine how to make them
more
accessible and relevant to women from the community, in light of
what
was
Are
learned.
consider?
the
Could
other
resources
there
information
Y
which
which
as
with
a specific agency?
the
help
new
women
programs
which
the
Y
should
from the community link up with
would meet certain needs more effectively?
the
Y
Is
could and should act on right away,
taking a policy stand on a key issue, or sharing information
such
worked
there
on
Racial
If appropriate, women from the community who
each event should be invited to continue to participate in
Justice
Committee, or some other relevant Y committee or
program.
Each
learn
event
should
be
in
evaluated
terms of its goals:
Did the Y
useful information? What did women from the community gain from
94
the
experience?
results
Was
the
audience
appropriate
for
the event? The
of evalations from each event should be applied to subsequent
events if appropriate.
recommended strategies to meet those goals:
and
of
learned into more specific goals for the YWCA
was
what
Synthesizing
the
events,
an
recommend
overall
for
levels
the
Racial
Justice
Committee
should
strategy for the YWCA. This outreach
outreach
of
programs,
and
means
outreach,
of
relation
members
of
includes ways for the Y to relate to particular communities,
strategy
goals
members
Following the series
to
the
to
financial
to
increase
committee
or
the
fee
RJC
kinds of
scales, etc.)
In
might recommend that
board act as liaison to organizations. In
directions,
the
RJC
research
sorces
of
projects,
development
organzation,
the
sliding
communities,
staff
program
in
accessibility (language, location,
transportation,
particular
of
relation
ways
participation
or
nutrition
might recommend that the
funding
educaton
for
leadership
progams,
or
for
translation of all organizational newsletters into three languages.
Once
the
directors,
and
the
overall
the
goals
Racial
committee
in
have
been
Justice
agreed
upon
by
the
board of
Committee can work with each program
the organization to develop an action plan to
meet the goals.
Strengthening
the
YWCA's
Anti-Racist
95
Leadership,
and
Creating
Contexts for Support:
As
it
currently
stands,
only one member of the YWCA's professional
staff
has had experience working in multicultural contexts. None have
been
through
the
of
process
transforming
a
white-dominated
organization to a culturally diverse one.
In
several
--
YWCA
there
members
is
a
Others
said
have
organization
culturally
positions of leadership at the
both the board and staff --
for
have
women in
ways,
of
need
Some
efforts.
the
different
training
asked
and
support
have indicated that
for their anti-racist
more anti-racism trainings directly.
for
they feel their efforts are not fully supported by
as
a
whole.
The
feel
it is difficult to create
diverse programs for an organization's whose visibility is
in many communities, especially with limited financial resources.
low
Most
of
the
women
I
spoke
with
at
the Y indicated some kind of
ambivalence or resistance to really making this change happen.
This
section
capacity
of
organization.
women
of
in
the
proposes
at
women
The
first
leadership
professional
structures
the
Y
to
effort
structure,
an
strengthen
to
address
the
leadership
racism
in
the
intensive support group for
roles,
should be designed primarily for members
staff
whose work involves program planning and
community
outreach.
It
should
associate
director,
affirmative
director,
and
include
action
at
least
officer,
the director and
public
relations
all four department heads. In addition to dealing with
96
issues
to
overtly
relating to racism, its activities should be designed
the
address
organization-wide
communication across
of
differences
of
isolation,
and
departments
in the organization. It should also create an opportunity
for
power.
problem
and
which
organization in
will
have
the
increasing
personal
the
decreasing
across
the
staff,
professional
image which they portray of the
the
inform
of
co-ordination
for
growth
impact
the community.
Intensive
support
establish
opportunities
for
in
women
for
leadership
roles:
The YWCA should
support and/or supervision for
ongoing
its staff whose work is central to the effort of cultural
of
members
should
indirectly,
support
experiences
It
diversification.
supervision
support
This
could
from people experienced in
take
the
form of individual
multicultural programming,
or,
following the model of SACS, it might take the form of a group.
a
Such
group
strengthening
be
could
designed
with
explicit
the
the organization's anti-racist leadership.
anti-racism
groups
support
described in
goal
of
Based on the
the "model,"
it
model
of
would
provide a safe but challenging environment in which women could
and
identify
that
process
Membership
the
diverse.
so
in
they
that
resistances
confront
in
address their own resistances to change,
in
would
their
be
better
co-workers
and reflect on
able to productively
and
in
the
community.
the group should be based on the roles which women play
organization;
it could be racially homogeneous or culturally
Activities should be planned accordingly.
97
and
programs
the
adopted
designed
for
ability
to
members
of
cultural
interrupt
racist
dynamics;
the
led
RJC
people
working
at
The
education:
institutionalized
this
as
a
the YWCA.
the
particular
These include
and racial differences;
the
the ability to identify and
spring
anti-racism
which
training
for all staff members should
once-a-year
event
required
of all
These trainings should be structured to
on-going
optional,
into
develop
and more.
become
lead
to
could be
activities
culture; the willingness to take
across
anti-racism
General
endeavor,
of community "boundaries"; an understanding
organizational
guilt-tripping;
resist
group
out
reach
and
risks
of
this
women from various
involving
for multicultural programming.
awareness
concept
"research"
of
members
an
developing
the
a
necessary
sensitivities
of
in
communities
cultural
for
here
proposed
plan
or not the Y as a whole
Whether
strategies.
outreach
to
They would also work together to develop
racism.
interrupt
to
ways
interactions
troublesome
dynamics were involved and explore
how racist
and
whether
determine
particularly
discuss
would
Members
support
anti-racism
These
groups.
groups,
either self-led or initially led by members of the RJC, could
become
the
base
for
additional
anti-racist
leadership
for
women of color:
in
the
organization.
Opportunities
YWCA
n.ow,
for
many
support
of
the
structures
women
of
98
color
do
not
At the
know each other,
across
should
created
if
be
choose
they
of
divisions
especially
status
and
Opportunities
power.
so that women of color could network across roles
to
The purpose of such a group would be to
so.
do
a
space in which they can hear about each other's issues and
strategize
ways to support one another; to provide a safe environment
provide
which feelings can be vented and issues defined; and to foster the
in
development of leadership among women of color.
Policy
Changes
to Increase the Organization's Accessibility to Women
of Color:
Most
the
of the changes in
research
organizational policy will come as a result of
into the city's cultural communities.
Several changes,
however, could be initiated immediately.
Policies
relating
A
subcommittee
joint
review
both
personnel
access
to
organization
for
applicants
experience
for
to access for women of color to staff positions:
of
the RJC and the personnel committee should
policies
the
practices with the aim of increasing
organization
women
jobs
and
of
color.
should
be
and
upward
generally
within the
For instance, qualifications for
amended
s which are needed for working in
to
include
skills
and
multicultural contexts.
unacknowledged, but they are also those
These
skills
which
often make women of color uniquely capable for positions.
include:
are
mobility
They
bilingualism, knowledge of community networks, experience in
99
multicultural
working
in
values
and
Puerto
Rican
styles
child-rearing
of relevant cultural
knowledge
knowledge of traditional Haitian or
For instance,
norms.
would
be
useful skill for a
a
a multicultural day-care program. Note that none of these
in
teacher
contexts,
skills would necessarily exclude women who are white.
In
should explore opportunities for career
this subcommitte
addition,
people
for
Could
jobs
be
restructured
discrepancy
of
skills
lower level positions at the Y.
in
working
advancement
so that there was no longer such a large
needed
for
lower
level
and
middle
level
positions?
affirmative action hiring policy should continue to be rigorously
The
applied-for all job openings.
Policies
relating
committees:
The
should
include
racial
and
guidelines
to
access
nominating
people
who
linguistic
to
the
to
the
board
committee
of directors and other
board of directors
for. the
familiar with women from the city's
are
communities.
The
RJC
should
recommend
nominating committee for cultural diversity among
new board members.
Committees
drawn
In
from
whose
programmatic
these cases,
Committee
membership
and
is
not
diverse tend to be
culturally
areas which are not serving women of color.
such as the Health,
subcommittees
and
100
Physical Education and Recreation
the
Women's
Education Committee,
people
from
the committee
or as advisors to the committee.
Policies
relating
research
into
it
would
key
Y membership could be sought as members of
the
outside
to access to programs:
the lives of women in
Even before completing the
the city's cultural communities,.
be possible to experiment with some policies to address the
problem
programmatic
--
areas
the swimming pool and the adult
services programs.
Two
ideas have been discussed by members of the professional
relation
to
adult services:
outside
of
and
seeking
2)
the
YWCA,
in
outside
all
adult
and,
the
exception
with
supported
through
underway
to
recommendations
funding
programmatic
collaboration with other community groups;
of
funding
for
adult
programs.
of
Displaced Homemakers Program,
the
are
tuition and fees. During the year when research is
the
on
specific
Adult
goals
Services
for
the
Y's
efforts
at
Department could explore these
a limited basis by holding one or two programs in
particular. neighborhoods
public
sites
programs are held in the YWCA building itself,
establish
diversification,
1) locating some adult programs in
sources
Currently,
staff in
and by researching the kinds of private and
available
direction
for
for
programs.
At this point in time, the
adult services is
very flexible,
so many
options could be considered.
Funding
as
should
health
care
be researched for programs which
and
nutrition,
address issues such
housing, employment, child-rearing,
101
leadership
exclude
development,
creative
and
expression
which
would not
women of color. Any special projects should be designed to be
specifically
people's
.
inclusive
services
and
Public
funding
and
humanities
arts
for
job training, older
programming are likely
starting points for funding research.
In
relation
mentioned
for
be
the
swimming
pool,
the affirmative action officer
to me the possibility of holding
women
with
to
of
particular
another
starting
agency.
to
use
special lifeguard classes
cultural groups,
perhaps in collaboration
In this way, a number of people of color would
the
facilities
at
the
same
time, and would
generate
a network of certified lifeguards who are people of color.
This
turn would probably create a context in
in
color
would
worthwhile
use
the
pool
on
a
regular
which more people of
basis. This seems like a
experiment if the organization can commit the resources to
coordinate it.
Summary
As
a
long-term
towards
(5-10
transformation
the
white
domination
color
in
should
not
board
every
involve
most)
and
year)
of
to
level
one
of
goal,
of
that
the
Afro-Ameridan
its
the
Cambridge YWCA should work
culture
from one that reflects
reflects the involvement of women of
organization's functioning.
The YWCA
women and women from at least some (if
the city's linguistic communities on its staff, on its
committees,
and
in
its membership. It should be a place
102
where women from many different backgrounds feel "at home".
By
that time, the YWCA should be a strong presence in the networks of
agencies
women
and
and
should
women
community
of
people
groups
providing services to and organizing
color in the city. Its public policy committee
taking leadership roles in
be
and
people
Cambridge's
of
cultural
color
in
addressing issues of concern to
the city and in
should
communities
the state.
think
of
the
Groups in
YWCA
as a
resource and an ally.
In
programs
various
support
is
policy-making
the
that time the YWCA should be structured
by
addition,
co-ordinated
across
organization.
It
another's
programs
be
Its
communities.
cultural
should
efforts,
and
so that its
by the relationships which it shares with
informed
various
city's
one
so that its
and
capable
all
across
of
efforts
should
levels
of
be
the
adapting to changes in the
community, and in the political and economi'c environment.
In
order
to
move
towards these long term goals,
in
the short term,
(1-2 years), the YWCA should:
the
Racial
group
the
mandate to co-ordinate an organization-wide
to
transform
Justice
Committee
or some other specific
-give
effort
the YWCA from a white-dominated to a culturally
diverse organization.
As
part
clarify
of
the
this
process,
organization's
103
the
RJC
should continually
motivations
for changing in
this
way.
It
should
also
hold
people
and
programs
accountable for following relevant organizational policy.
-strengthen
anti-racist
its
leadership
and
support
individuals to overcome their resistances to change;
specific
-create
communities
those
in
goals
goals
in
Cambridge
in
which
relation
to particular cultural
and develop plans for implementing
every
program
and
committee in
the
organization co-operate.
-gather
the
mentioned
with
and
information
above,
cultural
necessary
to
create
the
plan
and use that process to build relationships
and racial communities based on mutual respect
involve women from those communities in
planning programs
and other activities at the YWCA.
-increase
color
the
accessibility
through
changing
developing
the
board
committee;
and
relevant
personnel
policies;
for broader cultural representation on
guidelines
of
of the organization to women of
directors
seeking
to
be
women
given
of
color
to
the
to
nominating
participate on
committees as members and/or advisors.
-commit
for
organizational resources to experiment with solutions
changing
Education
and
the
exclusivity
Recreation
in
the
Department
104
Health,
Physical
(particularly
the
swimming pool programs) and the Adult Services Program.
These
recommendations
between
and
for
processes
the
YWCA
changing
used
organizational
to
propose
strategies for building relationships
and the racial and ethnic communities in the city,
the
composition
of the organization itself.
The
accomplish those ends would take into account the
dynamics
and
individual
presented major barriers to change.
105
resistances
which
have
CONCLUSION
women
been
various
from
and empowering to
relevant
accessible,
The model has
and. racial communities.
cultural
in
describes,
chapter
general
terms,
into
themselves
transform
can
to a particular organization, the Cambridge YWCA.
applied
final
fully
are
which
resources
a model through which white
described
organizations
women's
dominated
have
chapters
preceding
The
This
the application of the
model to other organizations.
This
can be used by both administrators and affirmative action
model
officers
working
change
an
within
effort
is
and by trainers and
organization,
who intervene as consultants.
facilitators
a
from
step in
The first
to assess the organization,
planning
using the conceptual
framework of the model as a guide:
the
within
Diversity
Cultural
Organization:
What is the
racial
and
ethnic composition of the organization's clients,
staff,
and
board?
such
positions,
power?
How
Are any groups concentrated in
as
does
in
certain programs,
or in
particular
positions of
the organization compare with the cultural
diversity of the communities which surround it?
Relationship
Communities:
agencies,
between
In
networks
what
and
Organization
the
ways
and
does the organization
individuals in
106
Cultural
relate to
the racial and ethnic
communities
in
relationships
characterized
organization's
the
image
geographic
in
organization aware of its
To
Relevance:
by
the
area?
Are
reciprocity?
community?
existing
What
is
the
Are people in the
image?
what
extent
offered
are
the
programs,
services,
by the agency relevant to the needs
products,
etc.,
of
women
of color in
be
designed, still in keeping with the organization's general
Could more relevant programs
the area?
mandate?
In
Accessibility:
resources
what
to
accessible
communities?
are
women
of
be
should
This
language,
location,
ways
format,
the
cultural
various
considered
fee structure,
organization's
in
terms
of:
transportation and
child-care needs.
Resources:
In
dependent
on
fees
on
for
If
women?
be
its
ways
are the organization's resources
constituency?
services
which
Are
the
public
or
implications
would
depend
be unaffordable
to poor
sources of income or fee
private
of
does it
For instance,
so, are there alternative
structures?
would
what
funds available?
seeking
and
What
accepting such
money?
Relevant
Organizational
Dynamics:
107
How are decisions made in
the
organization?
organization,
How open is
and
How
environment?
communication,
between
are
both within the
organization
the
conflicts handled?
and
its
What are informal
social networks?
Individual
Awareness
organization
supports
Who
diverse?
in
the
would
the
Resistances:
opposed. this effort?
organization's
manifested
beneath individuals'
Organizational
does
the
decision-making
easily
and
structure,
and what
opposition?
How is
What seems to be
Change:
Through what processes
incorporate new information and change
adaptable is
is
the
resistances?
learning
how
in
What are their positions
in the organization now?
oranization
itself?
Who
effort to make it culturally more
be the ramifications of anticipated
racism
How
and
relevant
it
to changes in
information
its
environment?
transferred
from
one
department to another?
Once
a
decision
has
transformation,
a
and
mandate
given
the
individuals
individual
and
or
been
made to undertake a major organizational
structure
groups
group,
to
for managing the change must be chosen,
propose
goals
accountable.
should
be
This
and
strategies and hold
structure,
whether
an
consistent with the organization's
ongoing lines of responsibilities and authority.
Initial
interventions
should
address
108
issues
which
are
commonly
acknowledged
in
designed
ways
to
in
the
coordination.
be
In
as
in
problems
this
diversity
minimized.
as "problems",
but they should be
which also address some of the underlying barriers
such
change,
cultural
organization
way,
the
or
lack
of
extent to which major barriers to
are incorporated in
Other
communication,
the change process itself can
aspects of the organization's functioning will
probably be improved as well.
Interventions
of
also be designed to maximize the organization's
For instance,
strengths.
with
should
they should build on positive relationships
community agencies, previous collaborative efforts between women
color
and
culturally
effort
white
diverse
itself
of
use
within the agency, and the organization's
programs.
should
acknolwedgement
responsible
wmen
To
model
conflict,
the
the
openness
extent
clarity
about
of power which characterize
possible,
of
the change
communication,
difference,
and
the
successful multicultural
activities.
Other Applications:
The
model
for
organizations
interactive
addressing
outlined
in
racism
this
thesis
in
white-dominated
calls
women's
for simultaneous and
attention to both policy and individual consciousness;
this
way
many
feminist
it
is
different
anti-racism
from most other anti-racist work.
in
Unlike
groups, which consist of individual women
109
meeting
autonomously,
activity
in
the
context.
link
immediate
this
between
collective
action.
traditional
approaches
model
consciousness-raising
an organization.
of
changes
On
places
the
in
It
individual
other
hand,
makes a direct and
consciousness
is
it
and
different
from
exclusively on policies such as quotas
based
or affirmative action hiring.
Whether
this
groups,
or
question
to
approach
is
in mixed-gender or male-dominated
used
oppressive
difficult
to
work
anti-racist
most
Perhaps
be
other than racism is
dynamics
answer.
a
There are characteristics
and to women's organizations which explain why this
women
to
can
address
which
to
unique
model
of
important
consciousness-raising,
emerged
these
links
which
in
feminist movement.
the
the
is
action
political
of
tradition
to
emotional
vulnerability and changing consciousness.
would
It
be
male-dominated
group
to
interesting
addressing
organization
addressing
experiement
racism.
with
sexism
this
and
a
model
in
a
mixed gender
In either case, adjustments would need to
be made to account for dynamics relating to sexual politics.
For
be
women's organizations,
important.
diverse,
and
As
though,
American
addressing racism will continue to
cities
become
increasingly culturally
organizations attempting to address the needs of urban women
them
mobilize
development
of
a
to
take action can become important links in
global
feminist
110
movement.
If
the
these organizations
maintain
the
a narrow ethnocentric vision,
most
basic
issues
employment for women in
model
of physical safety, health care, housing and
their own communities.
presented
here,
Hopefully,
the
experiences
of several organizations,
groups in
they will fail to address even
based
on
successful
will be useful to other women's
their efforts to become fully multicultural.
111
the
FOOTNOTES
Chapter 2
Young
Women's
Organization:
White
(New York:
Women in White America.
"Inside a
Lerner,
1.
Gerda
Black
Association",
Christian
Vintage Books, 1973.) p. 479
2. Lerner, pp. 477-478
3.
Louise
Vrande,
Cambridge
Officer,
Action
Affirmative
YWCA.
Conversation.
Personal
4. Louise Vrande, "Racial and Ethnic Composition of YWCA Boards and
Committees", Affirmative Action Report. April 13, 1984.
5.
LaRayne
Hebert,
Executive
Director,
Cambridge
YWCA.
Personal
Conversation.
6.
LaRayne Hebert.
7.
Bette
Furey,
Conversation.
8.
Louise Vrande,
Personal Conversation.
Member,
YWCA
Racial
Justice
Committee.
Personal
Personal Conversation.
Louise Vrande,
"Racial and Ethnic Composition of YWCA Boards and
9.
Committees Affirmative Action Report." April 13, 1984.
10.
Nancy D'Amato, Director, Displaced Homemakers'
YWCA. Personal Conversation.
Program,
Cambridge
"'I Want My Freedom': An Inquiry into Ethnicity
Cynthia Cohen,
11.
Unpublished
and Gender Among Young Portuguese Women in Cambridge."
paper, 1983.
Barriers to Women and
the Surface:
Audre Lorde,
"Scratching
12.
Essays and Speeches by Audre Lorde
Sister Outsider:
Loving",
(Trumansburg, New York: Crossing Press, 1984) pp. 1 2 4 - 1 3 3 .
Chapter 3
Donna Landerman, Kathy Salisbury. "Evaluation of
1. Norma Boujouen,
Black Women
in the Area of Sexual
Puerto
Rican and
Outreach
to
of
Mental Health Center
Institute
the
National
report
to
Assault", a
and Control of Rape, on Grant #MH 30620-02. p. 2 .
for the Prevention
(Report Available from Sexual Assault Crisis Service, c/o YWCA, Broad
Street,
Hartford,
Connecticut.)
2. Norma Boujouen, et. al. p.44.
112
being
non-racist and
appearing
3.
The
distinction between
in
"Racism and Writing",
Elly Bulkin,
made in
anti-racist is
Sinister Wisom 13 (Spring, 1980) p. 4.
4. Norma Boujouen, et. al. p.200.
5. Norma Boujouen, et. al. pp. 184 - 187.
6. Beverly Smith, "Some Thought on Racism," in Aegis: Magazine on
Ending Violence AGainst Women
.
(Washington,
D.C.:
March/April,
1979) p. 35.
Organizational Transitions:
7. Richard Beckhard and Reuben Harris,
Addison-Wesley
Massachusetts:
(Reading,
Managing Complex Change
Publishing Co., 1977) p. 45.
8. Debra Robbin,
conversation.
New Bedford Women's Center, personal
Co-director,
Donna Landerman.
9.
on Ending Violence
p.19.
Aegis: Magazine
"Breaking the Racism Barrier,"
Against Women , (Washington, D.C.: Winter, 1982)
"The Tools of the Master Will Never Dismantle the
Audre Lorde.
.10.
Sister Outsider, Essays and Speeches by Audre
Master's House", in
p.
(Trumansburg, New York: Crossing Press, 1984.)
Lorde
11. Norma Boujouen, et. al. p. 152.
12. Norma Boujouen, et. al. p. 152.
13. Norma Boujouen, et. al. pp. 92-125.
14.
Norma Boujouen,
et.
al. pp.
64-91.
15.
Norma Boujouen,
et.
al. pp.
178.
"Community Karate", in
16.
Nadia Telsey.
Violence Against Women , (March/April 1979)
17.
Norma Boujouen,
et.
al.
pp.
Aegis: Magazine on Ending
p. 29.
150-151.
18. Norma Boujouen, et. al. pp. 187-205.
19. Norma Boujouen, et. al. pp. 179.
20. Norma Boujouen, et. al. p. 55.
Terry Wolverton. "Unlearning Complicity, Remembering Resistance:
21.
Learning our Way: Essays in
White Women's Anti-Racism Education," in
edited by Charlotte Bunch and Sandra Pollack.
,
Feminist Education
113
(Trumansburg,
New York: Crossing Press. 1983).
p.
198.
22.
Donna Landerman,
"Breaking
the Racism Barrier, Part Two", in
Aegis: Magazine on Ending Violence Against Women (Washington, D.C.:
Spring, 1982) p.3 4 .
23.
Tia
Cross,
Greada
Klein, Barbara Smith, Beverly
"Face-to-Face,
Day-to-Day
-Racism CR",
in
Off Our
(Washington, D.C.: November, 1979)
24.
Donna Landerman,
25.
Boujouen,
26.
These
including:
et.
ideas
-Donna
Landerman,
Spring, 1982.)
-Ellen
p.36.
Pence,
Spring 1982.
al.
p.
p.30.
206.
have
been
expressed
in
many articles and papers
"Breaking the Racism Barrier",
"Racism:
Smith,
Backs
A White Issue" in
-Adrienne
Rich,
"Disloyal to
Gynephobia",
in
Lies,
Secrets
1979) pp. 275-310.
-Louise Waters, "Why Teach
(March/April, 1976) p. 61.
Studies?"
Aegis
(Winter and
,( March/April, 1979)
Aegis
Civilization:
and Silence
White
in
Feminism,
Racism and
(New York: Norton Co.,
in
The Social Studies
-Terry
Wolverton, "Unlearning Complicity, Remembering Resistance: White
Women's
Anti-Racism Education",
in
Learning our Way:
Essays in
Feminist Education
, edited by Charlotte Bunch and Sandra Pollack;
(Trumansburg, New York: Crossing Press, 1983) p. 1 8 8 .
-Valerie Young, "Towards in
Increased
Understanding of Whiteness in
Relation to White Racism", (Amherst, Mass: 1979.) Unpublished paper.
27. Elly Bulkin, p.5.
28. Boujouen, et. al. p. 208.
29. Terry Wolverton, p. 198.
30.
Donna Landerman,
"Privilege and Racism", (Hartford, Connecticut: Sexual
Assault Crisis Service, 1979.) pp. 1 -3 .
31. Louise Waters, p. 61.
32.
Donna Land'erman,
Spring,
1982.
33.
Donna Landerman,
Spring,
1982.
p.
35.
p. 35.
114
34.
Donna Landerman,
Spring,
1982.
p.
33.
35. Norma Boujouen, et. al. p. 38.
36.
Norma Boujouen,
et. al. p. 57.
Organizational Dynamics:
John Kotter,
37.
(Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1978.) p. 35.
115
Diagnosis
and
Intervention