ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING FOR MAN AND ENVIRONMENT:
STOCKHOLM IN 1930 AND 1980
by
MARINA BOTTA
Degree in Architecture,Politecnico di Milano
(1975)
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Architecture in Advanced Studies
at the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
june 1980
©
Marina Botta
1980
The Author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce and to
distribute publicly copies of this thesis document in whole or in part.
Signature of Author . .
. . . .
Department of Architecture
Certified by.....
.
......
Tunney
Accepted by...
ee ,Associate Professor
........
MASSACHUSETTS INSiITUTh
OF TECHNOY
MAY 30 1980
Chairman
Pr fessor Julja ueinart,
DepartmentaJommittee for Graduate Students
MITLibries
Document Services
Room 14-0551
77 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02139
Ph: 617.253.2800
Email: docs@mit.edu
http://libraries.mit.eduldocs
DISCLAIMER OF QUALITY
Due to the condition of the original material, there are unavoidable
flaws in this reproduction. We have made every effort possible to
provide you with the best copy available. If you are dissatisfied with
this product and find it unusable, please contact Document Services as
soon as possible.
Thank you.
The images contained in this document are of
the best quality available.
ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING FOR MAN AND ENVIRONMENT:
STOCKHOLM IN 1930 AND 1980
by
MARINA BOTTA
Submitted to the Department of Architecture
in May 1980 in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the Degree of Master of Architecture
in Advanced Studies
ABSTRACT
This
thesis
is
an effort
to understand
architecture
reality, uncovering the intentions and motivations
observing the consequences on human behavior.
by
reading
underlying
it,
the
then
The choice of Stockholm as a subject was dictated by a conviction
that in Stockholm's modern development it is possible to trace some
to
attitude
characterized
by great
sensitivity
constants of
an
Such an attitude followed either a real
environmental and human needs.
concern or a mystification of political or economic interests.
The program of a significant architectural event in Stockholm for
the summer of 1980 suggested two precise moments around which this thesis
The
the Stockholm Exhibition of 1930 and Project 80.
is structured:
the
ideas
to
which
context
historical
author's purpose is to analyze the
introduced by these two events belong, in order to deduce the reciprocal
influences between reality and theory, and the correspondence between
years of
50
these
of
reading
the
In
effects.
and
intentions
history it
was possible to recognize the theoretical
architectural
principles of the Modern Movement and the Rationalism of the 1930s, the
New Empiricism of the 1940s and 1950s, the conditioning induced by the
industrial bocm of the 1960s, and the environmental and social concern of
the 1970s, which is still
in effect today.
The reading of the changes in theory and practice during this
50-year period is meant to discover the major concerns of designers and
to both define the primary requirements and
their reference models,
to assess actual and proposed
interpret the desires of the users,
solutions and the roles played by the production system and politics.
A series of questions concerning the development of Stockholm are
presented in the introduction and are expanded upon and answered in the
text that follows. The concluding section, however,
raises a new series
of questions that is no longer restricted to Stockholm alone, but that
addresses
environmental
design
issues
of
much
larger
concern.
Thesis Supervisor: Tunney Lee
Title: Associate Professor of Architecture
2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This thesis was made possible by the help and contributions of many
people, and I owe thanks to all of them.
my
Professor Tunney Lee,
I would particularly like to thank:
Professor Sandra Howell, and
advisor, Professor Giancarlo DeCarlo,
Professor Anne Vernez Moudon, for their indispensible advice, criticism,
and efforts to help clarify my ideas.
Professor Julian Beinart, Professor Chester Sprague, Professor Antonio
diMambro, Architect Franz Ziegler, Professor Bengt Hultin, for their
encouragement and advice.
My editor Peter Heron and my English teacher Linda Sybley, who made my
and my typist Alice Sanderson, who produced 'the
writing readable,
manuscript.
Professor Gilberto Russo for his continuous help and support.
The "Environmental Design 9," Beth Frey, and all the other inhabitants of
10.485 for their help and continued friendship.
The Fullbright Commission and the Institute of International Education,
who enabled me to study at M. I.T.
To Stockholm,
and in it:
The research group S.K.F. with Ingela Bloomberg, Eva Eisenhower and Sonia
Viden who accepted me among them and from whom I learned so much.
Stockholm
and
Koppf
Cathrine
Anne
with Ms.
Stadsbyggnadkontoret
of the
most
me
gave
who
Qviding,
Ossian
Mr.
with
Service
Information
information and material indispensible for this study.
The Swedish Institute in Stockholm and the Swedish Embassy in Rome with
Mrs. Kaipl, who supported my intentions and my interests.
The Swedish Board of Architects SAR.
Anne Bjdrklund and Gerd Ytterberg, who helped me to better know and
appreciate the town and the people of Stockholm.
A special thanks to all my friends and to my roommates, for their
tolerance, and to my family who are still waiting for my return home.
The content is
the sole responsibility of the author.
CONTENTS
Page
Abstract
2
Acknowledgments
3
Introduction
Part I:
The Stockholm Exhibition
Chapter 1:
1-1
Introduction
13
1-2
Gunnar Asplund
18
1-3
Sven Markelius
21
1-4
Housing
24
1-5
Reactions
39
1-6
Summaries
41
Stockholm in 1930
Chapter 2:
2-1
Introduction
43
2-2
Housing Policy
43
2-3
Housing
61
2-4
An Example:
2-5
Planning
90
2-6
Summaries
99
Appendix:
Part II:
11
1930
Stockholm in
The Kitchen
Housing in the 1930s in the U.S.
75
101
Modern Stockholm
Chapter 3:
Stockholm from 1950 to 1980
3-1
Introduction
110
3-2
The "Inner City" and the "Business Environment"
113
3-3 Suburbs and "Residential Environment"
129
4
CONTENTS
Page
3-4
3-5
Chapter 4:
The Example of Kista and the Gdvle
Competition
144
Summaries
158
Proposals for the 1980s
4-1
Introduction
162
4-2
"Habitation 80"
164
4-3
The Municipal "Work Program 1978-80"
171
4-4 Summaries
176
Conclusion
179
Bibliography
185
References
190
J)Q0
I N TR ODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
in
as
Sweden
is
Change
half
a
reflection after
"modern Sweden."
a
as
seen
always
history
of
century
point
a
moment:
important
an
perceived
being
into the 1980s is
entrance
The
social
politics,
attitudes,
etc.
of
forward,
step
economy,
important shifts in life style,
reflecting
of
change narks
The
the end of a certain system of situations and the
Just as at the end of each
beginning of new ones.
year people
draw
conclusions about
not happen in the course of that year,
the coming
prognoses for
general
reflections occur
The end
of
a
and plans and
so do more
year are made,
a
at the end of
a
is
decade
did or did
what
common way to
decade.
delineate
various historical changes and movements.
in
the
1930s--takes on the connotations of that decade
(the
Any given
"Jazz
Age")
decade--for
and
loses
example,
its
America
original
temporal
meaning.
In this way numbers have replaced the role
of other
connotations
used
in
that
the past,
were
derived from important persons or contingent factors
for example, the years of the decline of the Roman
empire or the years of Queen Victoria).
and
other
tendency
to
decennial
divide
surveys
historical
also
Census data
reflect
and social
into strictly defined periods of time.
this
movements
or
Rationalism
the
about
speak
may
We
architecture
the
we
if
but
Industrialization,
a
architecture,
as
any
other
industrial boom.
activity
or
physical
events
the
We are now at the beginning of the
are
past
and
every 'field,
in
of
and evaluations
and reflections
future
investing
at the time of Rationalist ideas o'r of
'resource
1980s
the
we refer
facts
of
context
broader
much
of
about
speak
architecture of the 1930s and of the 1960s,
to
of
architecture
being
made
in
every country.
The 1930s represented
of
after
adjustment
the
date
of
the
represented
which
a very
1930 has
architecture
is
period of
Sweden's entrance
triumph
of
In
for
meaning,
precise
"Stockholm
the
industrial
quick
that followed.
and the urbanization
development
this
a
in Sweden the first decade
Exhibition,"
and
Rationalism
into an international cultural and
social debate.
Now,
in
1980,
the
50-year
anniversary
of
that
exhibition has given Stockholm the impetus for a new
initiative
and with
it
a need for
presenting
answers
after
activities
(but of
important
a
decade
problems
provoking new questions.
The title of this initiative
It
not
is
to
people as
environment,
users and
and
social organization,
it
and
deeper
for
need
80."
and it
is
of any new theory or
the presentation
"style, " as was Rationalism
slower
"Project
something more than an exhibition,
tied
views
is
for
of
a
and also
and experimenting)
rethinking
innovations,
in 1930.
"Project
80"
inhabitants of their own
concerns
resource
handling,
research of new planning forms,
user
and
the
architecture
should
values
social
which
in
suitable
most
the
be
will
form
are:
poses
it
managing
and
decision
The main questions
processes.
housing
in
involvement
future?
What
reflect?
How can future inhabitants be
involved
in
the design process?
and
1930
between
Stockholm
of
development
The
1980 could be studied as an example of how changes
and interests are reflected in
in needs, goals,
planning
architectural
to
Due
life.
with
also
concerned
needs,
between
architecture,
and
relationships
the
regard
of
become
to
functional
non-str ictly
that
material
standard
the opportunity
had
and design
planning
higher
architectural
conditions,
these
a
reach
higher
a
and
quality
environmental
to
Sweden
allowed
conditions
political
and
demographical
favorable
period,
that
During
designing.
and
and
his
natural
attitude
in
designing
man,
env ir onmen t.
A particularly
can
be
Stockholm's
activities from 1930
to
traced
architectural
public
exhibition
of 1930
Rationalism
different
and later
changed
a
and
The
first
on.
time,
adjusting
the
of
life,
to
different
conditions,
way
in
in the reality of the
evolved over
socio-economic
requirements,
planning
appeared
manifestations
official,
town.
sensitive
and
various
foreign influences.
the works of architects G. Asplund,
In 50 years
development of
importance
and others,
the
Scandinavian New Empiricism and
the
it
contribution
of
Reinus,
Backstron,
S.
S. Markelius,
attached
to
the
psychology to design are reflected in the continuous
the
associations,
cooperative
of
development
organization
of
research
and
interdisciplinary
exchanges,
factors
stressed
the
importance
and environmental
concerns
in
planning
of
these
activity
in
However,
Stockholm.
and functional
of human
and
design
Stockholm
should
not be viewed as a perfect model town;
technical,
All
and the social assistance structure.
many social,
problems are exclusive to
that city and should not be overly generalized.
This
architectural
in Stockholm.
How
examines
thesis
did
planning
and
compares
the
in 1930
and design
role of
and
1980
The following questions are addressed:
the
goals,
focus,
and
concerns
of
architecture change between 1930 and 1980 and why?
How did the attitude towards people change?
Which qualities
a
crucial
of the urban environment played
role and which qualities
most
influenced
planning and housing policy?
What
role
did
people
play
managing their own environment?
in
shaping
and
acceptera
tn
den fdreliggande verkligheten - endast drigenom
har vi utsikt aft beharska den, aft ra pA den far aft
f5rndra den och skapa kultur som ir ett smidigi
redskap fdr livet. Vi behdver i'
lnmal kulturs
urvuxna former fbr att
\d
islvaktning.
Vi kan into smy,
06,1
bakat. Vi
kan inte heller h
t
u's
besvrligt
och oklart in i en
t
,
ite annat
Mn se verkligheten S
or g
\
den fdr
aft behirska den. V, .
,T60
d som
Mr mil i vAra daga
-O Poo
aidrig varii
nigon verklig tvekai \300
cr de trotta och
pessimistiska som pA.
P A RT
at
vi hAiler pA att skap
ONE
CHAPTER 1
4'-
%OAu.
a
e,
ex
?&; 16 i h
(D n
the stockholm exhibition 1930
THE STOCKHOLM EXHIBITION 1930
Rationalism was first expounded .by LeCorbusier
with the pavilion "l'Esprit Nouveau" at the Paris
end
the
At
1925.
of
Exhibition
rationalist theories first appeared in
in
two
architectural
form,
focused
system of
functions
social
sciences
of
logical
the
in a space,
solution of
on
a
and the involvement
and
housing
in
They
Sweden.
research
directions:
as
1920s,
the
of
planning.
city
Combined with the 1932 change of government towards
a Social Democracy, Rationalism theory had a great
on building activity and on environmental
influence
use and management.
credit and subsidies given to housing
Municipal
among
cooperatives and housing estates were
first manifestations of a new housing
for
(like,
types
supervision
by
rents
a
of
plans,
prices,
land
Real
apartment
example,
Estate
Commission
a
building
series of new
which was a
of
consequence
policy,
the
blocks).
The
drawings,
and
represented
an
attempt to develop a government housing policy that
that generally
the speculation
would counteract
This policy was
develops in periods of major need.
geared
to
small,
and
families.
the
supporting
well-organized
Five
early 1930s
which
the
resulted
production
flats
thousand small
in
response
to
from population
of
for
flats were
housing
expansion,
simple,
low-income
built
in
shortages,
migration
INTRODUCTION
and also from the crisis
from rural to urban areas,
in
production
that
Democratic
government
conditions
by renewing
directly providing
to
the
in
Social
improve
living
social organization,
and by
was
the necessities
for the workers'
Sweden architecture
In this context
everyday life.
the world
first goal of
The
years.
the preceding
all
characterized
gained international prominence.
architecture,
Rationalism's concepts of housing,
and planning found their greatest expression
the influence of which
Stockholm Exhibition of 1930,
was
felt not only
in
the evolution of Scandinavian
in
architecture
but
international
rationalism.
also
technique,
form,
of
functions
and
The idea of creating
design
with
the
"a
determined
everyone"
and of
living
of
development
the
for
environment
better
in the
respect
social
to
the
aspects
of
urban life.
arts
and
crafts
success
in
Gbteborg
A previous
great
with
exhibition
world,
Sweden
had
considered
which
remote
region
of
Vikings
and
Lapps,
matches.
to
brought
G6teborg
northern
exhibition
in
the
at
Scandinavia
in
1925
expectations
were
held
as
the
and
and the Swedish
des
Arts
Great
this.
confirmed
the
by
sophisticated
Exposition
for
the
only a
fish,
wood,
demonstrated
Decoratifs"
of
occupied
Europe,
exporting
"Paris
This
1923.
the attention
level Swedish designers had reached,
pavilion
had met
Exhibition of
1930
which was totally devoted to Swedish arts and crafts
and
It
architecture.
provide
Stockholm
would
artistic
tendencies,
also
was
at
orientation
a
that
expected
time
for
future
which
particularly important in the cultural debate and
was
-M
4
-
)
a
Figure 2
Scandinavia.. .a
and Lapps.
remote
region
occupied
by
Vikings
particularly fertile for new ideas in architecture.
"Sweden has deliberately decided to turn her
back on the field of their former triumphs, and
let the old Viking urge for discovery lead her
forth to exploration of the uncharted currents
The world had
of the Modernist maelstrom.
Swedish
from
"line"
particular
a
expected
Unfortunately,
designers at this exhibition.
Sweden refused to behave like the gifted and
promising young artist...
country have
the
leaders of
The spiritual
decided that the present year of grace is to
inaugurate a new forward policy- for the nation.
Henceforward Sweden shall turn her back on the
resolutely
look
and
its glories
and
past
enters the
champion
A grim new
forward.
modernist ring and throws down his ringing
challenge to the bow-legged intellectuals who
have been vociferously pamphleteering in it..."
(P. Morton Shaud, 1930).
and Crafts Association,
Swedish Arts
these last times,
"cult
the
against
reaction
and
supporter
viewed the exhibition as
of the Functionalist ideas,
a
G. PAULSSON
at that time director of the
G. Paulsson,
of
Goods
cloudy
of
that hid the national tradition or
the classical beauty with false museum labels."
was held on a large area of the
The exhibition
island of
It
Djurg~rden,
in
center
Stockholm.
of
resembled a condensed city, with "funkis" houses,
exhibition
glass,
small
streets,
squares,
new
places
transportation.
The
to
whole
content of the exhibition,
a
even
furnishings,
lighting
pavilions
halls and
fountains,
and
the
train
musical
equipment,
instruments,
church
and
towers,
banks,
signs,
rest,
and
public
was
environment
with cars,
boats,
handicraft
station,
instruments,
farm
in steel
metals,
animals,
equipment,
the
trains,
objects,
ceramics,
agricultural
books,
graphics,
historical
photographs,
building materials,
house
and apartment
a swimming pool,
types,
etc.
all the
"All that could be hidden was put away,
trash that could keep from looking at the future
was eliminated" (I.L. Johansson).
The exhibition was marked with optimism towards the
future.
Q0
LANTBRUKSMOTET
to
e
@44
TV
IK
K
AM
OA
FlyFfrlt
Figure 3
G. ASPLUND
was the most
Gunnar Asplund (1885-1040)
N. Pevsner said:
prominent actor in the exhibition.
"The liberation fran the dictatorship of cubes
The principal event was the
began about 1930...
Stockholm Exhibition in the summer of 1930,
where Gunnar Asplund, until then essentially a
and
modern
turned
classicist,
sensitive
,demonstrated the possibilities of lightness and
the
of
rany
convince]
wh ich
transparency
architect visitors." (Nikolaus Pevsner, 1945).
which
Romanticism,
architectural
Hall
Town
in
Beauty
to
aspired
(examples of which are
as a kind of cultural Purity
the
Swedish
in
was
background
Asplund's
Stockholm
designed
Ragnar
by
Ostberg, the Concert House by Sven Markelius, and
From this background he
Tengbon's Hotel Stockholm).
dominated
Swedish
architecture
the
approached
Europe
the
1920s.
noticed
in
in
architects
sterility and mannerism of
which
made
architecture,
point of view.
them
of
feel
to reconsider
The
those
problein
years
those abstract
the
it
which
Rationalism,
need
to
was
that
the
schemes,
humanize
from a psychological
With this conviction Asplund joined
the European movement,
and achieved success in this
exhibition.
"Asplund succeeded in giving the simple forms of
his buildings a growing sense of new, thematic
richness, of stimulating happy interest, of
inventiveness that astonished Europe."
"If you compare the summer house near Stockholm
or
Kozma
with a building by Terragni or
LeCorbusier, you will notice that the problems
The others look
have been completely changed.
for big windows, for extroversion, Asplund loves
an
can find
where one
an enclosed home,
The others
invitation to meditate in solitude.
its
isolated, hacked in
imagine the house
Figure 4
19
profiles, dominating nature, sometimes detached
pervailing with its sharp
from the ground,
volumes on the continuity of the landscape;
Asplund prefers intimate and persuasive values,
an immersion of architecture in the continuity
of the landscape, a roof which can give a sense
of contact, of weight, a link with the good
earth...
The house is a sign of human dwelling
and its reserved colloquium with nature." (Bruno
Zevi, 1961)
"As
Professor G. Paulsson
points
out... by
applying to period buildings the principles of
light, air and openness he (Asplund) prepared
Swedish
for
contemporary
way
the
architecture...
solutions set
architecture."
The
simplicity
the standard for
(G.H. Smith, 1945)
of
Asplund's
Swedish
modern
And Gregor Paulsson again:
"Time after time he (Asplund) emphasized the
necessity of creating an environment in which
man
takes
his
rightful
place,
and
never
is for humanity that one
forgetting that it
builds."
(Gregor Paulsson, 1947).
About
the
symbolic and
of Asplund's work,
psychological
dimension
Alvar Aalto wrote in 1940:
"The motif s
of a large
proportion of our
conventional architecture still are fragments of
Another architecture has arrived
a bygone era.
which builds for nan and essentially regards
people as a social phenomenon, while at the same
time taking science and research as the point of
a
newer
that,
beyond
But
departure.
architecture has made its appearance, one that
continues to employ the tools of the social
sciences,
but
also includes
the
study
of
in
psychological problems--'the unknown human'
his totality.
The latter has proved that the
have
to
continues
architecture
of
art
inexhaustible resources and means which flow
inexplicable
the
and
nature
from
directly
reactions of human emotions.
Within this latter
architecture, Asplund has his place."
S. MARKELIUS
Along with Gregor Paulsson and Gunnar Asplund,
architect
must be
mentioned:
the
of
supporter
and
another
exhibition
(1889-1972).
Sven Markelius
A
representative of the Swedish Rationalism, Markelius
occupied an important position in Swedish culture
from
the
Moderne
Conference
his
confirms
d'Architecture
Internationale
crucial
architecture,
His participation
and planning.
industrial 'design,
in
in
1970s
the
until
1920s
the
role
in
international
culture. .
"The attention given to the factual problems of
working and communitarian living,
inhabiting,
the interest in the virtuality (figurative and
technological
to
inherent
constructive)
development, the effort to define signs for a
simple and immediate reading, the refusal to
accept stereotyped solutions and instead to act
that released him from
on logical criteria
qualifies
this
principles--all
authoritarian
Markelius as an exponent of the Masters of
He represents its ideals and
Modern Movement.
most Swedish architects and
than
programs more
the nost ideologically and
among
be
proved to
(Stefano Ray, 1969)
consistent.
figuratively
However,
his
did not
stature
depend
solely on
to the principles of the Modern Movement,
but also on his capability to insert aesthetic and
Swedish
traditional
into
elements
social
adhering
architecture,
using a rational and empiric approach
at the same time.
In
his
constructions
moving
Sweden
and
writings
during
the
towards
1930s,
his
architectural
Markelius
modernization,
at
helped
the
same
time responding to social concerns determined by the
new political situation.
"The new architecture which dring the twenties
broke with a petrified traditionalism was not
just a playing with new shapes, not just a
It
weariness with the old and accustomed forms.
social
new
a
and
technology
had accepted a new
taking aesthetically and humanly the
outlook,
consequences of a revolutionary new situation.
mind:
in
this
keep
to
important
It is
in
Aesthetically,
aesthetically and humanly.
and
form
attacking the existing conflict between
content, between form and function, between form
Humanly, through its earnest aim
and technique.
to put architecture in the service of man, of
(S.
well-being."
and
comfort
health,
his
Markelius, 1964).
In
the valuable
to
addition
proposed
solutions
his work reveals a crucial
in his projects,
concern
interior and exterior aspects,
for a building's
structure
urban
and
relation
to
buildings,
and its impacts on inhabitants'
preexisting
an
organic
for
enthusiasm
of
growth
nodern
life
city.
the
and nodern
(See the CBD
life.
In planning and architecture, his concern was to
preserve a relationship between old and new,
create
its
Plan,
to
His
architecture
was expressed in the "contrast" between old and new
But respect was important too, and to
buildings.
respect the physical environment meant "to determine
the opportune size, scale, volume and color of a
building."
About
(from "Acceptera,"
the revised
1930)
plan for the CBD in
1962,
he
said:
"Prosperity and human welfare always present a
The architectural
problem in a new environment.
is, in a
buildings
and
quality of streets
environment
this
for
certain sense, decisive
although, in the end, it is only the shell for
life."
relationship
Man's
concern
for
with
psychological
the
needs
environment
and
been
the
have
principles of Neo-Empiricism also, with the goal of
However, New Empiricism
"humanizing" architecture.
easily fell
into
the trap of detaching
itself from
p-113
reality
Markelius
in hopes
instead
of
achieving
always
throughout his entire career,
acted
a
better
inside
world.
reality,
and this accounts for
the success of his long professional life.
Figure 5
HDUSING IN THE
The one-family houses that characterized
Stockholm and its outer suburbs,
other
during
towns
several
the
One
reasons.
same
was
EXHIBITION
as well as
own
to
desire
the
for
developed
period,
a
space--a piece of land and a house--that represented
a
kingdom or
personal
Another
territory.
was the
wish to move out of the city towards the air,
and green
so basic
to Rationalist
ideology.
sun,
There
also was the conviction that children would grow up
healthier and happier
in a apartment
these
ideas,
in a country environment than
in the middle of the
a freestanding
garden was still
cottage
city.
Besides
surrounded by a
the "Swedish dream."
INNC HALLANOC
BONTAD
e-e-
-.
r(AD
MOT
TRC
re o
OC
:-----e--_-
adOE R
FA4-
MO
ObTEM.
Figure
K 01
The Stockholm Exhibition devoted one section to
ONE FAMILY
HOUSES
new types of one-family houses that were consistent
whole exhibit
of the
the economic orientation
with
and that were functionally and aesthetically as nice
as a single villa.
"Now the dark, dirt and ugliness should be swept
away, light, air and green should be created in
housing areas worthy of people that deal with
the social responsibility of the architects."
(Gotthard Johansson and Gustaf Nastrom, 1930).
The housing section of the exhibition was one of
the
nost
and
the
that
at
users
the architects,
for the people,
important
were
ideas
New
time.
stimulated by a competition to develop architectural
See Figures 7,
Such solutions included different
solutions.
8, 9, 10
accommodations for families of two to families of
$2075.
to
annual
with
six-seven,
Swedish
due
in
the
interest
family and also
these
could
rouse
die to the fact
that
Economy
proximity
and
central
element
became
smaller
of
the
and
the
garden
with
small
separate
care
orientation,
neighbors,
parcels.
of
the
instead
of
built
a bigger
so they could share
on the property line,
in
diminish
The houses were often
having
Privacy was approached
openings,
a
a
land
of
Parcels
to
the
were
neighbors
project.
narrower
costs.
infrastructure
to
they
in
were accommodations more easily reproduced
exhibition than big blocks of flats.
taking
to
Most examples were single-family houses,
greater
the
from $415
incomes ranging
two
by
compatible
and design of the garden.
A new and interesting proposal was "row houses,"
although these did not appeal to the Swedes'
idea of
houses
had
the
requirement
and
a
row
land
cost.
They
the
between
transitional
the open
city and
environment of the
densely-built
smaller
construction
considered
be
could
of -a
advantages
lower
terms,
in economic
Nevertheless,
the single house.
garden suburbs.
meters
8.5
and
the
exhibition
were
wide
and
could
well
at
shown
examples
The
between
7.5
compete
with single houses.
Space saving was in 'any
event a constant in all the proposals, in the design
of the house as well as in the equipment and
to
reduced
plans,
be
of good
in the direction
proportions and the right treatment of materials,
by a
as
well
Studio,
(The
color."
longer
a
bigger
bedrooms
were
but allowed privacy to family members.
The
kitchen,
too,
there
was
The
but
smaller
was
as
furnished,
need
no
practically
very
of
luxurious
(The same holds true for the bathroom.)
displays.
there was more space
storage
and
to
in the basement used
same
time
the house from the ground.
The
service
serving to insulate
attention
but
halls,
added.
was
area
living-eating
Sometimes
or
rooms
entrance
smaller,
There were no
and a sleeping area.
day-living area
a
inside:
functions
to
according
structured
The houses
techniques.
construction
and
the plans
for
use of
as
The new approach affected also the layout of
1930).
were
clever
to
"aesthetic
and
interior,
gained
(was)
satisfaction
the
of
function
a
was considered
The exterior
they had to serve.
functions
the
for
designed
and
designed,
carefully
very
were
surface,
minimum
the
The
eliminated.
was
decoration
Any
furnishings.
lighting
rooms,
at
the
determined the large
the windows and the use of a
terrace,
size of
often coming
Fue
-tvons
W
Iuga
toll
r-
!Cl s
/ordagsrum
5
1A
10
0 ; -?
3
7
vIc.
6 trchl
.jonvsov,
Figure 8
0
0
2
Vi,7u
=t7
ckrFi.
von
5.rCOVe1v0
Figure
10
c
was
Furnishing
room.
living
the
into
but
simple,
designed with great attention to functionality,
was
and colors.
cost, materials,
Central
gas,
water,
in
of . a
idea
necessary at that time,
of
case
was
garage
central
economic
lines offered
the
of
distribution
central
electricity
and
especially
solutions,
The
a
heating,
houses.
row
considerpd
not
although this lack was later
complained about.
building
and
costs
with
construction
There were
dwellings.
smaller
houses
Pre-built
techniques.
for
were one answer
dealt
also
exhibition
The
pre-built components which were assembled for bigger
and
buildings,
proposed
was
site
whole
a
for
of
town
planned by the
project
small-housing
part
that were
units
the
on
prefabrication
system of
a
of
Stockholm.
The
interest
raised
by
this
of
section
the
exhibit is attributable to the fact that it directly
confronted actual problems and made proposals meant
to
provoke
both
discussion
about
and
architecturally
exhibition
succeeded
practice
in
making
theory,
and
politically.
people
The
concerned
about these problems and suggested new solutions.
The substance of the exhibition was in fact
underlying emphasis on research,
the
and the message was
a proposal to continue with it.
"Our old ways of building towns and homes need
Town plans must give more air
to be renewed.
increasing
the
for
more space
light,
and
satisfied
not
are
Most of the people
traffic.
the
towards
kitchen
a
and
room
one
with
comfortable
so
backyard--even if it always seems
and aesthetically pleasant from the outside.
They think that in any circumstances it is dumb
a
to live in one room and a kitchen when it's
family of 5 persons; and no aesthetics in the
world can hide the fact that, for the moment,
necessary to try to give the Swedish town
it's
population the kind of dwellings where children
(Swen Wallander,
can be born and educated."
1930).
The sociAl and economic attitudes that affected
the
of
programming
the
and
ar ch ite ctur e
the
APARTMENTS
exhibition determined the large extension of the
and
the
where
and
construction
and
functions
forms
new
for
12, 13, 14
This is found both in the
multi-family section.
research
See Figures 11,
goal
social
new
a
style,
are
in
direct
is
to
create
where
relation
a
higher
standard of housing.
"The new shapes in architecture denoted a style
of liberty, their social function was to express
class
to
remove
being
idea
the
equality;
contrasts and differences where the community's
outward appearance was concerned, and to raise
the standard of the surroundings in which the
lived."
of the population
strata
neglected
(Gregor Paulsson, 1947).
to
Due
space
due
and
environment,
to
housing and living
need for
Stockholm's
their
ideals
for
a
healthy
aesthetics played a role of very little
importance.
Stockholm
The
Exhibition
had
merit
the
of
considering and facing actual probelms without being
constrained by a rigid style or being influenced by
economic
aimed
at
announcing
pressure.
providing
problems
was
not
This
housing
section
any
solution,
but
rather
to
everybody
and
presenting
at
possible alternatives.
The
research
background
of
those
housing
proposals considered the optimal building density in
exploitation,
space
open
urbanization
costs,
buildings,
space,
built
versus
The
and lighting.
orientation,
a model
in the exhibition
to present
then
idea was
the
of
flexibility
dimensions,
ground
to hygienic needs,
respect
town plan with
a
of an apartment block located in a real ordered town
this.
also concerned the optimal
Research
of
area
as
kitchen,
minimal
elimination
the
study;
system,
of
organization
the
as.
well
various
interior
See p. 75
The kitchen was an
design for rental apartments.
important
permit
did not
limitations
economic
However,
plan.
the
garbage
best
kinds of refrigerators,
and other technical questions were all addressed.
On
never considered,
of
hand,
the other
connecting
building
the
apartments
were
size,
and so on.
waste
of
space
corridors,
prices
the
the
cost
of
the
In reaction,
in
houses
critics
where
the
were arranged at the sides of a corridor
instead
of
wincbws
that
increased
and
staircases
industry,
denounced
economic factors
such as the cost of different ways
building
to
according-
other
around
meant
building
the
staircases,
more
expenses
costs
of
for
overly
heating,
apartments
large
the
subdivided
into many rooms.
some new positive
we want to extract
"If
principles for small apartment design from this
they would be,
of
the exhibition,
section
a desirable
To
obtain
briefly, the following:
the
apartments,
quality in the limited space of
and
as many
such as a larger common living room
bedrooms as possible, to reduce the kitchen to
dark
the
to abolish
minimum possible,
the
entrance room, and to reduce the size of the
with
consistent
minimum
the
to
wardrcbe
function.
Bathrooms
must
be
in
all
the
Our
apartments, even if these have to be small.
way of living has changed and technical
possibilities for ventilation and equipment of
the kitchen have developed so much that our
into
brought
be
to
have
plans
apartment
(Swen Wallander, 1930).
conformity with these."
order
in
continued
to
valid
and
optimum
an
find
be
would
reserach
the
that
was
hope
The
housing design.
"The theory of quality has progressed, and a
wonderful functional facade with windows in the
most unexpected places cbes not guarantee that
behind--without genius and good taste--the much
discussed understanding of practical things even
(Swen Wallander, 1930).
exists."
The tradition of the single house together with
the probable influence of modern architecture
rest
of
might
Europe
even
apartments were designed on two levels,
many
that
fact
the
explain
in the
in
the
case of multi-family economic blocks of flats.
The
same
time
allowing
limiting
of
intention
it
to
serve
caused
rooms
subdivided
functional.
the
role
well-lit
separate,
completely
The
large
they played
environment,
heating costs.
in
not
minimal,
were
health
by
kitchen
only
windows
any
and
living
but without
zones,
The
functions
large
to design
different
separation.
built-in
always
into
the
important
the most
the architects
often
any
and at
space
and
was
very
determined
in
creating
consideration
by
a
of
Figure 11
I11
|
~-,.
.. 4,
Figure 12
0
0
I
2
3
~
Figure 13
0
0
I
2
3
4
5
0
dA
wvla 6-
&5
10
0
i
[ -]0'odog
i
urn
I
1
i
4
) 7V
L
l
i
5
Li
I]
F71
iiliot
1
I
~1-
f~7
C'
3-
-V
3
IA
p
3-
LA
I' ~
-r
Up
I
"If an exhibition provided the occasion when a
nation bloomed, as rarely as aloes bloom, the
Toment in which a country showed what it had
achieved, then the promise of what could be
The
achieved in the future was even greater.
exhibition was formulated in human optimism,
internationalism, eternal
faith in the future,
peace, democracy and all people ommonality, and
It was a question not
faith in collectivism.
(I.Lo.
only of an exhibition, but of a credo."
Johansson, 1979).
The
controversial
total
to
reaction
exhibition
was
ranging
expectations,
as
from
a
by the nore conservative spectators
rejection
to enthusiasm
the
as
the
and
full approval by
those who were
more open to new ideas and interested in the further
development
of
modern
and
architecture
the
acceptance of the machine aesthetic.
the
"Sweden has accepted the aesthetic of
machine with all its corollaries as both right
modern
our
leading
as
inevitable;
and
civilization straight forward by the shortest
path, instead of bringing it back to its point
of departure.. .Sweden has.. .the ideal mental
equipment for gauging both the potentials and
the limitations of the nachine, and the machine
aesthetic, to a degree that no other country can
claim...Sweden intends to succeed where Great
Britain, the United States, Germany, Holland,
in their different
failed
have
and France
For the 1930 Stockholm Exhibition has
way....
at least taught us that the future of the
machine as an integral organ of modern culture
is assured and that its technical perfection as
(P.M.
an art form is only a matter of time."
Shaud, 1930)
The successful
design,
integration of social factors, modern
mass production,
and
art
was
the
greatest
triumph of the Stockholm Exhibition.
"We are apt to look upon mass production as an
At one glance the
abortion of the 20th century.
this
dispel
quickly
will
exhibition
impression....
The Swedes are definitely
REACTIONS TO
THE EXHIBITION
adapting themselves to modern ideas, and have
created not only dwellings but equipment...all
peculiarly modern, yet at a reasonable price,
and though the articles are mass products, they
and
at
look
to
pleasing
nevertheless
are
(Sir Harold Wernher,
delightful to live with."
1930).
Its
popularity,
especially
was due to 'the fact that it
among
non-expert
people
answered their questions
and it dealt with their "real" needs.
"The present exhibition is significant in that
more concerned with the provision of
is
it
soundly designed equipment for the public at
of expensive
in the production
than
large
on
concentration
The
craftsmanship...
fundamental qualities of material and form is
apparent, whether of buildings or small objects."
scolded and
insulted,
was
"The exhibition
ideas were
Here
exalted as no other had been.
presented about housing and planning that would
the
in
activity
building
the
characterize
country for future decades.
And Stockholmers amused themselves...it was
almost like visiting the continent, to take the
(I. Lo. Johansson,
trolley to the exhibit."
1979).
Figure 15
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1
in
The development and diffusion of Rationalism
Sweden coincided with the movement towards Social
A new land policy and a new housing policy
Democracy.
were the prerequisites for developing new housing
types able to satisfy demand during a period of high
housing shortage.
The
of
1930
of Rationalism
of Sweden into
and
the
among
the
Stockholm Exhibition
was the greatest expression
marked the official entrance
international cultural debate.
Markelius were
G. Asplund and S.
featured architects of the exhibition.
The need for expansion of Stockholm in the 1930s
by
espoused
ideals
environmental
the
fit
Rationalism. The proposal of "air, sun, and green"
THE STOCKIOI
EXHIBITION OF
1930
HOUSING
elements of a housing area placed
as essential
the
Meanwhile,
suburbs.
the
on
attention
ready
municipality was
before.
years
purchased
The
exhibition
to
proposed
develop
small
those
detached
areas
houses,
The common matrix was
row houses, and apartments.
and cost, strictly
space
of
composed of economy
This
specific activity.
serve a
designed to
simple
included optimal lighting, no decoration, and
using
often
construction,
of
techniques
prefabricated components.
Housing
technical,
and
planning
functional,
were
economic,
considered
from
a
and social point of
view.
The exhibition was controversial and brought a
measure of notoriety to Sweden, which was seen as
organ of modern
an
machine as
the
accepting
The exhibition encouraged complementarity
culture.
and mass
between social factors, modern design,
production.
REACT IONS
CHAPTER 2
Suk
Er ej
till
Stockhal
B0STA
21.000 SiKER FORGAVES
s tockholm
in the 1930's
STOCKHOLM IN 1930
The exhibition represented a manifesto of new
the
at
while
thought,
architectural
INTRODUCTION
time
same
offering a context where theory could be realized in
in
political
new
architecture,
and social
will
how
show
the
influenced
the
period
the
in
activities
clients,
the
following
of
planning
and
the
exhibition
the
exhibition
planners,
and
municipal
authorities,
owners,
the
supported
that
architects
private
the
determining
housing
message
in
inspired a
that
designers,
and
associations,
conditions
Analyzing
proposals.
in
and
outside
1930,
is helpful
This
conditions
the physical
determining
to
necessary
first
exhibit.
the
of
gates
change
exhibition's
the reality of Stockholm in
appreciate
the
is
it
however,
importance,
the
realize
To
form.
actual
cooperative
users
the
and
The housing policy of Stockholm before
themselves.
and after
1930
understand
the
must
also be
political
to
considered,
-:ntext that
better
the
allowed
unique realization of those architectural ideas.
Democracy,
HOUSING POLICY
Reformism, and Planning are generally
BEFORE 1930
viewed as recurring simultaneously with the
development
have
influenced
consequence,
last
of modern Sweden.
three
the
political,
architectural
centuries.
These three elements
social,
and,
history of Sweden
This was partly
due
as
a
in the
to
the
Figure 16
The Medieval
street net on
the oldest map
from circa 1620
importance of the agricultural class and its role in
combined with the Illuminism
to take power directly,
of
period.
that
Swedish
the
to
essential
equilibrium
an
reached
society
in
countries
European
other
characterized
that
upheaval
social
and
cultural
the
avoid
to
Sweden
allowed
reformers,
the
this class's refusal
At the same time,
bureaucracy.
the
of
decisions
the
controlling
and
influencing
development of a prosperous and modern Sweden.
been
already
had
regulations
Planning
Figure 16
established in Stockholm in the 17th century,
mandating
18th
the
which
century,
in
subdivisions.
by
Illuminist
Also
provided
in
by
In
a Constitution,
adopted
Europe.
was
housing
in
lots
of
Sweden
inspired
was
circulating
cheap
layout
the
the
then
theories
century,
18th
onwers
factory
to
thier workers.
THE INDUSTRIAL
Industrial development occurred during the
second half of the 19th century, and with it began
DEVELOPMENT
a migration from the countryside toward Stockholm.
From
This increased the demand for cheap dwellings.
Figure 17
1860
Stockholm
old
increased
town
the population
end of the century,
to the
were
houses
In response,
threefold.
almost
subdivided
of
smaller
into
apartments,
and new single houses were built in the
outskirts
of
philantrhopic
authorities)
the
town.
institutions
encouraged
Private
organizations.
Both
employers
(supported
by
problem of providing accommodations
also
public
housing
community-owned
speculators
and
faced
for workers.
the
A
Figure 18
characteristic pattern of the blocks built during
this
period
was
the
formation
of
a first
row
of
Th.~
Sto Co
-a 18--0
I
Figure 17
The development
of Stockholm
during the 19th
century
Stoccolma 1.897
46
Stockholm
Birkastaden. This part of the city was developed around the turn of the
century. The number of inhabitants is today about 6000. The boundaries.
of the area are fairly clearly defined and it is largely self-sufficient as far
as service amenities are concerned.
Figure 18
Characteristic
blocks developed
around the turn
of the century
typical of the
filling up of
the courtyards
Figure 19
Old photo from
1904
which
the
inside
phenomenon
This
block.
continued
until
See p. 52
the courtyards.
longer permitted additions in
first
the
1880
land
of
a
created
new
the
and
guilds
of
was
government
farmers'
abolition
The
established.
subdivision
space
when new planning regulations no
after the war,
In
the
in
as possible
houses
back
built as many
land owners
to maximize profits,
when,
20th century
The
apartments.
the beginning of the
further filled up in
courtyards
courtyard,
the
in
poorer and smaller
contained
facades;
decorated
houses
rows of cheaper
then other
with
street,
the
of
had
often
that
apartments
nice
direction
the
following
houses
agrarian
new
organization more favorable to the farmers.
population during the last decades
The growth in
of the 18th century also created a need for a new,
policy.
land
active
in
established
1903
and acquiring
buildings,
and
clearance
work
Finance
Commission
planning
established
1915
in
in
with
Stockholm
apartments,
streets
and
more
roomy
land for
then
implementation
1906,
to
loans
had
the
program.
The
1907
in
Committee
with
the
socialized
land
guaranteed
conditions.
were
one
building
leasehold
by
funds
leasehold
the
city.
thousand
but the poorest people were still
overcrowded
land
for
inspections
finance
built
with
concurrently
of
the
combined
Holding
Agricultural
and
expanding
responsible
housing
Official
established
projects,
older
implementation
and
policy.
the
holdings
rural
with
dealt
of
was
was
the
while
purchases,
the
layout
new
housing
Social
town.
wider
with
neighborhoods
were
the
replanning
were:
addressed
issues it
and the main
COMMITTEE
was
Committee
Housing
The
These activities
or
THE HOUSING
By
more
living
receded
in
provided
subsidies,
and credits.
loans,
of
kinds
different
government
the
and
city
the
crisis,
housing
the
help overcome
to
However,
impossible.
became
policy
housing
any progress
and
1914,
crisis of
the worldwide
with
THE
Stockholm's own housing program began then in
in
was
Although
issued
for
moves
preventive
was
situation
housing
the
city,
the
the
of
town as well as
issued
act,
1923 when the rent control
in
aggravated
law.)
by
by
taken
were
the
an eight-hour workday
1920
(In
families.
mandated
Commission,
smallapartments
for building permanent blocks of
low-income
the
and funds were
expansion,
outward
the new
with
the center of the
in
housing policy,
to
foundation
the
became
policy
land
city's
Estate
Real
the
of
establishment
vote
1919,
In
included.]
women
everybody,
to
right
the
extended
Figure 20
[In 1918 the new
of temporary wooden houses.
Constitution
COMMITTEE
initiative'was the construction
1917; and the first
iOUSING
in 1917, was rescinded.
In
municipal
1924,
to support
activity and started
of
Two
initiatives.
B5stader)
Kooperativa
the
support
Before
end of
the
subsidization
apartment
building
and
cooperative
building
SKB
(Svenska
decided
owner-occupied
municipal
1920s,
resolution."
(Hyresgesternas
also
they
of
the
HSB
the
promulgated,
were
block
the
building
were
these
1926
In
Sparkassebyra).
ceased
authorities
favoring
By
the
to
houses.
credits
and
the
"cheap
early
1930s
over 5000 small flats had been built.
1930
In 1930 the population of Stockholm passed the
1/2
million
the Housing
then,
mark.
By
Estate
Committee
the
responsibility
of
also involved property
Temporary
Housing 1923
Figure 20
HSB was linked
to the union
movement
administration and the manner in which it was used.
"It was principally a question of planning for
the future, with due consideration for those
demands that continued to arise as the city
(Torste Ljnberger, 1969)
grew."
Rationalism's new concepts about requirements for an
stimulating
renovation
the
plans
Redevelopment
town.
clean
to
1930s
where urban
of
also had the effect
housing standard
acceptable
in the
areas
old
of
in
designed
were
especially
unhealthy neighborhoods,
tissue had developed with
the
front houses
facing the street and "Gardshus" (courtyard houses)
these latter were
inside;
which filled up the space
Figure 18, p. 47
usually of poorer construction.
The new plans totally revised the town block by
block, proposing to eliminate and eventually replace
with
buildings
unhealthy
buildings, between wider streets,
having green areas
only a few small pieces of
However,
in the middle.
deeper
and
taller
the plans were ever realized:
a few new houses were
built, some corner buildings were replaced to profit
from more advantageous building rights, and a few
old
houses
renewed.
were
untouched
(or
only
cleaned
especially
when
rent
controls
on
remained
many
But
the
facades),
and building
vetoes
lowered or negated the possibility of profit to the
owners.
authorities
municipal
private
however,
situation,
This
not
taught
to expect
the
Stockholm
too much
from
enterprise and to pursue housing policy for
the production of new cheap blocks of
flats
and to
pursue the land policy undertaken by the Real Estate
Commission
beginning
in
housing,
land purchases,
became
municipal
1919.
Community-supported
and property administration
activities
and
allowed
more
Figures 21, 22,
23
P40COM4
Figure 21
Renewal proposals
V.k
egageo%
n.
0
eves
Figure 22
Renewal plan
In
city
the
limited
they
action
their
to
mostly
such as opening
construction
providing
or
streets
Rationalism.
of
to the public benefit,
buying space
new
the new principles
with
consistent
more
was
that
planning
planning,
effective
services.
Immediately outside the city, on the other hand,
the
authorities
the
opportunity
to
municipal
gave
land
of
purchasing
apply
the
new
theories
to
entire
multifamily housing projects.
The
most
significant
from
industries
from
the
land
(especially
Crown
were
made
the
town,
moving out of
were
that
purchases
in
the
more
central
areas)
and from private owners at the edges of the
town.
Part
of
green
space
and
housing
land
was
was
to
part
projects.
By
suburbs
and
preserved
used
1930s
the
hectares
in
as
larger
for
municipal
land
in
center
of
of
hectares
11,000
3400
to be
be
the
had bought
authorities
the
this
the
Figures 23,
By improving and extending public
Stockholm.
transportation
towards
the suburbs,
of
development
continuous
new
they
pursued
in
areas,
a
to
order
satisfy increasing demands.
In
a
20-year
planned
authorities
parts
in the
suburbs.
maximum of
in
The
air,
municipal
more
the
in
flats
flats were also planned
At
doctrine.
a
houses per year.
with regard
were more appealing
and green,
this
time
to the
German
and cooperative housing was being
(the exhibitions
Berlin,
up to
to provide
where living conditions
influence on mass
later,
idea was
blocks of rental
Functionalist
felt
of
program,
1500 flats and 500-600
the suburbs,
to sun,
blocks
site
of the sity and single-family houses
central
Later on,
building
and
of Stuttgart,
the
new
Frankfurt,
developments
of
and
these
27
Figure 23
The development
of Stockholm
from 1930 tO
1946
housing
solving
more
planning,
(the
construction
the lamellas
in
houses
house
proposed by Uno Ahren .to
(in
high)
12 stories
form,
narrow
(long,
"lamellhus"
A new typology,
example).
clear
a
is
kitchen"
"Frankfurt
cheaper
and
design,
rational
efficient
more
through
problems
with
concerned
was
research
German
towns).
same
was
the same population
conditions) as currently lived
better hygienical
in densely-built areas.
square quarters to
The movement from the closed,
were
types:
two
of
essentially
"tjockhus" (fat house) and "smalhus"
(narrow
characteristic
common
to both
plans
good,
small,
house).
allow
The
different
for
flats.
In the "tjockhus,"
around
the
that
orientation
a
square
was
to
economic
the
plan;
in sunlight
permitted
best
Figure 25
four small flats were set
on
staircase
Figures 21, 23
These
presented in the report "Acceptera" in 1931.
"lamellhus"
was
"lamellhus"
parallel
linearly
open,
the
was
North-South.
The "smalhus"
flats
were even
To
staircase.
per
circulation
and
lighting,
between the two facades.
smaller,
ensure
the
with only two
the
flats
best
were
air
placed
The planner Axel Dohlberg
Figure 26
was considered the creator of the "smalhus" areas.
iw
Figure 24
j/A
/
-1W
16M
_
kV
EL
Figure 25
"Smalhus" and
"tjockhus"
plans
The planner
Axel Dohlberg
considered
the creator of
the "smalhus"
NIL
Figure 26
"Smalh us" in
Hammarbyh6lden"
plans
N.
I
)
(UNGSNOL
MEN
DJuRGIROE
N
Figure 27
-'
~vi~lcl r#eCV
1\
-I
,-
N
)
"N
N
=-
,3A"~H440-9124
soom 0
1
21
HOUSING ACTIVITY
The first "lamellhus" type plan in Stockholm
greatest
of
period
the
but
1929,
to
back
dates
At
construction activity was between 1934 and 1946.
the beginning construction was mostly undertaken by
private
enterprise;
mostly
by
cooperatives
building
carried
out
or
by
town
the
"sialhus"
it
was
only later
authorities.
in
active
most
architects
The
Backstr6m and
projects of that period were Ahlberg,
projects are his) , and a few others .
the
Although
they
they all adhered
planning principles,
had different
of
percent
(30
Engstrom
Engqvist,
Reinus,
to Rationalism's theories regarding housing design.
At
dealt
plans
the
first
the
only
with
residence; later they also included services, social
is
example
(one
places
work
and
centers,
Unlike
modern
around
a
center;
car
the
and
L.M.
areas
were
were
services
traffic
Erikson).
not
built
mixed
with
separated
not
was
streets.
cycling
or
pedestrian
from
these
towns,
single
dwellings;
for
development
Midsommarkransen,
for
Respect
nature and a scarcity of economic resources dictated
that the landscape surrounding the house remain
rather
ground and vegetation,
economic
environment;
Figure 28
The nature and norphology of the
nearly untouched.
or
SITE PLANNING
interests,
this
gave
than abstract schemes
different
surrounding
the
determined
zones
different
character.
The
shapes,
never
were
houses
built
groups
in
However,
and materials.
colors,
identical;
with
varied
the grouping
similar
they were
according
to
landscape and to the period in which they were
built. The first areas were characterized by houses
that
followed
the
direction
of
the
street,
often
Figure 28
-
-
*-
-.
-
-
*
vr
r-
-
.:.
so5050
~
54
~.1m~m~
4~u~-~-Grouping
--
of
the houses
varied according
to the lands cape
o
O~"
'O~r~
~
'1and
lS~.-
&rc~wper
to the
iod
une touses
The landscape
r ema ins near ly
uuc
the early development of farmyards
repeating
though
more independent of the street but
the plans became
having more space
at the same time more geometrical,
the
to
importance
the
among
space
the open
they
1940s
late
the
in
Again
street.
attributed
(1937-1945)
Later
into villages on a larger scale.
to
as
the houses,
among
an enclosed space
ending with
houses and returned to the yard-enclosing type,
also
putting the entrances on the yard side.
THE APAR'IMENTS
The apartments were small but well proportioned
one
of
consisted
Thirty
functions.
intended
their
for
plus
rooms
two
or
percent
kitchen
and
Figure 29
bathroom; all of the rooms had much light; the
was
kitchen
least
on
disposal
the
central
staircases,
common rooms for washing
central
flat,
per
bathroom
one
and drying
at
was
there
and
equipped;
modernly
garbage
heating,
located
and
in the
cellars.
THE PEOPLE
An old couple describes their experience of the
area in the first period in the following way:
certainly, it was very nice to
'Yes,
"The man:
arrive from the town, it was really humid where
we lived before. The one that we moved into was
Outside there were
the last house in Hammarby.
It was
large deep woods; there were elks here.
And
like living in the real, pure countryside.
one only had to put on skis and to go out in the
woods.'
''When
we came here and saw the
"The wife:
it was a real castle
thought
we
apartment,
And I thought:
apartment.
old
our
to
compared
What shall I put in all these cupboards?'"
(S.A.F., 1978)
houses
The
lower-income
those
who
apartment
built
were
employees
had
were
the
of
first
young
nostly
the
same
priority
couples
with
for
workers
social
in
or
level:
renting
children
an
(or
(1R),1Rkv,(lRk) 20-25m 2
IR k m
ca 35-50m
IRK
ca 35-40 m 2
2R k
ca 40-45 m 2
2
Figure 29
'Type plans of
"smalhus"
apartments
Lljj
Percent of types
in the area
ca 45-55 m2
2.RK
2Rkm
ca5-60
surveyed by
m2S
SAF
(3 Rk)
4Rk
R=
och stdrre
rum
kv= kokvr6
Rkm
k =kdk utan.matptats
K=kdk med matplats
ca 65-85 m 2
m=matrum
them) ;
expecting
more
or
three
had
who
those
children were given the opportunity to move into the
apartments
in children)
(house rich
"barnrikehus,"
persons
the
of
One
available.
were
where bigger
interviewed describes it in this way:
"All those who moved in here were relatively
And when we came here to Hammarbyhojden we
young.
didn't see any children, but after one or two years
it was full (of them) . I had the feeling that all
the families who moved in here were expecting
(S.A.F., 1978).
children!"
With
the
with
economic
of
and
difficulty
transportation,
public
of
expansion
interaction
social
of
lessening
the
was
areas
these
Figure 30
the
very
beneficial to the inhabitants.
was mostly mothers and children in these
"It
But through all, small shops
areas on weekdays.
and in every
and handicraft workshops grew,
house dhildren lived in a youthful, varied
The isolation of women working at
environment.
home diminshed... .adult men had their work-pace
Children and women especially
in the area....
were in touch with a wide circle of people in
This, of course,
the area, besides neighbors.
social
the
for
meaning
great
a
held
and
of
anonymity
Feelings
environment.
1978)
(S.A.F.,
dissipated."
were
loneliness
with
Problems
These
problems
these
were
areas
positive at the beginning.
them;
15-20
but
because
positive.
the
suited
in a physical envionment
dominated by teenagers.
always
When people moved in in
seemed nice to have only young families and
it
then small children
to
the
a homogeneity that had seemed to be so
inhabitants,
fact,
only later.
the homogeneity of
to
due
appeared
The
"children"
years
later
This concentration
problem
have
is
gone
even
and
was
area
the
was not
worse
now,
only
elderly grandparents remain (in 1975 15 percent of
the inhabitants were over 60 years old).
the
Figure 30
...
I
urn
mmii
- -
-
bathroom)
and
kitchen
room plus
of one
apartments
(with
multifamily house
a "lamella"
reality:
into
translated
soon
were
proposals
Rationalism
The
and one-storey row houses were designed and built in
Between 1930
1930 by E. Sundhal and 0. Thunstrdm.
a large housing area was constructed with
and 1931,
but this was
apartments were only 40 square neters,
alcove),
entrance,
and a toilet.
HSB
In 1923,
applying
projects,
housing
built
the
new
of
built
a
functions:
different
living
healthy
design
for
a
hygienic,
1932,
and
The
housing
underlying
philosophy again concerned hygiene and economy,
an
overall
objective
could be applied
suburbs.
to future
creating
projects
standards
with
that
in Stockholm's
The standard space required was between 35
and 60 square meters.
submitted
of
an
by the City of
planning
district.
Arsta
the
held
spaces
sitting
In
site
sitting,
sleeping,
environment.
was
several
for
create
develop
to
Stockholm
used
sit-up
small,
to
competition
architectural
be
eating,
intentions
earlier
reflect
to
and the outside
The balconies
wtc.
bath
can
rooms
The
bathtubs.
limited to
the kitchen is
the
and
area
cooking
in
an economy
Stockholm in 1930-32 (Skinnarviksberget),
of space is very evident:
of
building
project
housing
the
In
standardization.
the
multifamily
concepts
systems
introducing
and,
rationalism
to
an
and
Savings
Tenants'
of
started
Societies,
Building
area,
(Hyresgssternas Sparkassebryi),
Association
National
a
(with
eating
an
kitchen,
a
sleeping
room
living
a
contain
to
enough
large
The
Markelius.
Sven
by
designed
"smalhus"
all
for
the
Figure 32
Many of the projects
competition
proposed
two-storey
.., 4.
1-
gil!:-F%
4
rr
'la
r r
Figure 31
"Smalhus "
s
cIb
a
Figure 32
Terrace houses
proposed at the
Arsta competition.. .years
later built
a cheaper
as
presented
private)
less
was
house
of
type
new
This
houses.
terrace
(but no less comfortable
or
homes
of
private
the
to
alternative
the garden cities of 19th century romanticism and as
a
The terrace houses were
anonymous block apartments.
with only brick
to be of simple wooden construction,
The cost was estimated to
and cable systems.
pipes
collective
and
entrance,
private
garden,
private
a
with
apartments,
different
separating
walls
the
than
dwelling
family
satisfactory
more
be between 140 and 167 kr. per square meter (in 1930
= $18.86 and $22.51).
The projects were never implemented,
Figures 32, 33
but the
34
ideas they proposed influenced later housing
The "smalhus" area of Hjorthagen was also
projects.
competition
the result of an architectural
1932
by
similar
the
City
to
those
and
the
rooms
with
a
of
three
rooms
with
a
flat of Hjorthagen
was presented
Having
a size of
contained a living room with
it
36.8 square meters,
were
two
or
"Standard 34."
an exhibition
sleeping alcove,
one
of
in
held
houses
"smalhus,"
earlier
consisting
A model
kitchen.
at
few
a
The
Stockholm.
consisted
apartments
kitchen,
of
Figure 35
and a
a kitchen with a dining area,
shower room.
In 1933-34, a survey called "Own Your Home" was
made by the Architect's
Forbundet
housing
(a cooperative
cooperatives
and
Office
composed
of
the
from the union of
consumers'
active in Stockholm since 1873).
Kooperativa
cooperatives,
The survey covered
485 private houses and dealt with financial,
and technical issues.
to
be
mistakes
implemented,
of
the
social,
The results were not intended
but
single
they
did
(private)
highlight
house
the
policy,
Figure 36
=%
i.. -i
Figure 33
Terrace houses
plans presented
at the Arsta
competition
Figure 34
Terrace houses
qKZ7okK
rZ
__ __
K
__
~
&vb
-
A "shallow housc" de:'elopment at the Stockholm suburb of
Hjorthagen. Site plan. Scale 1:4000. Architect: H-lakon
Ahlberg.
__(9
A77
Figure 35
Hjorthagen 1934
smalhus plans
K'. Iixclstrumncn. Hjorthagen. Arkitekt Hakon Ahlberg.
Street block. "Alternating Current" at Hjorthagen. Architect: Hakon Ahlberg.
K'. Ackumulatorn. Hjorthagcn. Arkitekt Hakon Ahlbcrg.
Street block "The Accumulator" at Hijorthagen. Architect: Hakon Ahlberg.
~Eigure
F
KF's "Own Your Home" investigation, 1934.
Plans of owner-occupied homes.
Figure 36
"Own your home"
investigation
1934
U's
"Own Your Home" investigation, 1934.
'.rteriors of owner-occupied homes, sketched
from photographs.
40.
30
20
lo---
T~~P
TT
~VV~
10
0
50
100
ISO
200
250'1920
KF's "Own Your Home" investigation, 1934.:
Percentages raised-accordingto 1934 values
-for the building o owner-occupied homes.
1925
1930
1934
KF's "Own Your Home" investigation, 1934,
showing percentages of rented apartments.
a
period
information
given
in
especially
The
of
difficulties.
econanic
in
the
influenced planning and design in
survey
clearly
the 1940s.
THE KITCHEN
If architecture reflects the context that
produced
it,
understood
that
in
regard
a
life,
turn
reflection
in
social
reflect
the
of
the
level,
to
the
accessibility,
determine
other
and
rooms
its
changes
and
of
in
the
social habits
interactions
The size of the kitchen,
family.
THE KITCHEN
the evolution of the kitchen can be
as
standard of
AN EXAMPLE OF
inside
the
its position with
the
furnishings
the number of people who will
house,
its
all
help
use
it,
the
that
and activities
will be used,
amount of time it
will and will not transpire there, and even the role
of women in the family and in the house.
Europe
and
Sweden
at
that
reforms
philantrhopic
The
in
landed
in
century
in
the
19th
turn of
the
century.
America
flourished
These
reforms
were mainly concerned with providing housing,
but at
the
the first studies were concerned with
the same time,
how a
dwelling
needs
of
the
the
over
reforms
These
the household.
debate
to
its responsiveness
works and
impacted on
women,
of
emancipation
the
especially during the period when women were gaining
the right to vote.
IN U.S.A.
In the United States several feminist movements
had
Such
women.
Greta Gray,
work
to
women
and
Beecher
addressed
and inciting
of
Frederik,
their
them possible
presenting
(and dwelling)
ways of living
subjugation
as Christine
writers
Catherine
women,
other
the
denouce
to
founded
been
new
them to
action.
Alternative
were
also
successful
housing
and
experimented
living
with.
in a practical sense,
accommodations
Although
not
their relevance lay
in the message they conveyed.
"Feminist visions of the nodel community are in
many ways very close to the ideals of the
Shakers, the Fourrierists, and the Oneidans, all
of whom hoped to improve the role of women by
communal
in
a
labor
domestic
lightening
(Dolores Hayden, 1976)
household."
In reality
their
with
dwellings,
standardized
"the new
did make
plans,
and functional
lines
simple
more
life
and home
drudgery
less
housework
But few envisioned the modern home as
healthy.
a way of liberating women to pusue meaningful
(S. Torre, 1977)
work outside the home."
A new concept of family life was presented in the
IN SWEDEN
in 1931:
report "Acceptera"
The
"We live in a transition to a new stage.
child
of
factors of birth limitations, increase
care, freedom from a continuous motherhood, the
possibility of the housewife to earn her own
and to get
to not need man's support,
bread,
ease... a
with
duties
house
routine
new type of family, therefore, is very
through
totally
probably being developed."
Between 1910 and 1930 the large kitchen located
in
members and in defining the use of space
(or group)
(or in the village) ,
in the house
times
This has
development
the
to
parallel
in
modern
in
importance.
its great
to have lost
happened
an
such
in defining the role of various family
structurelle)
seems
Figure 39
Anthropologie
(Levi-Strauss:
meaning
important
had
history
throughout
which
preparation,
Food
strictly defined functions.
suited to a few,
space
small
a
by
supplanted
been
had
activities,
of
variety
wide
a
in
engage
and
gather
could
family
the whole
the house where
the middle of
Figures 37, 38
the
of
processed food industry.
a
wide
and
frequent
resulted
This
cooperatives
household
in
the
and
developments
From
also
to
consumerist
more
kitchen
stemmed
very
were
1840
in
of
consumer's
of
organization
adoption
planning
from
significant
1930
by
distribution.
food
of
system
Changes
habits
that
storage had been abolished
the
from
habits.
household
time.
home
for
The need
new
and
technical
at
that
inventions
moo
=-a
tow
ze.
Figure 37
The large
kitchen in
the
middle of the
house
Figure 38
The kitchen
sometimes was
the only room
't
L'Tz
00
Kitchen with dining space. Kvarnholmen 1928.
Kitchen in open connection
ith th'e dining
alcove. Arhoga 1942.
Figure 39
The kitchen
between the 30's
Kitchen
in
a
project
for
farmworkers'
and the 40's
dwellings at Skytteholmn 1913.
Kitchen and dining-spacre in a jlaft at (lS
tarsberg 194(. See photograph opposite.
.I terrace house kitchen. with dining space
and a special entrance fron the grarden. Gustavsbcrg 1913. See photograph opposite.
C,
0
~J.
L4
U
I~(D
1~
C
I-34-
15
Foodlift
17
Kitchenette
Figure 42
Collective 6005e5
k itch en
es
Figures 39, 40
revolutionized space functions and uses of the
cooker,
the
came
first
kitchen:
new equipment that alleviated the
plethora of other
with
combined
This,
burdens.
domestic
housewife's
there was a
In addition,
then the electric.
the gas
then
stove,
iron
in
the first appearance of the Rationalist theories
the
of
type
a
into
kitchen
the
turned
1920s,
Figure 44
the size and form of the space were
"laboratory:"
and
exactly those demanded by the assumed functions,
nothing more.
synthesized
LeCorbusier
in
the
as
"a
in."
Every
economy.
and
was not omitted, but
however,
The aesthetic aspect,
live
efficiency
for
designed
was
element
to
ma ch ine
by
house
the
of
definition
been
had
Rationalism
of
philosophy
The
from an economic and functional
was also approached
point of view.
IN THE
A special section of the Stockholm exhibition
was devoted to the design of bathrooms and kitchens,
EXHIBITION
both as single unit prototypes and as components
Figures
(important ones) in the entire house or apartment.
43,
of
types
main
Three
be
could
kitchen
distinguished in the exhibition:
-
the
kitchen
cn
the exterior
side,
with
natural
direct light
- the kitchen as a detached part of the dining room
from which,
through
a
glass
partition,
the
could
kitchen
receive natural light
- the internal kitchen,
The
second
especially
in
kitchen
small
not receiving natural light.
the
was
houses
or
most
prevalent,
apartments.
It
had
the advantage of not occupying an exterior wall with
windows
(which
was
considered more appealing
for
a
44
40,
Figure 43
Kitchens in
the exhibition
and
work
to
mothers
allow
to
planned
was
kitchen
This
light.
receiving
still
yet
room),
living
simultaneously to look after children playing in the
Additionally, the dining area, being
dining room.
could be
the kitchen,
separate from
used as a work
while eating could also take place
or sleeping room,
in the common .living room.
the smallest kitchens (2.3 x 3.8
Regarding size,
the
They were constructed either
work
square with
a
form of
on
space
or
2
with work
or in the form of a corridor
three sides,
housing
apartments
in
placed
to six persons.
four
in
were
meters)
square
space on 2 or 3 sides, or in the form of a corridor
The furnishings
with work space only on cne side.
by
produced
mass
were
participating
firms
in
the
and were again characterized by hygiene,
exhibition,
and low price.
functionality,
A gas or electric stove was always placed beside
work
the
distance
(as
arm
a
in
sometimes
space,
corner
at
such
a
from the wall to allow for novement of the
it
the
in
presented
was
studies
of
the
Frankfurt exhibition kitchen).
A ventilation
system
vapor from the stove
or
room
on
curtains).
to
prevent
ollecting at the bottom of the
glass
the
proposed
was
of
the
windows
(or on
the
The floor was often made of cement tiles
which were inexpensive and easy to clean.
The functions and elements of the kitchen were
strictly defined:
aluminum sink,
cupboards,
gas stove,
and a broom closet.
work space,
This freed the
living room to become more a "common, family space."
This issue achieved even greater relevance in
the 1940s.
by
a
The Home Research Institute,
women's
organization
daring
established
World
War
II
Figure 44
0. Almqvist:
"The kitchen and
the working
space in a small
apartment" 1934
Figure 45
Studies of kitchen chore show ed the correlation betw een different ukork
stations. It is important for the cooker to he near a water tap and for
off-loading and work surfaces to he provided on either side of the cooker.
Ergonomic
studies and
standardization
of the kitchen
r-62
-
Ergonomic studies showked the correlation between the height of a person
and working height. 90 cm is a suitahle wkorktop height for most kitchen
chores.
The kitchen studies provided a hais for standardization of the dirensions of kitchen units. M1anufacturers quickly hegan to produce unitwhich can easily he comhined in different -equences.
vR
SO
U
MR
U
.
MALL
VD
VVPOARSRUM
SOVRUM
ORM
;
A
K
U.1
KOK
1955
G\G
SOVRUM
----
SOVUM
J
IA"L
Figure 46
F G
K
Different plans
VAROAGSRUM
UTH.RUMf
KOK
o
3rom
3 rooms ++
from
kitchen in co-op
housing from
1946
1939 to 1973
SOVRUM
VARDAGSRUM
G
Gy
G./
Frt
Hall
GG
C I!
uG
G
IIT
BLTT
BA
R
-SOVRUM
MATPLAISONK
I
F
vrasz
I
Vardagsrum
1965
197q
to test materials
conducted a great deal of research
especially
households,
activities
several
Here
order
in
techniques
and
ergonomic principles,
information
supply
to
to
relating
kitchen.
the
according
tested
were
to
to
Figure 45
and various standards were
proposed.
Figure 46
The kitchen has ,continued to evolve through
in
stages
other
against
juxtaposed
and
defined
the validity of older
solutions:
back
to a less
functional
from the minimal,
been
have
ideas
news
which
larger
space,
room where the users themselves
could determine functions.
In
some
of the
rost
plans,
the kitchen
as a space
unto itself .
recent
has practically disappeared
As
instead become part of the living room.
most women now work full time, the "woman's place"
in the house has no longer sense to exist, neither
it
the
has
idea
"she"
that
cook,
would
isolated
the
from
rest of the family.
On
the
other
hand,
more
efficient
technical
equipment and improved design of kitchen facilities
insure that those "kitchen activities" will not
adjacent
interfere with other activities going on in
spaces,
formal
like
in
the old common
life style
does
not
Also,
room.
dictate
that
less
a
household
chores be hidden from others in the house.
It
may be that this is a return to the home-type
architecture of pre-industrial times.
Rationalism,
functionalism,
means of communication,
ideas,
new techniques,
social concern,
and new types of architecture
also town planning
during the 1920s.
new
hygiene,
all
new
influenced
The background
was the Romanticism of the studies of Camillo
Sitte
PLANNING
and the English "garden cities" movement, both of
which were continued into the traditional Swedish
the
from
the
older houses.
existing,
and the ideas and work
of Rationalism,
the theories
promoted
the government,
shift of
the political
change were
and
allowed
that
factors
main
The
of
crisis
and the poor condition of the
town,
to the
country
as
people
of
migration
sizable
the
1920s,
conditions,
the economic
were
before,
mentioned
The motivating
house.
single-family
The
Asplund and the other main architects.
architectural debate concerned the choice between
of E.G.
in a virgin
isolated buildings
free,
spaces.
The
planning
new
determining
was
policy
housing
new
and
enclosing definite
structure
the block
landscape
directions.
A
formulating
while
deal
of - attention
planning
regulations
great
these
considered
larger
over
redeveloping
old
District,
the
the
and
longer could accommodate
plans
great
debate
the
City
the
small blocks of
the
narrow
streets
business,
the commerce,
to
and as parts
of
area
actual
because
pattern
gridiron
was
There
laws,
suitable
These
single units
both
as
neighborhood.
of a
Business
blocks.
street
already-built
the
and building
schemes
planning
developing
also
to
devoted
was
no
and
traffic.
Other natters of concern were the size and form
of the houses,
their siting with regard to light and
of
insolation,
analysis
geophysical
conditions,
developments.
The
plan,
economic,
and
prognosis
being
a
also consider methods of production,
working methods.
demographic
for
and
future
synthesis,
techniques,
would
and
Figure 47
Figure 47
Howard's
diagram for
"garden cities"
-
N2:-
PLAN CAMNOT BE ORAWN
UNIML SM SCLICTUO
50
meters
(165
areas
for
industrial
Protective green
and
defense
civil
surround
would
wide
ft.)
separate
health
Every area should have access to parks and
reasons.
for
playgrounds
pedestrian,
and
highways were planned and the road
use
to
according
differentiated
was
English
Following
children.
American models,
system
to
developed
from residential areas.
industrial
belts,
were
plans
Zoning
(for
slow and fast car
public transportation,
The belief in large, generai plans became
traffic).
stronger
during
studying
urban
as
1930s,
the
concept
the
did
of
development as an organic structure.
Later,
residential planning would be proposed on the
scale
of
units,"
"neighborhood
units,"
"functional
and "social units."
HOUSING
Housing was the nain concern of planners,
architects,
builders,
no
an
longer
social
the
object
of
activities
cooperatives,
of
government
also
and
but
speculation
importance was
Its
service.
It
and social reformers.
by
rather
interest
a
to by
attested
housing
was
and
housing
in
raising
housing standards.
HOUSING
The developing of housing cooperatives was
COO PERATI VES
particularly important in Sweden during the 1920s,
first
the
although
founded in 1872.
time.
It
cooperative
association
was
HSB was the most important at that
combined
saving
and
building,
an d
organized members into building societies and tenant
owners associations.
The cooperative housing movement set its sights
higher, i.e., it aimed to raise the level of
ambition of large sectors of the community and
to increase their degree of awareness of their
further
accommodation.
The movement
living
aimed at increasing the degree of equality in
housing and to strike a blow against a
residential environment segregated according to
class, which resulted from the construction of
admittedly cheap but also poorer quality housing
for families of limited financial neans.
By
eliminating the element of profit and by basing
tenancy on the cost-price principle, it should
be possible to raise the standard of housing
provided, while keeping cost at a level which
can be managed by the vast majority of the
population.
"Although the resources
of the cooperative
the
beginning of
at
the
movement
housing
thirties were limited,
the novement was,
at
foundation."
(Ove
least,
built on a solid
Lundewall, 1976)
It
is
obvious
that
these
cooperatives
had
an
impact on the implementation of housing construction
and on
research
for
better quality,
but economical
types of dwellings.
A particular program carried out by the City of
Stockholm was the "small one-family housing program"
or "SMAA."
This program proposed
by
shortage
housing
developing
to alleviate
areas
new
the
the
in
outskirts of the town (which had been purchased at
the
of
beginning
planned
century)
the
on
Figures 48,
a
garden-city model.
Since
this
program was geared primarily to
available
to
cover
cost.
Furthermore,
leased
for
renewed if
it
60
two-thirds
the
years,
of
land
after
were
loans
construction
class,
working
the
was
which
made
construction
not
the
sold,
but
lease
was
the city did not need the land; otherwise
reverted to the city, which paid the cost for the
house.
In
1926 the city presented a new system
help the working
class"
land
was
leased,
to
the "build your own house"
program (called also the "magic house").
the
the
money
was
Here again
loaned,
and
49
Figure 48
"Build your
home" project
in Stockholm
1926
The local authorities paved the way for the "build-your-own-homescheme", by making roads which were ready for use in time for the first
consignments of materials. Water pipes, sewerage and electrical mains
for each plot were laid in the roads at the time of construction. This town
plan shows one of the "build-your-own-home" development projects in
Stockholm dating from the first year of the schme.
~'
I
IV
00
*V
constructed
plans
building
materials,
elements.
The last
to
which
also
and
purchased
all
prefabricated
and
cheaper,
quicker,
more
also had the effect
standardization
of
development
the
encouraging
the City
which had been planned
reliable for non-expert workers,
of
on
often
were
factors,
easier,
work
make
houses
the
for
prepared
were
Later
the City.
by
raods)
cables,
(pipes,
works
urbanization
and prefabrication.
The homogeneity of the environment was assured,
but at
and
the expense
at
builders.
own
home"
the
expense
of
of
creativity
the
At the end of the 1930s,
program was
environment,
the
of variety of
the
"build your
the
institutionalized
within
the
"Housing Estate Division" of the City of Stockholm.
By the end of the 1940s new housing types such as
terrace
houses
houses,
were
program.
and
two-three
introduced
into
This program is still
storey,
the
detached
self-building
working today.
98
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2
In the last three centuries, Denocracy, Reform,
and Planning allowed Sweden to reach an equilibrium
for the prosperity of modern Sweden.
necessary
Particularly important was the role of the farmer
HOUSING POLICY
PRE-1930
promulgated
Planning regulations were first
class.
development
Industrial
century.
17th
the
in
occurred curing the second half of the 19th century
An
with the corresponding migration to the cities.
active housing and land poliby had been approved by
housing
Social
century.
19th
the
the end of
implementation
and
clea r an ce
urban
combined
carr ied on by
was
Building activity
programs.
municipal authorities or by cooperative associations
and private owners receiving city support.
During the period, Rationalism's goal of
achieving a good, healthy housing environment was
reflected in clearance plans for the old part of the
However, the failure of those plans pushed
town.
the nunicipal authorities to pursue a housing policy
flats,
cheap blocks of
involved building
that
and
initiatives,
building
others'
supporting
DURING THE
1930s
City land was purchased mostly for
purchasing land.
such as public buildings and streets, on
services,
and partly to
the outskirts for housing projects,
Public transportation
preserved as green space.
The city proposed a 20-year
also was implemented.
The report "Acceptera" (accept)
building program.
proposed new types of "lamellhus."
"Lamellhus" was the nost common type of dwelling
Construction was at first
built in the 1930s.
by
then
enterprise,
private
by
undertaken
Following a
cooperatives and public authorities.
centrifugal expansion of the town, "smalhus"" were
Dwellings
built all around the old "inner" city.
car
support facilities;
with
were interspersed
the
traffic intermingled wi-th pedestrian traffic;
Siting of buildings
landscape was left untouched.
The apartments were
varied throughout the 1930s.
economical,
functional,
well-proportioned,
but
small
and
workers
by
inhabited
well-equipped,
and
areas
these
time
that
At
lower-income employees.
offered a very positive and pleasant environment
(although there is now a need for architectural and
social renewal).
Particularly
cooperative
HSB.
relevant
An
was
the
architectural
of
the
competition
in
activity
HOUS ING
1932 presented alternatives
row terraced houses.
houses:
houses began to grow.
detached
to single,
Opposition to single
Changes in kitchen plans design reflected changes
in standards of life, social level, social habits,
In place of the large kitchen
role of women.
prominent at the beginning of the 20th century,
Rationalist kitchens shrank to the minimal size for
Food preparation lost
a few definite functions.
some of its "magical" importance. , More modern
equipment and consumer awareness helped reduce the
kitchen to a sort of laboratory.
THE KITCHEN
Three types of kitchen were presented at the
compactness,
Cleanliness,
exhibition.
common
all
were
price
low
and
functionality,
character istics.
In the
Rationalism also influenced planning.
of
models
English
Romanticism,
were
background
The
tradition.
Swedish
the
and
cities
garden
conditions influencing Functionalism were again the
economic crisis and a *housing shortage.
PLANNING
New housing policy and new planning regulations
areas,
old
of
redevelopment
the
encouraged
suburbs,
the
in
areas
new
of
implementation
protection of green spaces, and development of a
The urban environment was
modern traffic system.
studied as an organic structure with housing viewed
The activities of cooperative
as a social service.
housing associations were crucial in eliminating the
people's
increasing
in
profit,
of
element
their
of
awareness
and
responsibility
and in
in desegregating classes,
accommodations,
"small
The
quality.
and
prices
controlling
the
and
program"
housing
one-family
"build-your-own-house" program were developed by the
city, and implemented on leased land, planned on a
garden-city model.
100
APPENDIX TO PART I
CCMPARISON WITH HOUSING IN THE UN ITED STATES
It
principles,
derived
interpreted
and
such
to obtain
the
United States
different
new
different
results.
Most
contexts
planning
architectural
the
in
were transmitted back to Europe,
they would influence
is
notable
generated
principles
were
Movement,
Modern
such
in
applied
the
that
fact
the
from
same
the
how
compare
to
instructive
is
it
However,
different.
so
being
conditions
social
and
political
States,
United
the
in
those
with
experiences
compare Swedish architectural
to
difficult
is
where
the
for
next decade.
Government housing programs in the United States
Some American
were initiated between 1932 and 1934.
from
inspiration
received
architects
the
European
Modern Movement.
"These methods of site planning and the ideals
collided with
of architectural form, however,
the vaguer and more timid traditions of American
housing design; and the social and political
implications of Continental housing were caught
in the American shift from private initiative to
bureaucratic control." (R. Pommer, 1978)
projects
clearance
Slum
the
proposed
first
creation of "superblocks" as the pattern nost suited
to
restructuring
Amer ican
towns.
housing
programs
September
the
The
on
when
1937,
districts
central
many
establishment
official
European
the
of
lines
Wagner
dates
Housing
Act
of
from
was
passed.
In
and
any
event
especially
conditions
in
the
the
America
different
historical
different
led
to
an
contexts
socio-political
interpretation
of
101
the
from
far
rather
was
that
models
European
original concepts that generated them.
The first architects to understand the social and
aesthetic aspects of the new housing were probably
C.
exhibition
of
Museum
of
the
by
organized
Architecture"
"Modern
1932
The
Mumford.
L.
and
Bauer
MOMA EXHIBITION
Modern Art in New York presented these men with the
Although
opportunity to publicize their approach.
was
it
1930,
of
Exhibition
to
close
occurred
exhibit
this
the
clearly
Stockholm
on
based
a
different concept.
a
sections:
Philip
section
Johnson
architecture,
of
and C. Bauer,
new
Movement,
housing,
and
a
Henry
introduction
In Stockholm housing was
In
architecture.
by
arranged
Hitchcock,
with a catalogue
two
into
planned by Clarence Stein,
written by Lewis Mumford.
the
separated
Henry-Russel
and
section of housing,
Wright,
was
exhibition
MCMA
The
European
the
architecture,
and
Modern
were
planning
inseparable.
While
and
the exhibition had a
in Stockholm
positive
influence
many years afterwards,
on
housing
strong
production
for
the American exhibition
"carried housing further and further away from
Eventually this
the art of architecture...
to have unsuspected
architectural split was
The degradation of public
social consequences.
housing in this country resulted as much from
inhabitants
and its
it
for
contempt
the
expressed by these purely architectural values,
as from the political and economic compromises
necessary to sell it to the real estate owners,
the rural politicians, and the bureaucrats...
American Beaux-Arts architects, for their
as
housing
of
conceive
not
could
part,
civic
monumental
a
on
except
ar chitecture
scale." (R. Pommer,, 1978)
102
Furthermore,
the
in
its
was
Th
European
premises
in
contrast
be
in
nostly
to
the
new
where
suburbs,
which
had
nothing
In contrast,
urban
preexisting
in
there
was tempting to impose the
it
over
architecture
cities.
followed
that
were no built precedents to deal with.
in the United States,
Movement,
the old
experiments
architectural
to
happened
Modern
all-European
oxmmon
with
it,
tissue,
and
even
to
carelessly with it.
alternate
Oskar Storonov was a German architect who came
to
United
the
democratic
in the
1920s.
compelled
him
background
to
career
States
housing
public
and
His
to
the
PHILADEPLPHIA
social
devote
his
un ion
workers'
movement.
His program for the Mackey House in
the
Philadelphia,
1932
in
Modern
model
the
traveling
Art,
clearly
which
for
exhibition
Figure 50
was
revealed
in
of the Museum of
different
his
underscores
conception of "public housing."
The
"smalhus"
Functionalist ideas
social
especially for
everybody
within
the
Storonov,
on
living
the
the
lower-income
same
good,
Motivated
by
other
hand,
self-awareness
and
"their enjoyment
of
intended
to raise
and to
classes,
health
restrictions
economic
the workers'
of
of "air, sun,
the aim was to raise the standard of
concern,
housing,
give
of the importance
and of minimal standards.
and green"
the
in Sweden emphasized
projects
environment,
that
time.
to
increase
their
standard
of greater
leisure
time."
Paying
little
existing
urban
room for
new
attention
patterns,
to
Philadelphia 's
Storonov proposed
blocks of apartments
to make
and recreational
103
---7.
2
Figure 50
Fii.
\.
.lckley Houses, final design (A Comunmnty Deve'lopunt for H-osiery Worke rs in
i L ..p hi a). a..ite \ay ou t
b. Four-room
apartnicn
104
be
which
were
notivated
with
the
maximal
space.
If
the
Sweden
were
a
Storonov's
proposals,
a
and air
minimal
the
in
projects
for
class
neans,
like
manifesto
as
projects~,
sun
housing
cooperative
was
for
of
functionality
program
solidarity,
the workers'
to raise the material expectations of
union itself,
workers.
the
by the search
duplex
of
in other European
and
in Sweden,
well as
type
same
in Le Corbusier 's
existing
apartments
the
This was
maintained.
individuality" could
of
"the feeling
where
or "vertical row
block
an apartment
duplexes within
houses"
he opted for house-like
individual houses,
preferred
otherwise
who
people
to
appealing
more
apartments
make
To
(1.')
stations
filling
and
garages,
pools,
swimming
courts,
tennis
with
facilities
This
approach
that
resembled
the
of
utopian vision of the 19th century Socialism.
Although nost American projects of that period
Cleveland,
Ohio
In
approach.
Weinberg
illustrates
a
took
th e
View
Lake
(by architects W. Teare,
the
the
effort
to
scheme into the morphology of the ground.
Swedish
for
the
schemes,
planning,
architecture
in
in
this
instance
terrain.
Bigger)
As in the
direction
adapting
the
The open space
which for economical reasons and
in
was much more transformed and controlled
in
for
Cleveland
5'
W. Conrad,
untouched
respect
Sweden,
this
to a hillside
between the houses,
provided
landscape
y10r e-
architectural
an
fit
Terrace
F.
architect-planner
and
planning,
and
architectureal
more
par ti cular
Project of 1935
J.
architecture
from
housing
separated
CLEVEIAND
nature
project.
had been
The
though adapted to the terrain,
left
general
plan,
was stiffened
even
into a
105
definite geometrical scheme.
In New York, housing programs first stemmed from
clearance
slum
expand
programs.
traditional
park-like sites or
and low
perimeter
Proposals
hous ing
in to
blocks
into combinations
blocks.
were
The Swiss
of
made
to
large
tall towers
architects W.
Lescaze and later A. Frey became very involved in
New York housing.
NEW YORK
Figure 51
They referred to European nodels
of the Modern Movement but without adhering
to the
same social principles and without uniderstanding the
design procedures of the European models.
"Even in this office so oriented to Europe, the
variation in housing
desire for more 'human'
and aesthetic
destroyed
the social meanings
coherence of the models without achieving a
(R.
significantly more 'livable' substitute."
Pommer, 1978).
was
exceptionally
design
housing
"Amer ican
adaptable in detail, but rigid in its adherence
The architects adopted the
to the urban grid.
arrangemenet of perimeter blocks around large
courts from English 19th century philanthropic
of
densities
ferocious
the
But
housing.
of our housing
an d the weakness
Manhattan
movement forced these blocks onto small sites.
standards
of
insisted upon higher
Yet
we
All this combined to put
plumbing and privacy.
a premium on architectural ingenuity in order to
provide even small amenities of light and air."
(R. Pommer,, 1978)
"The continental system.. .was ... inflexible
in
It was vast in
detail as well as in the whole.
scale and freed from the urban grid, organized
(R.
by repetition rather than by symmetry."
Pommer,, 1978).
106
ne,
%-o
'L,
tI
Owl
Figure 51
107
----
-
,
'
J
.
LUCKHULM
-
-w
--- S
,.,
-
- A
*
-~
-s-
-
S
<6
*
PA R T
~-..
*.s~~Zh
T WO
108
CHAPTER 3
stockholm from 1950 to 1980
109
INTRODUCTION
The year 1860 represented the beginning of
fact
This
period.
industrialization
Stockholm's
brought a lot of changes to the town as well as to
its
physical
the
setting
physical
first
The
living.
of
way
in the
and
in
changes
inhabitants:
with
shortage,
problem to be faced was the housing
overcrowding and slui 'clearance.
solution
definitive
to
a
following
problems,
these
modern,
a
presented
1920
in
Rationalism
long period of assessment.
a
After
life
many
in
as
1960,
of
aspects
The
countries.
industrialism
activity,
of
around
Sweden
in
bloomed
century
other
affected
it
were
All activities had to confront and
broad in scale.
Figure 52
adjust to the new production system, not only in the
problems
that
regardless
of
the
compounded
need
the
deepened
to
the
expand
towards
town
the
same
from
this
further
and
shortage,
housing
the
Stockholm;
to
from abroad
of
migrated
Many people
location.
or
Some
were
however,
arose,
cities
smaller
country.
the
over
all
but
capital
the
the inner part
suburbs and to renew older areas in
of the city.
difference
The
century
was
the
One hundred years of industrialism and 30
economy.
years
last
the
from
political
socially-oriented
of
administration
had brought Stockholm to a relatively balanced level
of prosperity.
doesn't
This
housing
any
was
mean
the
task
in
the
1960s,
easier
providing
of
that
only
less
more
complex,
the house alone could not address problems,
and not
even a "functional" modern house with "sun,
air and
dramatic.
green"
People's needs
could
satisfy these
had
become
complex needs.
The new
110
~3~UffiW
Figure 52
Traffic
regulation was
one of the
major problems
111
Social solutions had to address
opportunities.
numbers
large
of
integration
recreational
and
work,
transportation,
public
connections,
services,
included
requirements
Often
different
cultures
carried
and
moving
people
completely
to
belonged
they
together.
of
the
them
with
individually-defined problems.
The space available
for new developments had to
be found further from the town,
in areas that could
no longer depend on the center of the city.
For these reasons,
of
the
new
towns
and also due to the influence
movement
from
England,
the
Stockholm town plan of the 1950s had been changed
from
a
expansion,
circular
pattern
(the
so-called
with outlying green belts)
centrifugal expansion.
administrative
Figure 53
oil-spot
into a radial
In response to political and
decentralization,
Stockholm
passed
from a centralized structure into a policentric one.
Figure 53
Symbolic plan for a neighbourhood unit
showing housing around a central service
area
112
tie novelty was in considering
During the 1930s,
be
to
began
town
the
town;
to
the
complementary.
while
a
had
plan
regional
of
parts
suburbs
were
although
zones,
district
Each
the
and
center
city's
recreation
different
in
"districts"
differentiated
completely
plan,
and
residence,
administration,
industry,
business,
Commerce,
1950s.
corresponded
and
plans
intervention became characteristic of
administrative
the
place
suitable
zoning
activities:
for
environments
took
most
the
provide
to
concurrently,
different,
design
and
Planning
zones.
functional
into
subdivided
the
and
unified,
were
Committee
Planning
the
and
Committee
Building
the
Later,
process.
integrated
an
as
concerns
social
and
planning,
housing,
its own
specific
controlled
the
equilibrium of the entire urban system.
anti-urban
ideals,
were
capable
shown
on
based
trends,
Humanistic-sociological
surviving
of
ideals expressed in
side by side with bureaucractic
administrative regulations.
1960 saw the ripening of the nost representative
fruit of "modern Stockholm:"
WITH THE
the City Business
District, which was implemented between 1946 and 1952
In Stockholm, a business-commercial area had been
two-storey
buildings
cinemas,
pedestrian
underground stations,
and parking.
This area
as
or
containing
malls,
was
combined
were
shops,
conceived
with
restaurants,
a
"renewal"
Indeed,
in
the
ENVIRONMENT"
"redevelopment"
Figure 55
effort, where most of the old buildings were
demolished.
"BUSINESS
Figure 54
concentrated around five 18-storey office towers,
which
THE INNER CITY
enthusiasm
for
modernity, all the old urban structure was changed.
113
Figure 54
The project
for the CBD
114
:
'RL
son
Figure 55
1947 renewal
of the blocks
in the old
town
tJEJ
EJdL i
115
Figure 55
The plan was revised in 1952 under the
of Sven Markelius,
supervision
when optimism toward
high,
the future and faith in technology were still
and
still
was
felt.
being
its
a business
concept of residential areas surrounding
center,
with
the New Empiricism,
of
influence
the
About the new
city
Markelius said:
"It does not represent an imitation of Manhattan
as a dream of a metropolis, but rather aims to
create the best environment in the core of a
its
life,
its work
as regards
town,
large
In a few
amusement, and, perhaps, its beauty...
years Sergelgatan [the pedestrian street where
most of the shops are located] will be an oasis
in the restless life of the city, and on the
lower-level
of
the square for pedestrians,
the
people will move free of worry about
traffic. Green trees on the terraces will grow,
offering citizens shadow and pure air, above the
noise and the pollution of the cars."
S.
Gideon described the plant for Stockholm as "the
urban
debate
a
1963)
Gideon,
of
international
and
century
half
(S.
the
points
the CIAM had achieved thier highest goal.
proposed in
In
last
the
Europe,"
the
which
in
plan
in
balanced
better
solution
succeeded
plan
Markelius'
fact,
in
integrating the principle of human scale proposed in
Alvar Aalto's plan and the structuring by big
which
Markelius
in
presented
were
plan
his
developed
in
of
competition.
1934
the
both
plan,
Le Corbusier's
in
proposed
objects
Figure 56
phases:
two
an
analytical phase based on specification of functions
(following
Movement)
and
considered
the
value
of
concerned
the
principles
early
the
a
phase
problem of
the urban
city.
naturalistic
and
of
Modern
the
when
synthesis,
the
"core"
with
of
of
form
He
was
visual
and
he
the
always
values
116
t
I
~j',
--
*~
***-*
L
>
- -
\K~I
~
-.
-
F
**
r.
'
.
~4
'd:
.
1.g.
Figure 56
Sven Markelius
"The structure
of Stockholm"
A Aalto
.
- .....
plan
for the 1934
competition
*0--0-
Le Corbusier
Plan Voisien
117
-
uu-~p'
;k
bps
'
.00
~,
~jj(\
,,-~
~
~/l~
a..
Figure 57
Sven Markelius
Sketches for
the city
118
m
:
Y .C
.f
Figure 58
Sven Markelius
Studies for
the city and
the new
theatre
119
Inn
it
il
Figure 59
Sergelstorg
and Sveavsgen
-
oL
-
-
-1
L
~l .5.
w
AKe oiu ,
120
Figure 60
New traffic
network
.:orsme
-F
"
,
I
Sergelgatan
Sveav~gen
L.-
bitunne
car tunnel
passage souterrainvoitures
-R
undergroundde
I'tunnel do conduits
12.0
(according to the latest principles of the New
The final image for him was "the
Empiricism).
life
the
of
representation
The CBD plan was again revised in 1967,
1969).
began
planners
besides
to
had
business,
taken
when
tertiarization,
that
realize
the
(Stefano Ray,
regulated by reason."
city-organism,
in
runs
that
complete
control
over
the part of the city that'was supposed to be "used"
by citizens.
"The sketch of the plan of 1966 applied a theory
The principle of
of economic localization...
this theory was that if Sweden wanted to compete
with an integrated Europe, it was necessary to
develop a large city, the Great Stockholm, and
to give this metropolis a structure that would
ensure the optimal development of the economy.
(J. Stack, 1976).
In
traffic
routes,
a
pedestrians,
installations,
the
district,
more
parks,
and
better
public
commercial
located
and
business
no more
diverted
and
streets
New
transportation.
activities
and new
elsehwhere,
and
banks
traffic
pedestrian
outside
no
environment . for
no nore widened streets,
traffic
more
structures,
no more
demolition,
no more
commercialization,
underground
better
no
in:
set
parking
more
no
facilities,
motoring
had
reactions
1970s
the
were
concentrations
to
be
were
to
be planned.
The remaining
with
modern
modern
facilities,
bathroom
requirements
play areas,
old districts were to be improved
and
kitchen
regarding
etc.,
water,
equipment,
entrances,
heating,
sewage,
lifts,
garbage
new
storage,
These requirements all had to be
fulfilled.
The
old
consequence,
apartments
were
the population
very
in
small
those
and,
districts
as
a
had
121
renewal
prevent
Zoning
takeover
the
and to
establishments
in
had to cooperate
property owners
project.
this
green play areas;
bigger,
to create
meant that
Figures 61-65
Inner courtyards were
to needs of families.
connected
had
demolition
(where
was required to respond
the ground)
already cleared
In
people.
elderly
or
construction
new
contrast,
single
to
limited
been
ratio
certain
a
maintain
to
commercial
and
offices
of
up
drawn
were
plans
the
of
residential buildings in central Stockholm.
planned
was
rate
slower
a
at
Renewal
for
Figure 66
semi-old urban districts to bring them to a more
modern
regarding
standard
apartments,
of
layout
services and external environment.
Improving
goal.
the quality of housing
buildings,
more
districts,
and
Expectations
and
intentions
had
already
to
low-rise
more
compact
available
nearby.
change were
high at
plices
work
with
with
use,
land
effective
the end of the 1960s,
city
developed
were
areas
New
a general
was
but the transformation of the
gone
too
far
to
change
its
direction.
At
the
time
of
the
new
city
plan
of
1975,
complaints and criticism grew steadily more serious.
surely built for
"The town of Stockholm is
have
who
those
between
interactions
And for
decision-making power and businessmen.
Here a
contacts between goods and clients.
piece of town has been shaped for reciprocal
a high level and for one-way
contacts at
the
is
It
top down.
the
from
contacts
is
it
and
development
consequence of economic
planning.
city
by
goals
also the choice of
Fifty years of planning have clearly been aimed
at providing efficient industrial and commercial
activity and an efficient central bureaucracy,
at creating a lonely core in a lonely region.
The city, according to the intentions of the
122
Figure 61
Inner courtyards were to
be renewed
123
Figure 62
Renewal plans
in the 1940's
and the 1970's
9
124
Figure 63
The whole
blocks considered as
renewal units
125
Figure 64
Proposed
incisions in
a block
No
oft
-M
126
Figure 65
Connection of
courtyards
inside a block
K
K
127
Figure 66
The older
suburbs to
be renewed too
128
1967 plan, should be organized to serve public
and private activities and the service apparatus
city
In this framework,
that supports them.
Thus the
architecture had to seek its form.
city became a collection of knots and points in
There the noise of
a lonely welfare society.
continuous... there you barely see
crashes is
drugs and alcohol problems in a provocative
is
The shining new city consequently
way.
exposed to high consumption.
city did not become a place for
The
but,
people
among
interactions
spontaneous
Possibilities
rather, a place for conflicts.
In the
for reciprocal understanding are few.
but one never
city one sees other people,
More serious conflicts
communicates with them.
increase in the
Conflicts
city.
the
in
abound
The city becomes more and more
closeness.
Power and money become guiding
prison-like.
abounds.
surveillance
Electronic
values.
the
around
rise
curtains
invisible
and
Visible
all
filter
Guardians
city.
the
inner core of
visitors
of
filtering
those who enter; sometimes
One slides an ID into a
is cbne automatically.
Thus
opens by itself.
door
box and the
little
city
a
is
There
stratified.
become
city
the
has
claims
that
city
inner
an
and
public
the
to
open
entrance tickets.
this the result of an evolution as
Is
Or could the city
inexorable as natural law?
(Eva
way?"
different
a
in
developed
have
Eriksson, 1976)
In the expansion of Stockholm,
SUBURBS AND
from the
RESIDENTIAL
development of the suburbs in the 1930s to the
creation of "new towns" in the 1950s, we can detect
several major
(and
their
neighborhood
Howard,
and
ENVIRONMENT
the anti-urban principles
of Neo-Empiricism combined with
influences:
limits)
policy,
the
the
of
theories
regulations
planning
regional
and
Mumford
of
1947.
The same
CBD,
which
Markelius,
"new
towns"
regional plan of 1952 that created the
was
drawn
proposed
or
"town
under
the
the
supervison
development
districts."
The
of
the
goal
of
S.
first
was
to
129
Different from the English new-towns,
environments.
Sweden's
version were
part of
Stockholm,
typical
district
The
middle
housed
Five
hundred
were nultifamily houses
grounded
center.
commercial-social-cultural
away there
each of which had schools,
into neighborhood units,
resembling the
and so forth,
playgrounds,
nurseries,
a
and
station
underground
an
inhabitants.
10,000
had about
minutes.
20-30
within
inner
the
to
lined
strongly
reachable
The
meters
dwelling
adequate
with
integrated
and
distributed
broadly
more
were
where
city,
multicenter
areas
commercial
and
work
into a
Stockholm
transform
Figure 67
model proposed by Clarence Perry in the United
States.
Outlying
one-family
houses
and
separated,
were
and
Pedestrian
center.
from the
kilometer
one
of
distance
a
at
of
settlements
are
these
vehicular
and
lots,
parking
open areas,
traffic
services were also provided.
In
and
housing
1950s,
the
the
environment
reflecting
assumed a varied and naturalistic aspect,
adjusting
over 30 years,
social,
areas.
and commercial
business
as
of
from the
These ideas evolved
they grew to different
and political conditions,
economic,
as new systems
construction.
the residential
separate
the intention for
production
and
new
as well
systems
of
The development of Stockholm in the northern and
western
directions
districts,
expansion,
towns,"
three
saw the
corresponding
three
three
different
creation of
three
to
decades
three
ways
to
urban
of
ideas of suburbs or "new
different approaches
different
Figures 68-70
express
to planning,
the
and
interaction
between man and environment.
130
Figure 67
Perry's model
for U.S.
neighborhood
II
units
II
_________TI
I
/#e fhco
I
Vt/acE
I II
131
Figure 68
Three new
districts
along the NW
direction.
Three decades
of expansion
132
CGJ
$4
r4j
.4J
4)
U *.4J
.. 9~0
$4
44
Z
41
O U)
.g-4
~ii
w
L4
iii
~ Iii
uN0
C-4
r- -4
ON
r4)
134
I
.........
W,
THE 1950'S
The first, Blackberg-Vallingby-Hasselby
district,
belongs
represented
an
The
development.
suburban
in
innovation
VSllingby
1950s.
the
to
--- I- I-
-
___ ----
---
to locate a large number of dwellings
idea was
by breaking
town)
(for which there was no space in
out of the boundaries of Stockholm and arresting its
the
spillover
into
formation
of
outskirts.
These
Surface
easy
the
partly
to be
work
Social
planning
was
as
planning.
physical
would ensure
transportation
The
the city.
to
connection
in
housing,
important
and underground
the
providing
services.
as
considered
with
" points
were
centers"
"new
units,
and
places,
attraction
new
self-sufficient
suburbs,"
"garden
was
end-goal
to
create a coherent, modern urban environment.
naturalism and the
the
with
of
morphology
the
Streets
ground.
and psychological
functional
was
with
integration of architecture
geography,
for
respect
characteristic
major
project's
The
as
were
built
to
serve
as
well
A neighborhood
needs.
in which
structure was organized around green areas
children could play; these also varied according
buildings--"point"
houses,
"star"
houses,
"chain"
houses,
and low-rise
"lamell" houses,
of
types
Different
characteristics.
natural
to
and high-rise
houses--were alternated to serve the different needs
and preferences
better
the
built
fit
contrast
of
the
with
forms
to the repetitive
natural
within
individuality
the
well
as
to
In
ones.
system of production
buildings were intended
1930s,
as
inhabitants,
in
to assert
their
of
the
structure
environment.
The model was a new type of satellite
environment:
a
intensity,
residential
concentration,
district
that
combined
and regularity of the city
135
-I,---
-
O'
-J
ter,
with green and open spaces.
The dvelopment of Tensta and Rinkeby took place
cost,
short-term
was to be intensively used
the space
All
low
industrialization,
rationalization,
economy.
production,
easy
standards,
measurable
of
use
quantitative
were
quick,
qualitative:
than
rather
new housing
need for
requirements
period,
that
and
administrators
Given the great
technicians.
then
was
production
by
handled
routinely
in
Housing
1960s.
the
dur ing
Figure 72
and the design and the building processes were to be
and
accelerated
control.
under
process
around
construction
despite
contrasted
with
districts.
The
service
principle of
organized
was
facilities,
which
of
older
centers
nuclear
the
separated
streets
for
further
was
traffic
pedestrian
and
vehicular
plan
The
"belt" of
long
a
entire
the
techniques
criticism.
environmental
keep
New construction
high-rise
supported
to
compacted,
developed.
THE 1970'S
A great change in architecture and planning
occurred
between
the
concern with technology,
the 1970s emphasized
The
more relevant
in
effects
great
of
was
care
public
between
and services,
and meaning of
and
the
space
space.
became
Especially
devoted
private,
to
housing
built and green.
During the 1970s the grouping of
considered
design
than the economic profit.
Stockholm,
integration:
the interest and efforts of
the use
socio-psychological
From a
1970s.
and the
1960s
mainly as
they
a
enclosed
function
and
the
of
the houses was
the quality of
social
relations
137
lirr
*lli
>A
C.
min
alt.
Figure 72
Tensta
138
were
permitted
more
variations
in
both
planning
dwelling
better
offer
to
but
style,
given
in
and
The results were not meant to typify
architecture.
one
chance
and
but
schemes,
geometric
rigid
longer
no
were
There
they encouraged.
that
env ironmen ts.
be
as
considered
process and was allowed
Many more subtle,
shaped to his scale.
to
which was
or change his own area,
create,
influence,
right
critical
the
became
He
such.
in the planning
element
the
individual gained
the
less severe,
Figure 73
shortage
The housing
of the 1960s.
the production
to
the
Here the main concern was a. reaction against
1970s.
being
to
belongs
project
Kista-Husby-Akalla
The
but no less
important needs were recognized as playing a role in
the
the
also
was
environment
external
The
community.
of
well-being
psychological
and
social
aspect.
social
considered
in
Landscape
and
preserved.
Pedestrian roads were shielded from rain
and
neighborhood.
floors
of
the
as
service
space
for
the
immediate
houses,
work places,
Special
attention was
work
construction
only
in
for
streets
the
received attention,
and shops was further
reduced.
and
The
devoted
was
buildings,
public
Planting,
between
The
1950s
color
and
distance
handicapped.
whereas
form
environment.
spaces.
interior
did
the
in
and surface materials
lighting,
as
Ground
Variations
the
accentuated
winter.
used
were
buildings
be
should
buildings
existing
in
warmed
and
physical
its
to accessibility
whole
performed
contractors
while
services
the
was
planning
for
and
contractors,
by
were
responsible
construction
cared
by
of
the
municipality.
139
Figure 73
Akalla
140
Figure 74
Fore 1940
Before 1940
1940-1949
1940-1949
Efter 1950
After 1950
Alla perioder
All periods
Befintlig T-bana
--T-bana planerad
eller under utbyggnad
Existing underground system
Underground planned or
under construction
Tunnelbanelinjerna
1975 och fororter
~'mu n
Public transport in 1975
and residential districts
in the city of Stockholm
0
8km
141
The
aspects
of
expense,
danger
of
city
to
at
economic terms,
CBD
The
control.
extraneous
the
is
the private
environment
where
the
buildings,
sometimes
lives
perceived
citizens'
but in
terms of
as
total
of inhabitants.
segregation
of
slums,
been
has
old
An
crumbling
substituted
shiny office
of
where
modern,
In the last projects,
then,
the major efforts
with
segregation
the
as
the
viewed
is
moral
even
and
social
A major
not only in
and
use
life.
usurpation
the
being
on
now
is
emphasis
towers.
CITIZENS'
IN THE CITY
have been undertaken to give people ways to use the
city,
to
nake
is
an
that
last
important
the
city
belongs
among
element
social
of
few
years
they
seem
to
to
people,
interaction
life.
seem to have received this message;
Stockholmers
the
feel
and to promote
them too,
which
them
ACTIONS
have
in
started
reclaiming the city as their own.
An
anecdote
new-found
the
that
pride in
their
Kungstridgarden
between
garden
cut
the following.
royal
garden,
plan proposed
down
perched in them,
is
a
In
public
GD and the old medieval
the
town)
that part of the
But on the day the gardeners
gardens be eliminated.
to
city
(the
the new development
came
Stockholmers'
illustrates
the
trees,
they
found
people
who did not move until the plan was
dropped.
"Be
party
groups
nice
on
the
and
drive
street"
organized
to
around:
was
another
promote
We
are
slogan
having
used
pedestrianization
a
by
of
some city areas.
142
Figure 75
Mullvaden
143
Figure 75
"Mullvaden" is the name of a block that was to
be
and
demolished
in the name of urban renewal.
speculation
people
occupied
leave,
even
block
entire
the
However,
to
refused
and
evacuate
to
intervened
police
after
of
case
typical
a
rebuilt:
as
The entire population of the neighborhood,
them.
well as persons from outlying communities, supported
Their slogan was "Plan for people, not
this action.
A
decision
the
event
money."
for
and
followed,
to
Mullvaden
restore
example
an
as
served
for
other cases of "renewal."
KISTA
The suburb of Kista is representative of the
represented
idea of a small
The
1950s.
as
town
satellite
was
to transform
than
the
by Villingby in
the
rather
town,"
"small
a
into
suburb
builders,
designers,
HSB,
Association
and the Tenants
the
by
executed
idea,
The
1970s.
town was
suggested
by
peace,
and
easy relationships,
the need for safety,
order.
the
In
1970s,
people
with
rather
to
with,
that
there
them
need
no
and
technology
modern
give
was
astonish
models
new
they
something
to
are
familiar
environments they already feel comfortable
they can easily read and understand,
but
in,
something
they can become attached to, in a world where
other values were changing so quickly.
all
The only problem was the lack of an historical
elements
of
a
small
a
town:
Figures 76-78
There are
process necessary to "make" such a town.
variety
of
traditionally plastered houses and narrow pedestrian
streets
remeniscent
Sweden;
opportunities
and so forth.
of
to
the
meet
old
and
wooden
to
towns
of
know people,
The model is again that of the 1950s,
the "ABC suburbs" for example
(in
Swedish "Arbeta,"
144
rz-4 4J
04
1
I
:34J
4..
WU
rz
4
ms~
-i
IM
-m-l-;
A4
Al
POW
to
"Centrum, " center with
"Bostdder, " housing,
to work,
in addition to living,
Here,
culture and commerce).
people can have a more rich,
and enjoyable life; the scale is nore
and working,
shopping,
comfortable,
and traffic is only pedestrian.
"A new way to dwell," the slogan
human,
the qdaility of the environment.
designers regarding
The
seclusion
increase
or
closeness
and
communication
support
will
the quality
whether
is
question
the
of
intentions
the
illustrates
Kista,
present
to
adopted
and pr ivatization .
system represents the last step of
The building
the
tradition
are
cubes,
row
houses,
oriented
are
houses
terrace
detached
either
or
street noise with their back wall.
The different types fit the
been
achieved
room + services
in
fact,
in
96 variations
streets,
squares,
galleries,
form
in
variety
a
plans,
to
(from
1
are
the
pedestrian
porches,
types,
different
also
disregarding
courtyards,
response
from
There are,
The exterior space,
variety of
the
has
apartments
to 7 rooms + serices).
option of balconies.
designed
the
planning
in
of
Variety
from outside.
as
well
as
inside
from
norphology of
picture
a
offer
and
well
terrain
The
connected.
form a barrier
to
and
houses,
star-shaped
houses,
terrace
The houses
in the 1950s.
that began
and
carefully
possibilities
of
Wild natural spaces are alternated with
spaces that are carefully designed and furnished
Often these
according to conventional standards.
activities.
spaces are over-designed
finished
products.
and presented to
However,
the
users
furnishings
as
are
constructed in such a light and simple fashion that
they invite inhabitants to adjust them to their
147
including
common rooms are also varied,
needs.
The
meeting
rooms,
playrooms
usually located on the
they are
and laundry rooms;
hobby rooms,
for children,
ground floors of the apartment houses.
the
during
suburbs
system
before,
of
planning
The
on.
other
construction
the
combines
technical'
prefabrication,
and
industrialization
on
research
1950s
the
reported
as
through
gained
experience
reflected
Kista
that
suggest
elements
Several
during
the 1960s,
with the resumption of
more traditional
techniques,
sparked by interest
prominent
revitalizing
historical
elements,
prominent
in
in
the
last decade.
The concept of architecture as a way to support
communication
spaces
among
inhabitants,
and
to
pleasing
are
the
be optically
to
research
socio-psychological
shape open
result
of
which was motivated
by
the mistakes of the 1960s and desiring to
realizing
solve the social problems that resulted.
"Dwelling and playgrounds d not suffice to make
minimum
A
area.
residential
a
lively
requirement
is
that
needed
services
be
the
among
integrated
and
incorporated
dwellings... smaller service units, other work
(Bjdrn
tenancy."
forms of
places. . .various
Linn, 1978)
The overall
program,
and work areas
services,
which
includes
in
"ABC
Vnllingby,
Small
separated.
suburbs."
the
and
and the model of
is
that
are
not
activites
are
The difference
functions
shops
of
ABC
various
scattered around and mixed with residences,
there is
a
and bigger
"centrum"
shopping
defines
on the boundaries
both the ideal of a "small town,"
the earliest
residences,
where
all
are located.
although
the main activities
Perhaps
too had more common rooms spread around
if
Kista
in all the
148
jii~j~.~3
~U'
II!
Ii
NI'
~%
III'
v;
1
Iii
2~1I1
~
I
Figure
Kista
149
minor
and
human
encourage
other
and there are
contact,
to
placed
are
rooms
activity
in
corner
Small
liveliness.
and
variety,
richness,
shops
would have gained
overall environment
the
area,
signs
intended to serve more than
that the "small town" is
a residential function.
respect and protection of nature are a
Finally,
Scandianvian
of
ideology
the
in
constant
architecture and planning.
The
positive
Its
date.
to
whimsicality of
of
whimsicality
living
Every
bright,
the
emphasizing
the
enjoying
and alternatly
working.
have been carefully
toy,
a
been
has
and
forms
cheerful
resembly
colors
delicate
Kista
from
impression
overall
element
conceived to harmonize
seems
to
with the
whole.
"Kista doesn't contain revolution, but rather
reforms inside given frames."
true social
a
content it is
In
its
(L. Karlsson, S.
democratic piece of art."
Leijohjufvud, K. Lindgren, 1977)
But questions are already being asked concerning
architecture,
How
design,
planning,
variations
many
of
a
and participation.
to
colors,
avoid
height,
and
space
uniformity?
Is
type
building
built without falling into monotony?
in
its
can
be
Are variations
houses
enough
architecture
alone
between
sufficient to encourage solidarity among inhabitants?
The projects presented at the "Gsvle"
THE GKVLE
COMPETITION
competition in 1979 contain many of the
characteristic
innovations
of
the
1970s
others reflect the design of the 1950s,
still
although
and some are
proposals.
150
-
planned
are
Flats
rebuilding,
change,
for
addition.
-
Plots
of
are
single
by
cultivation
land
often
provided
for
inhabitants.
Contact
with
nature and green areas is still
-
the
into
fit
to
constructed
are
Buildings
considered important.
morphology and natural characteristics of the site.
- Services are available a short distance away.
-
Adequate
public
transportation
ensures
easy
sought
over
connections.
-
low-rise
Varied,
settlements
are
high-rise ones.
-
Mixed
of
forms
tenancy
are
encourage
to
support social variety.
-
Ecological
in
example,
system
concerns
project
the
are
considered
a
Nacka,
for
proposed that will retain
is
(for
percolation
all
unpolluted
surface water).
-
Older
buildings
are
evoked
for
the
pyschological comfort of the inhabitants.
-
Dense,
coherent
clustered
settlemetns
are
constructed for social and climatic reasons.
-
Protected outdoor
spaces are provided between
buildings for recreational and other activites.
-
The
design
language
is
intended
to
be
a
background in which users can intervene according to
their own needs and ideas.
- More
common
facilities
are provided closer to
in initiatives
the house and the owners participate
and decisions.
In the projects submitted to the competition,
quality
singular
case
in
resides
not
in
architectural
the 1960s,
the
form
built
as
elements
but rather
in
was
the
Figure 80
in
the
often
the
or
agreement of
151
,
L7~
1 330
HAGERSTENSASEN
A30
BAGARMOSSEN
NORRA
Figure 79
Use of open
spa ce in
1930's and
1960's
boo
ood
5 500
0
450 -
250
11401
____
160-100
O5'0_______
1 20-601
e
en
.1910
150 -100;
rIZI
(570S
I__
- -{0
Jt
ISM0'4 - ;0s
?cty>.on,
"o
e1"Ke e g
3
0'r ,
"da
e,
04
"I l
"cLAiu
SO0 >t3to
v
i
'6-to'O
vc" VV
"
ZCLf6de"
152
',
Figure 80
Development
plans from
1960's to
1970's
153
the
As
whole.
1930s,
the
in
was
it
perhaps
no
allowed to prevail on the others.
characteristic is
in
building,
materials,
agreement
among
architecture,
and
type,
building
and
the
of
form
the
plan,
site
the
Continuity
and
decoration,
Figures 79,
technology all became goals for the designer
these were
(although
in
continuity
This
production).
of
world
real
implement
to
difficult
the
is
desired between the new project. and the rest of the
neighborhood, not to freeze a particular style of a
past
but
give
and to
appreciate,
they know,
that
them elements
comfortable
more
people
nake
to
rather
elements,
historical
reproduce
to
nor
period,
and
can deal with by their previous experience.
"We have tried to use a means of expression that
occurs in old dwelling houses and that we
(Olle Jureen, 1979).
believe people like"
In general, research and testing of social and
of
the
with
together
requirements,
individual
attempt
in the
involving users in actively participating
planning-design
the
managing
main
the
denote
itself,
environment
in
and
process
THE 1980'S
direction
to
which design will develop in the 1980s.
to
or
shortage,
achieve
social
spaces
and
reduce
rationalize
or
integration,
and
offer
more
the
balance,
collective
accessibility
handicapped
environmental
housing
industrialize
demographic
widen
elderly
control
and
a
create
facilities,
(the
everyone
to
to
but
environment,,
a
overcome
no longer
are
goals
The
as
to
well) ,
and
to
considered
as
pollution,
conserve energy.
Building
part of
a
tchniques
broader
now have
to be
field of environental
techniques.
154
80
and their
The single house
in
to
reference
the
entire
and
town
exist
must
construction
of
the
production system.
Large-scale
to
be a means
an
activity
among
effective
should
design
detailed
transform the urban environment
with
different
participation
wishes
planning and
meaningful
powers.
values
contact
with . people,
categorized
in
forms
Different
are studied to establish
debate
the
in
into
of
a direct and
rather
statistical
than
with
tables.
155
1.1-
0,01939-40
60
55
50
45
65
70
Figure 81
Housing
standard from
1930 to 1970
1250'.&
15Va
30
Ousn SM
1 -2- -3
ocr-jUcat i l
% ro
ms,
.,K*.,C-
1160A
a
170%
O IS-3 7
156
Figure 82
Housing stock
Nurnber of dwellings in 1960. 1965 and 1970 by type of ownership
State and
local auth.
Non-profit Co-operative
companies
Private
persons
1970
1965
1960
Other
1000s
%
1000s
%
1000s
%
State and local auth. 148
208
Non-profit cos
6
8
153
336
5
12
160
527
5
17
14
53
11
0
Ownership
Co-operative
Private persons
Other
Unknown
299
1 722
287
11
11
64
11
0
394
1 663
294
35
14
58
10
1
458
1 700
335
1
All dwellings
2675
100
2875
100
3181
100
157
SUMMARY
The fruit of the 1960s in Stockholm was the City
a business and commercial
Business District (CBD):
area formed by five office towers and shorter
commercial buildings.
THE INNER CITY
AND THE
BUSINESS
ENVIRONMENT
The 1960s saw an effort to "redevelop" an old
area of Stockholm, but this effort nearly entirely
canceled the existing urban structure.
The 1952 plan was designed under the supervision
Markelius to exalt modern technology and a
of S.
This plan represented the
restless urban rhythm.
conclusive solution of a debate that had continued
i.ncluded points proposed in
over a long period; it
and Le
Aalto
A.
of
proposals
the
CIAM,
the
Corbusier, the ideas of the Modern Movement, and the
ideas of the New Empiricism.
1967 acknowledged
citizen over the city.
the
loss
of
by
control
the
in approach was
a change
1970s
During the
followed, in an attempt to return the inner city to
this
achieving
of
means
The
inhabitants.
the
regulations,
traffic
new
plans,
zoning
included
restoration of old buildings, reassessment of open
in
the standard quality of
improvements
spaces,
housing
new
of
development
and
housing,
concentrations elsewhere.
These efforts are
ontinuing to this day.
The regional plan of 1952, which was developed
under the supervision of S. Markelius, transformed
the concentric structure of Stockholm into a radial,
multi-centered city.
THE SUBURBS
AND
RESIDENTIAL
ENVIRONMENT
From the 1950s until the present several new
"town districts" were designed and built around the
original city.
Depending upon the different periods
reflected
they
designed,
were
they
principles and assumed different aspects.
the
in which
different
The centers of the 1950s reflected the work of
while
center),
ABC idea (work-dwelling-service
158
Greater
maintaining a link with the city.
still
better
to
sought,
was
variety in constructed areas
the
fill
better
to
and
fit the natural morphology
needs of inhabitants.
The centers of the 1960s represented the triumph
of technique, industrialization, and administrative
routine.
The centers of the 1970s saw efforts directed
toward the use and meaning of space, the integration
of public and private, of housing and services, of
The, social aspect
built areas and green areas.
became as important as the physical.
An accent was placed on encouraging people to
take an active role in using the environment and to
claim their rights in the city.
Kista is the last town district built in the
aspired to, was the "small
The model it
1970s.
town;" it can be considered the apex of 30 years of
experience with developing new urban areas in the
Some, elements in Kista duplicated those of
suburbs.
the "town districts" of the 1950s; other elements
in a stage of proposal and experimentation.
are still
The solutions proposed at a competition in 1979
in Givle are presented as a summary of the nain
characteristics of the design style of the 1970s,
and to show the direction in which architectural
thought is moving today.
159
160
CHAPTER 4
TEKNII( JEKONOMI J hLSP
INOIPz,
SY6AE
JSALLa
;
QCMsoiOe
___
C:GRUPP cFl", - JVERKI
proposals for the 1980's
161
"PROJECT 80"
"Project 80" is
event being organized
anniversary
fiftieth
INTRODUCTION
another important architectural
in
Stockholm
of
the
to
celebrate
"Stockholm
the
Exhibition
1930."
The overall
Stockholm
the
Architectd
SAR
from
professional
the
Housing
cultural organizations,
Board
of
Riksforbundet),
Department,
public
associations,
by
Planning
Town
the
conducted
National
(Svenska Arkitektens
with
collaboration
being
the
of
section
f inancing
with
is
organization
in
Office,
institutions,
and cooperative associations.
The project will consist of:
- a continuous discussion on certain topics
- an exhibition addressing Stockholm in the 1980s
-
a
mass-media
section
with
a
traveling
exhibition and a TV program
-
-
local
projects
coordination
with
1980
other
activities
such
as smaller exhibits,
seminars,
study visits.
The goal will be to present a program of ideas for
planning and housing in the 1980s.
Lennart
Holm,
direction
of
the
town
planning
office and a key supporter of the initiative, says:
the
In
are today.
where we
clear
"It's
'Stockholm exhibition' (1930) there was optimism
regarding the possibilities of new techniques to
After that we have learned
improve the habitat.
We
not to be so positive in face of technique.
It's a
have indeed also seen the reverse side.
matter of land planning with measures other than
The 1980s will be the
the technical ones...
decade of completion, and this will be carried
on in collaboration with the inhabitants." (from
Dagens Nyeter, 1979)
162
summary
the
of
about
discussions
a
include:
will
project
the
of
topics
Focal
and
housing
inhabitants in the 1970s; a basic program concerning
to support
and nature,
society,
character of people,
to understand the
an attempt
quality;
environmental
planning and building; and a sketch of the desirable
qualities of the physical environment.
A new
Stockholm
Exhibition,- organized
Ahlqvist and R.
(which includes B.
group
by a
SAR
Figure 83
Erskine)
will act as the nanifest of the project.
use
The
fall a
exhibitions,
traveling
issue
contribute an
in
the
constitute
the
housing
functionalistic
to
several
material.
cbcumentation
and
"Arkitektur" will
The Swedish magazine
to show next
the habitat,
about
series
television
entire
are planning
the organizers
television,
and
radio,
press,
of
media
mass
traditional
help
addition to
In
about habitat.
a wide debate
prorate
to
intended
is
media
mass
of
Nordic countries.
most
important
they will be
various
local
denonstrations,, which
existing
with
conditions.
local
consist
present
and
alternatives
Special work groups
environmental
of
debates,
groups,
will
general
the
will
activities
study
exhibitions,
involving
by
and
as
project,
the participation of
carried out with
Thee
the
lively part of
and
associations
public.
probably
will
activities
Local
will deal
identify
to
problems
to
them
and to find appropriate solutions.
To
organize
between
conclude,
the
Museum
of
Architecture
an exhibition of functionalist
1930
and
1980.
architectural
exhibition
and materials
to
will
A
present proposals
architecture
section
deal
with
for
will
of
the
dwellings
the home of
163
the future.
The city of Stockholm will organize
information
of
residential
and
tours
on
building
and
will
prepare
about
between
report
retrospective
a
in
activities
city
subject
the
programs
housing
and
planning
1930 and 1980.
Other
deal
will
exhibitions
with
the
urban,
physical, and social environments.
Particularly
interesting
called
be
the
"Boplats
80"
will
architectural
exhibit
(Habitation 80),
organized as a starting point for a
discussion on future housing.
"The summer of 1980 is the fiftieth anniversary
This Fair hailed
of the Stockholm Fair of 1930.
the
new
of
the
keynote
as
Functionalism
The focus was on a new, rational,
architecture.
The
mass-produced housing for the ommon man.
sufficiently
goal was clearly a social one:
spacious and hygienically satisfactory housing
also
was
architecture
Housing
all.
for
the rational,
connected with a new life style:
efficient member of society.
Since then we have had fifty years of
The mater ial
intensive development of society.
most of
today
achieved:
been
largely
have
goals
us have satisfactory housing according to the
But our values have
demands of the thirties.
After the sixties' and seventies'
changed.
mass-produced
large-scale
of
the
criticism
housing areas, we face a situation today with
shortage,
incipient
housing
high
rents,
scarcity of
increasing
residents,
powerless
resources and uncertainty about what the future
will bring." (from the SAR program)
The
HABITATION 80
oncept of habitat presented in "Project 80"
has a social as well as a physical definition:
"territory" in
which
people
live.
The design
the
and
planning program for such space cannot be limited to
considerations of only work,
education,
economy,
and
164
Figure 83
B.
Ahlqvist
and R.
Erskine
are the
designers of
the
exhibition
165
on
the
meant
to
based
collective need for support.
inhabitants'
then
the
inhabitants,
the
to
reality
the
is
80
The exhibition Habitation
show
be
also
must
but
services,
social
difficulties and obstacles present in any attempt to
achieve a better habitat, and to show them ways to
habitat
and
to
are assumed
assumed
is
community
to
of
sense
a
fair
of
the
of
function
a
be
on' how houses
The
used.
and
designed
are
land
cependent
8e
the
of
comfort
and
quality
The
interact.
better
allocation of responsibilities.
The
habitat as
the most meaningful
with
concerned
importance
the
stresses
program
place where problems
and
social
and
energy,
production,
Solutions are no
commercial services can be solved.
longer expected to come from architectural theories
the
"but
fram
with
involved
impact
the
of
and
individually
both
inhabitants,
environment
everyday
collectively." (SAR program)
ONE-FAMILY
Among the issues the exhibition will address is
The continuous
that of one-family houses (smalhus).
one-family houses has
growth of small,
concern,
because of the consequences
outward
expansion.
century,
the
At
the
of
constructon
caused great
Stockholm's
of
beginning
this
of
was
houses
these
promoted by the City of Stockholm through the "Smaa"
program which allowed low-income
house for themselves.
It
HOUSES
families to
See p.
own a
was recognized at the time
that one benefit of the program was creating a real
estate
environment
in
which private
owners
had
to
regulate their prices.
In 1980,
those
the problem is
outskirts
of
particularly evident in
Stockholm
that
have
been
166
Figure 84
developed with small houses over the last decade.
"The problem... has to be faced in the exhibition
'Habitation 80': How will these new areas work
in the future, and along which directions ought
if
future small houses to be oriented,
the
(Caspar
as until now?"
continue
will
things
Lindberg, 1979).
but
the
of
1960s.
In
fact,
after
a period
Only a
in
the last years
an
intermediate
the
1960s
and
houses
to
idyllic
for
the
single
made
dwellings,
to develop new types of
size between the high-rise blocks of
the
the
houses of
one-family
1970s,
the "Swedish
encourages
your own house."
for
The questions
single
return
few attempts have been
yet the housing market still
dream" of "own
a
desires
back
brought
detached house.
and
years;
preceding
has
ideas
Few
compared
multifamily houses were built in the 1970s
the
of
in production and in buildings began.
of crisis
to
the
qualities
while at the same time,
residential areas,
place
took
denouncing
anti -env ironmental
and
anti-social
production
that
arose
criticism
1960s,
the
of
events
the
increased
the
architecture"
high-rise
"modern
during
as
of
consequence
a
also
the
of
shortage
the housing
explained not simply as
1930s,
can be
of these small house areas
The phenomenon
those
in
concern the
the future nostly
areas
that
the City of Stockholm and that
were
further
planned
by
expand
the
How
far
houses
be
town beyond the existing suburbs.
How
long
the
city
designed
to
can
consumption,
will
this
expand?
reflect
the
changes
phenomen
How
continue?
should
new
over
concerns
in
family
energy
structure,
and
the need to live nore collectively?
Two kinds of, small houses populate
these
areas.
167
Figure 84
One -f amily
houses in the
suburbs of
Stockholm
168
The first group are designed by architects, and are
designed
often grouped together like row houses,
a site
all
where ground conditions,
plan,
general
other
The
consideration.
factors
have
second
group
and
taken
into
so-called
the
is
into
traffic,
been
for
designed
often
catalogue,"
the
fran
"houses
and fitting
the environment
with attention to
"any" place, or some special site that is not always
the
site
same
originally
were
they
Their interiors are designed and finished
intended.
in
which
for
chosen
are
and
area,
suburban
an
open
parcelized
densely
a
to
than
rather
landscape
of
broad perspective
the
to
reference
for
respect
without
proportion between the house and the lot.
The existence
if
the
not
For
future.
but
buildings
context
that
production
stable
but
in
a
includes
conditions
always
need
to
a
isolated
interactive
physical
the
framework
and a
society
has
in
as
not
houses
larger
wil develop
is
there
reason
snell
the
reconsider
this
must be accepted,
areas
that similar
idea
the
of these areas
changing
determined
that
needs
is
and
by
never
new
problems.
"In the exhibition of 1980 we nust be able to
show how an existing "catalogue house" area can
be changed and completed in a simple and correct
manner, with attention to single inhabitants and
It is necessary to attempt to
work places...
subdivide houses into several small apartments
and to see if some of them can house common
To succeed in
rooms for all the neighborhood...
department
housing
regulating villa areas, the
hope that
I
rules...
certain
should establish
that we
show
will
we
1980
in the exhibition of
silently,
areas
do not accept the existing villa
without showing how they can be improved."
(Caspar Lindberg, 1979).
169
the
future
development
so
environment
of
with his surroundings."
for
and
nature
traditionally
had
a
to
attention
to
balance
hand,
the
great
respect
landscape
on
impact
culture.
the
the
(In Italy, for
and care have usually been
monuments
and
towns
old
shape
ecological
"in
attachment
have
to
On the other
sensitivity of Scandinavian
example,
Stockholm
be
will
man
THE LANDSCAPE
the debate is
One of the goals pointed out in
rather
paid
the
to
than
natural environment.)
In Stockholm,
in
green areas
in
planning
the
will
but
as
a
town,
which
to
come
something
to
complement
is
and the
important role
built
between
a
is
that
be
considered
as
an
not
important
the
as a tourist attraction,
town,
landscape
The fear now
and the sea.
lover-quality,
the
town has played an
the
number of lakes
green
protecting
other
in
itself
of
aspects
the
that
and as something
does not return a profit, which is used to justify a
refusal
green
these
to expend effort on preserving
areas.
architects
Landscape
general
importance
contact."
hygienic
like
the
play an
of
attention
both
are
trying
to
planning
future
towns
of
landscape
'Ibpursue that,
needs,
1930s,
active
as
the
on
the
on
"green
they no longer appeal to
they did in a period of crisis
but
rather
role as
climatic stabilizer,
and
focus
demand
that
landscape
a productive element,
as a source of energy,
as
a
and as a
remedy or device to control pollution.
"From general planning on down, we must find
space for an ecological awareness and above.all
W2 ,ust start to
for an ecologial appreciation.
weigh the planning alternatives and exploitation
from an ecological point of view, in the same
170
clear way that we now judge other aspects,
example, costs."
(Birgitta Ericson, 1979).
means
planning
Green
(ground,
water,
economic
and
vegetation),
visual
with
dealing
ecology
functional
needs,
conditions.
In
reality,
nede
type
and
planners
see
value of
the exploitation of the land,
decisions
for
on
the
before
the
is
it
evaluated as a source of ecological quality.
The
public,
to
initiative
change
the politicians,
in
planning.
The
inhabitants
and their
an active role,
In
encouraged.
mistakes present
Project
in
play a crucial role in
the
and new objectives
especially should play
ideas and skills should be
80,
through
the actual situation
landscape
alternatives,
proposing
from
and the public authorities,
competence
combined with experts'
come
should
identifying
and through
architects
will
the future planning process:
"All big exploitation actions should be preceded
by an evaluation and appreciation of the land,
with an eye to potential future uses.
All
people--young,
old,
working
or
unemployed--should have access
to a healthy
environment and to neighborhood parks for daily
recreation.
The inhabitants themselves should
be involved with shaping their environment and
with caring for it to the degree possible.
Housing areas should have a variety of
vegetation according to ecological principles,
so even animals can survive in the neighborhoods.
other
and
kindergarten,
Schools,
institutions where there are children should
have access to park-s so children can become
familiar with nature and its changes through
direct observation."
(B.
Ericson,
1979)
The "work program 1978-80" of the Town Planning
Office of Stockholm is
now
taking
present
place.
many
In
major
indicative of the transition
fact,
the
changes,
program
any
does
THE WORK
PROGRAM 1978-80
not
fundamental
171
At
period.
the
no
crec,
architectural
of
base
no
solutions,
new
and reappraisal of existing
indeed a rethinking of what has
There is
been accomplished,
is
there
program
compelling
but rather a protection
reosurces.
the
this
mark
future,
in the
will,
that
alterations
a confrontation with past errors,
concern with the impact of design and
and a "moral"
planning on people.
based is
The philosophy on which the program is
very
devotes
It
finely grained.
to
attention
all
the details that affect the quality of the physical
and
environment
measures
that
to
responds
need
to
be
social
taken
needs,
from
to guarantee
total
accessibility to handicapped people to the study of
conditions that will
the best environmental
prevent
diseases related to urban stress.
the
1978-80
proposal
the
Office.
In
revised.
Emphasis
use
is
the
Town
program
same
Architectural
older
plans
are
placed on the fact that land
rescue
should
plans
by
plans
a basic requirment of
is
for all parts of the town
modern
detailed
of drawing
The necessity
old
buildings
residential
from being continuously replaced by offices.
that any work
The philosophy of renewal dictates
the
old
parts
respect
for
existing
in
For
some
are
developed
traffic,
people
particular
of
the
town
is
conditions
and
historical
which require
parking
conducted
future
areas,
certain
and
change.
special plans
conditions
accessibility and services
and handicapped,
with
provision
for
for old
day-care
of
facilities.
A clear
and upgrade
organizing
objective of the program is
the involvement of
the
information
to increase
inhabitants,
system
and
through
publishing
172
and guidelines,
handbooks
exhibitions
of
the
is
stress
Particular
program
all
(prepared
by
evaluations,
reports,
projects
under
placed
on
the
town
and
discussion.
environmental
the
planning
office
the
to regulate
together with building authorities)
shape and form of the buildings.
Information
reports
is
the
frcm
evaluation
environmental
considered when planning ways to improve
the quality of the housing areas.
The
public
housing,
by
run
facilities,
organizations.
These
ambulatory
medical
elderly
and
given
day
care
day
service
home
neighborhood
centers
should
offer
cetners,
and they
(by internal
telephone
and home-help
directly connected
should be
care,
for
is
where priority
future building activities,
to
directions
indicates
program
nunicipal
lines) to all apartments inhabited by elderly people.
In
with
collaboration
and
evironmental
design
program
jointly
department
directions
protection,
lake restoration,
and
and
parks
shore
roads
consider
the
street
parking,
In
the
conceived
by
the
the
and
are
and
stops.
bus
of
department
environmental
will
pollution control,
traffic network,
renewal,
traffic
programs
special
departments,
the
health
care
for
land
proposed
air and noise control,
protection.
An
analysis
Figure 85
of
natural resources has also been undertaken.
With
the
alternative
proposal
1930s)
suitable
working.
to
raised about
(modeled after
collective
young
houses
families
houses
collective
to residence-hotels
questions have been
re-proposing
of
as
for
an
elderly people,
the possibility of
the experiments
a
as
dwelling
where both
of
form
parents
the
also
are
173
Figure 85
An important
project
the "lake
restoration"
C:a 1200m
Returvatten
174
In
the "old town"
housing
program
All
program.
pattern
of
address
the
is
renewal
existing
combined
work
the
with
must
buildings
problem of
the
plan,
(Innerstad)
coexistence
of
renewal
with
the
streets,
to
conform
and
public
old and new
buildings.
In the "outer town,"
housing areas,
the plan will consider new
work areas, recreation,
and services.
'1
Elevation to Tomtebogatan.
175
SUMMARY
"Project 80" is the title of a series of
architectural events that are being organized in
The organization is
Stockholm for the summer 1980.
Architects
supervised by the Swedish Board of
other
several
of
participation
with
(S.A.R.),
"Project 80" will be structured as a
institutions.
series of initiatives, such as exhibitions, debates,
workshops, and local activities, with the extensive
The topics relate
involvement of modern mass media.
and
housing
about
concerns
contemporary
to
environmental design; the exhibition will critically
evaluate the architectural experiences of Sweden
from 1930 and propose ideas for the 1980s.
PROJECT 80
The overall goal is to make people aware of
in
them
involve
to
and
environment
their
in
exhibition,
One
management.
environmental
particular, "Habitation 80," will deal with issues
concerning the space people use and interact with in
everyday life.
the
quality of
the
on
placed
is
Stress
its capability to satisfy collective
environment,
in
and the sharing of responsibilities
needs,
"Habitation 80" will
dealing with the environment.
also consider the problem of small housing areas,
spread around the town and in the suburbs of
Stockholm. The problems of these areas will also be
discussed. "Project 80" may be considered to be a
reassessment of individual buildings within an urban
context.
80"
"Project
the
in
architects
Landscape
awareness and an ecological
ecological
advocate
appreciation, particularly in the design processes.
They attribute an active role to the landscape as a
productive element, as a source of energy, in terms
a
as
and
control,
pollution
and
climate
of
complement to all other activity spaces.
The work program of the Town Planning Office for
1978-80 reflects the view that these wars are a
'transition' period, which give rise to the need to
reassess the urban environment.
The program deals with
elderly housing,
housing,
urban renewal,
care,
child
WORK PROGRAM
1978-80
public
traffic
176
planning, protection of the natural environment,
pollution control.
and
Potential future changes are also taken into
A clear objective of the program is the
account.
existing
already
the
of
development
further
design
and
planning
concerning
systems
information
activities, to support public participation.
177
I XA C.f II/,"
AA
t 115.Af.%VA
%5
j IIS
conC usion
178
CONCLUS IONS
This
is
study refers
concept of history that
physical
and social,
to
was
objective
starting by acknowledging
geographical
area
illustrated.
The
natural
in
architecture
the forces and trends that
offered
this
that
a
specific
could
process
this
which
fact
and man-made.
understand
Stockholm
and
it,
generated
interaction of
but an
not a mere list of facts,
events:
The
to a
be
coincided
study
with the celebration in Stockholm (Project 80) of 50
years of architectural history gave me the chance to
to two
period with reference
the same
examine
in
events
important
Swedish
the
architecture:
Stockholm exhibition of 1930 and "Project 80."
indicate
50
moments,
two
These
the
najor
changes
clearly
years
apart,
that
occurred
in
the
physical environment as well as the way architecture
Observing these
dealt with them.
to
which
understand
change,
in the political situation,
conditions,
in
which
from
the natural
physical
in economic
in
the
in the life style and culture,
and
the
social structure,
the
resulted
trends
and which values were nore important.
Changes
in
changes will help
system
of
environment all
environment.
The
production,
determine
change
environment,
in
in
its
turn, influences people and their behavior.
Comparing
the
exhibitions
and reality
provides
an oppportunity to see two different answers to the
179
to
shown
the
was
to
the
to be
answer,
which
notivations
interest
My
context.
an historical
determine
proposal
real
the
public--and
in
place
takes
answer--a
cultural
a
problem:
same
that
generated
they had
the effect
those proposals and to determine
on the real world.
Optimism and confidence
of
the
Skepticism
and
doubt
characterize Project
first
the
think
the
over
it
issues
statements
1930 gave
asks
80
questions,
is
The message
warns.
and
presents
inspire people with hope
time to
of
second,
"Exhibition," the
Project
underscores past mistakes,
future
in confirmation
Exhibition of
definitions;
and
and
present
As if
80.
1930.
of
Exhibition
the
about
called
was
The
"Project."
the future marked the
Stockholm
atmosphere
this,
in
at the
for what
to
same
can be
in
the future.
The present political situation no longer offers
the steadiness of
how
equilibrium
The
1930s.
to
desire
is
of
change
to know
conviction
as
was
but
the
in
true
that
forces
led to a nearly stagnant
reached has
there
and the
problem,
a
approach
to
ideas
been
has
situation where
is
not
the
problems
are
not
there
courage to ch it.
Solutions
to
expected
independently.
whole
viewed
to
environmental
be
found
a
considering
problems
They nust be handled as parts of a
"man-environment
in
by
system;"
they
"holistic and ecological
need
to
be
perspective"
that
all aspects of human well-being
"integrates
the
with
social)
mental,
(physical,
corresponding aspects of the human environment.
political
to
applies
strategy
This
decision-making,
social action,
and evaluative
180
three
these
Optimally,
alike.
research
be
integrated."
and should
could
processes
(Lennart Levi and Lars Andersson, 1975).
environmental
studies,
recognize
positive
the
is
it
that
organized
1934,
since
Stockholm
(while institutional structures
to
possible
contribution
given
in
research
of
value
and
has
activity
research
the
emphasize
concerns
These
were willing to make
use of the results).
This study supports
and
building
changed,
have
In
manifested.
As
activities.
so
the
the
that social concern
social
ways
in
values
which
century,
19th
planning
in Stockholm's
factor
constant
has been a
the idea
they
have
are
planning
social
was a fruit of Socialist reformism and philanthropic
utopias;
in
in
a
to
the
years
in
psychological
"humanize"
architecture.
of
show
and land are
that it
important for satisfaction
of
of
concepts
have
life"
been
the
designing
indicators"
and
"level
the
of
environment,
and
80"
how
"quality
evaluating
for
and
"env ironmental
and
have
indicators"
"social
of
and quality."
living"
basis
the
planned and used,
buildings
The
important
is
dwellings,
is
In
"Habitation
it
that
approach
strengthened
on human behavior has
to
it
1950s
influence
the
interrelation.
mostly by
and
1940s
the
and
that
"wants
also
in
notivated
acknowledgment
the environment
interest
was
it
romantic
nore
the attempt
last
1930s
struggles;
political
assumed
the
been
the
by
such
instruments.
"Quality of
Life"
objective criteria
living")
determined
(as for determining
as education,
conditions,
is
nutrition,
employment,
health,
both
the "level of
economy,
etc.
housing
and
such
181
and social
mental,
as physical,
criteria
subjective
including aspects of the nn-environment
well-being,
as
equilibrium
etc.
perception of the environment,
expectations,
in
Important
of
and the meaning
expectations
of
role
the
are
respect
this
and
needs
of
satisfaction
that
discrepancies
and reality,
may occur not only between expectations
but also between expectations and perceived reality.
Human requirements in the 1930s were limited to
a
sun,
house,
a
into
transformed
and
air,
an
of
product
assembling-
process.
Rationalism considered users as
system of
objective
Neo-Empiricism,
of
romanticism
in
considered
Requirements
environment.
terms of feelings
it
individual
to
relation
a
than in practical terms.
making
a
become
of
source
built
in
more
expressed
were
to enrich human life in the house,
making
individuality
system;
production
the
frc
were
users
psychological
the morpholoy of the environment and
relation to
independent
a complex
individual buildings
considering
regained its value,
in
With - the
needs.
was
dwelling
the
green;
"We want
it
nicer,
happiness."
(Sven
Backs tr6m)
The 1960s
"modern."
being
concerned
and
the excitement of using new technologies
with those
and
innovations
technological
offered
the
Human
organization
of
requirements
now
and
environment
the
the availability and quality of services.
Today
are
the
social
in
manifested
attention.
and
ecological
the
problems
environment
The goals of environmental
that
call
for
design are to
increase the possibilities of social interaction;
remedy
achieve
class,
age,
better
and
cultural
management
and
segregation;
control
to
to
over
182
use;
to
and
resources
environmental
enourage
user
process,
of
directly
environmental
in
involved
and
activities,
design
land
balanced
more
awareness
issues so they will become
decision
a
the
products
management.
Air,
"Sun,
"Stockholm
Information,
and Green"
Exhibition
Energy,
were the key words
of
1930."
of the
"Communication,
'and Participation"
are
the
key
words of "Project 80."
In
1930 Stockholm was
presenting
answers
to
its
own needs.
In
1980
Stockholm
is
ask ing
questions
and
raising issues and problems of worldwide concern.
183
bibliog ra p hy
84
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aalto,
In Memoriam,
A.:
1940.
Ahlgren, I.:
"Il piano di salvaguardia della citti
Stoccolma," Urbanistica, n. 45, 1965.
Atmer, A.K.:
Atmer,
T.
100 Ar I Lagenhet - The Swedish Flat,
and Linn,
1962
B.:
Storia Dell'Architettura Moderna,
Benevolo, L.:
Le Origini Dell'Urbanistica Moderna,
God Bostad,
1954,
n.
Metron.,
Benevolo, L.:
Calandra,
Stockholm,
item Stockholm.
"Urbanistica d'oggi a Stoccolma,"
Bostadstyrelsen:
Stockholm 1976.
Contemporary Swedish Architecture,
Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals:
Bardel, B.:
storica di
Bari,
22,
1947.
1960.
Bari,
1963.
1964.
R.:
"La Teoria Americana Della 'Neighborhood
n. 6, 1946.
Unit'," Metron.
Catalogue of the Swedish section of the International Exhibition of the
Dwelling,
Town
Planning
and
International
Federation
for
Territorial Assessment, Paris, 1962.
Daleul, Holm L.:
De Carlo,
G.C.:
Dorfles, G.:
Bgttre BostSder, 1965.
An Architecture of Participation,
L'Architettura Moderna,
Firenze,
1972.
1960.
Ericson, B.:
"Project 80: Ur landskap arkitektens
ArkitekTidningen, n. 3, 1979.
Eriksson, E.:
"Ett friskt city:" Arkitektur,
n.
3,
synvinkel,"
1976.
Aufbruch und Krise des Funktionalismus Bauen und Wohnen in
Exhibition:
Schweden 1930-1980, 1976.
Fariello, F.:
"Urbanistica:
l'espansione della citti di Stoccolma verso
Architettura, Vol. 17, July 1938.
la periferia,"
Ferrari, M.: "Corrispondenza
5, 1950.
da Stockholma,"
Urbanistica,
vol.
19.
185
n.
Giedion,
S.:
Space,
1949.
Great Britain,
Haiden,
Hitchcock,
Dept.
of the Environment:
Seven American Utopias,
D.:
the growth of a new tradition,
Time Architecture:
"Design Bulletins."
1976.
Cambridge,
H.R. and Johnson, P.: The International Style,
since 1922, New York, 1932.
Hitchcock,
H.R.:
1958.
Architecture:
Nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
Holmgren, P.: The Planned Development of Stockholm, 1970
paper).
Howard,
The idea of the Garden Cities of Tommorrow,
E.:
architecture
(unpublished
London 1945.
Johansson, G. "Sven Markeliums architetto svedese e internazionale,"
Casabella 201, 1954.
Jureen, 0.
"Givle Tavling," Arkitektur,
Karlsson, L. et al.:
1977.
n.
9,
1979.
"Kista arkitektdr5m forverKligad," Arkitektur, 2,
Kooperativa Forbundet Arkitektkontoret:
Stockholm, 1949.
Housing in
Sweden
1925-1949,
Lantz, G.: A renewal of a residential district in the inner part of
Stockhom, Sweden, E.C.E. Symposium Geneve, May 1978.
Levi, L.
and Anderson,
1975.
L.:
Population,
Environment and Quality of Life,
Levi-Strauss,
C.:
Structural Anthropology
Levi-Strauss,
C.:
Le cru et le cuit,
1964.
Lindhall, B.:
"Osvald Almqvist, uno di coloro che introdussero
l'architettura moderna in Svezia," Metron., November 1963.
Linn, B."
"Bostaden som produkt och nyttighet,"
Ljndberger, T.:
Stockhom 1919-1969,
Arkitektur,
n.
7,
1978.
1970.
Lundewall, 0.:
"Cooperative Housing," in Swedish Experiences of
Self-Building, Cooperation Consumer Research, Participation,
1976.
186
"Le cooperative edilizie e le non profit societies,"
Marcheggiani, S.:
in Casa E Territorio In Scandinavia, 1975.
"Il nuove centro di Stoccolma,: Casabella, Continuiti,"
Markelius, S.:
n. 275, 1963.
Markelius, S.:
"Stadsplanefragor
n. 18, 1945.
Markelius,
Morris,
i Stockholm,:
Byggmsstaren,"
S.and Selen, H.: ,"Nuovi Sviluppi urbanistici a Stoccolma,"
Urbanistica, no. 10-11, 1952.
W.:
Architecture,
Industry and Wealth,
The City In nistory:
prospects, 1961.
Mumford,
L.:
its
Norberg,
Schulz C.:
London 1902.
its origins, its transformations and
Stav og Laft i Norge,
Oslo,
1969.
stan..."
"Det var den sommaret Funkisen kom till
Nordenankar, A.:
Dagens Nyeter, 12-29-1979.
O.E.C.D.:
Urban Environmental Indicators,
Stockhom:
Ollson, W.W.:
paper).
Paulsson,
T.:
1978.
Structure and Development,
Ny Arkitektur,
1977
(unpublished
1948.
1958.
Paulsson, T.:
Ny Stad,
Paulsson, T.:
Scandinavian Architecture,
Pevsner, N.:
Paris,
London,
1958.
Outline of European Architecture, 1945.
"The Architecture of Urban Housing in the United States
Pommer, R.:
during the Early 1930s," Journal of Architectural Historians,
December 1978.
Poretti, S.: Edilizia e Architettura
Roma 1979.
in Svezia e Danimarca,
1945-60,
"Asplunds Stockholmer Ausstellung," Wasmuths
Rasmussen, S.E."
Montashefte fur Baukust, vol. 14, 1930.
Ray,
S.:
Ray,
S.:
L'Architettura Moderna nei Paesi Scandinavi,
Il contributo Svedese all'architettura
di Sven Markelius, 1969.
1965.
contemporanea e 1'opera
187
Sartoris, A.:
Gli Elementi Dell'Architettura Funzionale, Milano, 1932.
A tribute to the famous Swedish
Schaud, P.M.: "E. Gunnar Asplund.
architect whose death has recently been announced, with special
reference to his work--The Stockholm Exhibition,
1930," The
Architectural Review, vol. 89, May 1941.
Schimmerling, A.:
"Evolution des capitales des pays nordiques:
Helsinki,
Stockholm V1llingby,
cite satellite
de Stockholm,
Copenhague," L'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui, n. 88, 1960
Smith, G.H.:
"Sweden
is
modern,"
Architectural Form, July 1945.
"Le plan regional du Grand Stockhom,"
Stack, J.:
1976..
STKH Stadsbyggnadkontor:
Arbetsprogram 1979-80,
utredningsverksammhet.
Urbanisme,
n.
126,
for plannlggning och
STKH Stadsbyggnadkontor:
Stockholi:
Regional and City Planning,
STKH Stadsbyggnadkontor:
1972.
Byggdmiljo,
Urban Environment,
STKH Stadsbyggnadkontor:
Stockholm city,
Cityplan 1977-Forslag till
1977.
STKH Stadsbyggnadkontor:
Gardsanering,
STKH Stadsbyggnadkontor:
Smastugor 1927-57.
1963.
Milieu Urbain,
generalplan
for
1978.
STKH LIns Landsting, Regionplan ach NgringslivsnSmnden: Regionplan
1978 i tva alternativ Regionplanentext, March 1978.
STKH LIns Landsting, Regionplanekontoret.
och Psykisk HAlsa.
Landell,
N.E.:
Storstadmiljd
STKH Lins Landsting, Regionplanekontoret. Asvirn, G. L5nd Landstingets
Miljoinventering-Sammanfattning av resultat, 1975.
STKH Kommun Kommunstyrelsens Utlotanden och Memorila Bihang:
Sj5ar, 1978.
Stockhoms
Swedish Council for Building Research:
Smalhus Framtidshem, 1978.
Stockholms Eldre F6rorter:
Swedish Council for Building Research:
kommenterad, 1975.
Svensk Bostadsmiljd upplevd och
188
Trettiotalets Byggnadkonst i
Svenska Arkitektens Riksforbundet:
Akademisk Arkitektur
Sverige Fran Akademiska Opponenter till
1943.
Stockholm,
Ny Svensk Arkitektur,
Svenska Arkitektens Riksforbundet:
Architecture, Stockhom, 1947.
Housing Policy in Stockholm, 1977.
Svensson, E.:
Taesler, W.:
"Von Siedlungsbau zum Stadtebau,"
11,. September 1957,
Tafuri,
Tove,
M.:
New Swedish
Progetto e Utopia,
Roma,
Bauen und Wohen,
vol.
1973.
Susanne:
Women in American Architecture:
Historic and
Contemporary Perspective, New York, 1977.
United Nations Conference on Human Settlements-Habitat-Vancouver
Co-operation,
of Self-Building
Swedish experiences
Research Participation.
Various Authors:
Casa e Territorio nei Paesi Scandinavi,
1975.
Wallander,
S.:
"Hyreslagenheter for Stockholms Utstalling 1930,"
Svenska Slojdforeningens Tidskrift, 1930.
Wernher,
H.:
"Progress, the Swedish contribution," Architectural
Review, August 1930.
Wohlin, H.:
1976:
Consumer
"The Planning of Stockholm," Tokyo Symposium, November 1977.
Wohlin, H.: Stockholm's experience of decentralized concentration,
1973 (unpublished paper).
Asplund,
Milano 1948.
Zevi,
B.:
E.G.
Zevi,
B.:
Storia dell'Architettura Moderna,
1961.
189
REFERENCES
privacy, personal
Altman, I.: The environment and social behavior:
space, territory, crowding, 1975.
Design in Architecture,
Canter, D.:
Psychology for Architects,
Canter, D. and Stringer:
et al.:
N.J.,
1976.
Habraken,
1973.
New York,
Boudon, P.:
London 1974.
London 1975
Environmental interaction,
The Systematic Design of Supports,
Variations:
Ittelson, W., Proshansky, H., Rivlin, L.,
environmental psychology, 1974.
An introduction of
Winkel, G.:
Proshansky, H., Ittelson, W., Rivlin, L.: Environmental psychology:
man and his physical setting, 1970.
Le Corbusier:
1973.
New York,
The image of the city, Cambridge, 1960.
Lynch, K.:
Lyndon,
Towards a new architecture,
D., et al.:
Powers of Inhabitation,
Rome,
1977.
MIT-ILAUD 79: "Outline Extended" (paper to be published in ILAUD report
1979).
Norberg, Schulz C.:
Existence Space Architecture, New York, 1971
Norberg, Schuls C.:
Intentions in Architecture,
Norberg, Schuls C.:
Meaning in Western Architecture, Cambridge, 1975
Outline of European Architecture, 1945.
Pevsner, N.:
Porteous, J.D.: Environment nd behavior:
life, 1977.
Portoghesi,
1966
Cambridge,
P.:
planning and everyday urban
Le inibizioni dell'architettura,
House Form and Culture,
Rapoport,
A.:
Zevi, B.
Storia dell'architettura
Toronto,
uderna,
Roma,
1974.
New York,
1969.
1961.
190