2. Biotic Resources of the Salmon River Watershed
2.1. Vegetation
Vegetation of the Salmon River is influenced by the Wisconsin Glaciation that
occurred 12,000 years ago. The Laurentide ice sheet removed and deposited sediments,
and exposed bedrock during its expansion and recession (Jordan 1984). Different soils
accumulated from shales, siltstones, sandstones, and limestones (Proch 1989). Eskers, or
elongated gravelly ridges, were created by glacial meltwaters depositing large amounts of
sediments. Glaciers also created kettle ponds, outwash plains, and low rounded hills
(Taber 1996). Wetlands are commonly found between eskers and in kettle ponds and
outwash plains.
Different sediment deposits lead to varying forest types, which in turn affect
nutrients and water chemistry (Dru Associates 2001). Much of the forests in the Salmon
River Watershed have been cleared at one time or another for timber or agriculture.
Stands of red maple and black cherry have been planted to reestablish forests and riparian
zones (Taber 1996).
Vegetation cover within the watershed includes evergreen, deciduous, and mixed
forests, as well as forested and nonforested wetlands (Table 2-1 and Figure 2-1). A
mixed forest, containing beech, maple, pine, and spruce, surrounds the Upper Reservoir.
Hemlock-northern hardwood forests and red maple hardwood swamps compose the
wetlands directly surrounding and to the south of the Upper Reservoir (Dru Associates
2001). The velocity of the reservoir is much slower than the river, leading to lake-like
characteristics. Aquatic plants, such as elodea, yellow pond lily, and water celery, might
be found in the reservoir itself. Within the upper reservoir are several islands whose
vegetation is dominated by American beech-maple forests, as well as red and white pine
(Dru Associates 2001).
Figure 2-1. Forested lands within the Salmon River watershed.
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
15
Between the Upper and Lower Reservoir lies Salmon River Falls. Within this
region the forest is mainly American beech-sugar maple and hemlock-northern hardwood
forest. Other species of vegetation present are striped maple, jack-in-the-pulpit, many
species of ferns, and baneberry (Dru Associates 2001).
The Eastern end of the Lower Reservoir is characterized by numerous eskers.
This topography leads to an increased occurrence of wetlands, specifically poor fens and
vernal pools (Dru Associates 2001; Figure 2-2). Some vegetation commonly found in
poor fens includes bog rosemary, bog laurel, sheep laurel, labrador tea, sundews, pink
lady slipper orchids, pitcher plants, larch and black spruce (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000).
Many of these plants are listed as rare or endangered. To withstand the wet environment,
fen plants have specialized adaptations including sclerophyllous leaves, insectivory and
carnivory, and evergreen leaves. Vernal pools are present from late winter to early
summer. They form in depressions and fill during snow melt. Amphibians commonly
use vernal pools for reproduction habitat, and many species require these ephemeral
wetlands to complete their life cycles (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000).
Figure 2-2. Wetlands in the Salmon River Watershed.
Below the Lower Reservoir toward Altmar, the river begins to braid, meandering
and forming small islands. The vegetation within these braids consists of American
beech and sugar maple forests. Several other species occur in this area due to the alluvial
soils and seasonal flooding, including red maple, green ash, blue beech, yellow birch and
alder (Dru Associates 2001).
Between Altmar and Pulaski, Orwell Brook, Trout Brook, and Spring Brook enter
the Salmon River. The State Fish Hatchery is located just upriver of Altmar. Plant
species found within this part of the watershed include speckled alder, quaking and big
toothed aspen, eastern hemlock, red-stemmed dogwood, several species of willow, white
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
16
oak, white birch, hawthorn, crab apple, American basswood, wild grape, black raspberry,
witch-hazel and American alder (Wisniewski 1990). In braided regions of the river,
backwater sloughs have formed in old meanders. Water inputs to these wetlands include
spring flooding and ground water discharge. These habitats support hardwood and shrub
swamps, as well as poor fens (Dru Associates 2001).
Below Pulaski, alder, red raspberry, oaks, maples, quaking aspen, staghorn
sumac, and black locust dominate the vegetation. There are numerous wetlands within
this region. Cattails, sedges, and grasses are commonly seen along the river’s edge (Dru
Associates 2001). At the mouth of the river, prior to it entering Lake Ontario, there is an
emergent marsh consisting of sweet flag, cattails, and phragmites.
Table 2-1. Vegetation corresponding to forest type.
Evergreen
Pinus strobus
Pinus rubens
Pinus sylvestris
Picea rubens
Picea abies
Picea mariana
Tsuga canadensis
Abies balsamea
Juniperus virginiana
Larix laricinia
Forested wetland
Alnus rugosa
Acer saccharinum
Carpinus caroliniana
Cephalanthus occidentalis
Deciduous
Deciduous (con't)
Ulnus americana
Acer pennsylvanicum
Acer rubrum
Acer saccharum
Acer spicatum
Betula alleganiensis
Betula lenta
Betula papytifera
Betula populifolia
Carpinus carolinia
Carpinus caroliniana
Carya cordiformis
Carya glabra
Carya ovata
Carya tomentosa
Castanea dentata
Cornus racemosa
Celtis occidentalis
Cornus stolonifera
Crategus sp.
Fagus grandifolia
Fraxinus grandifolia
Fraxinus americana
Ilex verticullata
Hammamelis virginiana
Lindera benzoin
Malus sylvestris
Populus deltoides
Populus grandidentum
Populus tremuloides
Prunus serotina
Pyrus arbutifolia
Quercus alba
Quercus prinus
Quercus rubra
Rhus typhina
Robinia pseudo-acacia
Salix discolor
Salix nigra
Sambucus canadensis
Sorbus americana
Spirea latifolia
Tilia americana
Ulmus americana
Ulmus rubra
Vaccinium angustifolium
Vaccinium corymbosum
Viburnum alnifolium
Calastrus orbiculatus
Vitis riparia
Rubus allegheniensis
Rubus idaeus
Verbascum thapsus
Platanus occidentalis
Non-forested wetland
Chamaedaphne calyculata
Ledum groenlandicum
Vaccinium angustifolium
Vaccinium corymbosum
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
Mixed Forest
Acer pennsylvanicum
Acer rubrum
Acer saccharum
Acer spicatum
Fagus grandifolia
Pinus strobus
Pinus rubens
Pinus sylvestris
Picea rubens
Picea abies
Picea mariana
Tsuga canadensis
Abies balsamea
Rubus allegheniensis
Rubus idaeus
Rudbeckia hirta
Toxicodendron raticans
Solidago rugosa
Spiraea latifolia
Verbascum thapsus
Aquatic
Elodea canadensis
Nuphar variegatum
Vallisneria americana
Pontederia cordata
17
Chamaedaphne calyculata
Cornus racemosa
Fraxinus pennsylvanica
Ilex verticullata
Hammamelis virginiana
Juniperis virginiana
Larix laricinia
Ledum groenlandicum
Lindera benzoin
Picea mariana
Pinus strobus
Platanus occidentalis
Populus deltoides
Salix discolor
Salix nigra
Sambucus canadensis
Spirea latifolia
Vaccinium angustifolium
Vaccinium corymbosum
Vibernum recognitum
Vibernum trilobum
Vitis riparia
Verbena hastata
Sphagnum spp.
Vibernum recognitum
Vibernum trilobum
Acorus calamus
Peltandra virginica
Triadenum virginicum
Tpha latifolia
Solidago sp.
Verbena hastata
Sphagnum spp.
Threats to forests and wetlands in the Salmon River Watershed include
development, unsustainable logging practices, insects, diseases, and fire.
In the northern hardwood forest, the sugar maple borer and the forest tent
caterpillar degrade the quality and growth rate of the trees. Gypsy moths, first discovered
in New York in 1922, prefer oaks and are heavy defoliators of forests. Oak trees also
face problems from leafrollers and leaf tier complexes, such as Archips spp. and Croesia
semipurpurana, which cause defoliation and can lead to tree mortality (Abrahamson et al.
1981). Evergreen species, such as spruce, hemlock, pine, and cedar, are threatened by the
spruce spider mite (Oligonychus ununguis). American beech is susceptible to beech bark
disease, caused by an insect-fungus complex comprised of the beech scale, Cryptococcus
fugisuga, and the fungus, Nectria coccina var. faginata. Beech bark disease creates
crater-like scars that lead to the death of long strips of bark. The tree can then be easily
invaded by insects and fungi (Abrahamson et al. 1981).
Stresses to trees, such as draught and saturated soils, can lead to Armillariella
mellea and Ganoderma applanatum infestation, resulting in root rot. Conifers are easily
infested with these fungi when a stand is first cut. Basidiospores infect the stump and
spread into the roots, and can infect other trees through root contact. Fires were once a
major disturbance regime within the forests of the watershed. However, today fires are
rare (Abrahamson et al. 1981).
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
18
2.2. Wildlife
Wildlife within the Salmon River watershed is a vast area of study. In an attempt
to reduce the size of this study, only significant species found within the watershed have
been included. We focused our study on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus),
beaver (Castor canadiensis), and muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), the latter two being
selected because of their classification as “ecosystem engineers.” These are defined
(Jones et al., 1994) as organisms which can create profound physical changes to habitats,
with consequent alterations of flows of water, energy, and nutrients.
2.2.1. White-tailed Deer
Not including the fisheries resources, white-tailed deer are the most sought after
game within the Salmon River watershed. The annual deer-hunting season helps to
contribute to the local economies of the region, because of the influx of hunters during
the season. However, deer at high numbers can be considered a pest. Deer are known to
help spread diseases, particularly Lyme disease, in this region. Deer at high densities are
also a problem because of the high incidence of traffic accidents. Deer can also play a
major role in forest regeneration by browsing on seedlings of plants (Bayer 1993).
We assessed deer by examining data collected by the Department of
Environmental Conservation (DEC). The data were collected in areas known as wildlife
management units (WMUs) and the Salmon River watershed was divided into more than
one of these units. The data described below, however, are from WMU 6K. This area
encompasses much of the Salmon River watershed, while leaving only the extreme upper
and lower portions of the watershed outside this WMU1.
All information collected indicates that the watershed’s deer population is higher
than desired. An estimate of the population in 1998 stated that it was desirable to have
the population decrease by 20%. More recent hunter data collected from the 2001 season
show that the buck take per square mile was 2.4, exceeding the proposed buck take of 1.8
per square mile. This number dropped from 2.8 bucks taken per square mile from the
2000 season2. During the 2000 season, almost 77% of the deer removed from the
population by hunting were bucks. Because one buck will mate with multiple does, the
practice of hunting only bucks will not have a significant impact on the deer population
as a whole. This would indicate that the population remains larger than desired3.
2.2.2. Beaver and Muskrat
Beavers are the quintessential “ecosystem engineers” (sensu Jones et al. 1994),
having the capacity to alter ecosystems by flooding stream banks, which then causes
ponding of lotic systems, even possibly creating lakes. By selective removal of trees for
food and shelter, they dramatically alter hydrologic flowpaths, creating wetlands and
ponds that may persist for many decades (Naiman et al. 1988). Their activity may alter
everything from decomposition and nutrient cycling to riparian zone vegetation and plant
and animal community structure (Naiman et al. 1988).
1
http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/r6units.html#WMU6K
http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/deer/deerfore.htm
3
http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/press/pressrel/2001-25.html
2
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
(04/06/2002)
(04/06/2002)
(04/06/2002)
19
Aerial surveys indicate that there are currently 705 active beaver colonies within
the watershed. This is only slightly higher than the management objective of 641
colonies (Erner 2002). At present, there is little concern over beaver populations,
although fisherman, farmers, and foresters at times have considered the beaver a pest.
There were only 63 complaints of beaver damages in the WMU4. The tributaries of the
Salmon River can also be used as spawning habitat for salmon. Therefore, abundance
and densities of beaver colonies may be very important in blocking the migration of
spawning fish (Forsyth 1999).
Another species considered an ecosystem engineer is the muskrat, because their
burrows alter the routes that water takes through wetlands (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000).
However, little information exists about the muskrat in this area. This might be due to
the low abundance in the watershed, or the possibility that they are ecologically
insignificant (Kautz 2001).
2.2.3. Reptiles and Amphibians
A number of reptiles and amphibians are found in the Salmon River watershed.
There are nine species of salamanders, nine species of frogs and toads, eight species of
snakes, and four species of turtles. The following is a species list compiled from New
York State’s Department of Environmental Conservation’s Amphibian and Reptile
Atlas5:
Table 2-2. Herps found in the Salmon River watershed.
Salamanders
-Necturus maculosus
-Ambystoma maculatum
-Notophthalmus viridescens
-Desmognathus fuscus
-Desmognathus ochrophaeus
-Plethodon cinereus
-Hemidactylium scatatum
-Grinophilus porphyriticus
-Eurycea bislineata
Common Mudpuppy
Spotted Salamander
Red-spotted Newt
Northern Dusky
Mountain Dusky
Northern Redback
Four-toed Salamander
Spring Salamander
Northern Two-lined
Frogs & Toads
-Bufo americanus
-Hyla versicolor
-Pseudacris crucifer
-Rana catesbeiana
-Rana clamitans
-Rana spetentrionalis
-Rana sylvatica
-Rana pipiens
-Rana palustris
Eastern American toad
Gray Treefrog
Northern Spring Peeper
Bullfrog
Green Frog
Mink Frog
Wood Frog
Northern Leopard Frog
Pickerel Frog
Snakes
4
5
http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/beaver/index.htm
www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/herp/index.html
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
(04/06/2002)
20
-Nerodia sipedon
-Storeria dekayi
-Storeria occipitomaculata
-Thamnophis sirtalis
-Thamnophis sauritus
-Diadophis punctatus
-Liochlorophis vernalis
-Lampropeltis triangulum
Northern Water Snake
Northern Brown Snake
Northern Redbelly Snake
Common Garter Snake
Eastern Ribbon Snake
Northern Ringneck Snake
Smooth Green Snake
Milk Snake
Turtles
-Chelydra serpentina
-Clemmys guttata *
-Clemmys insculpta *
-Chrysemys picta
Common Snapping Turtle
Spotted Turtle
Wood Turtle
Painted Turtle
* = New York State protective status - Species of Special Concern
There are few species of special concern in the area. The spotted turtle and the
wood turtle are on New York State’s Species of Special Concern list. Habitat destruction
is a problem facing all reptiles and amphibians in the area. The mink frog is a species of
special interest, also. It is not on New York State’s Protected list, yet it is an oddity
found in the state. This frog is at its southern-most range here in the state, and it has been
found in the Salmon River watershed. The amount of suitable habitat in the watershed is
not very large, so it could be easy to extirpate this or other species quickly.
Dr. James Gibbs, a professor of herpetology at SUNY ESF who we interviewed,
commented that “the Tug Hill Plateau is a herpetological black-hole in New York State.”
He was addressing the fact that there is very little or no research being done in the area.
There is much to be looked at, but little opportunity for funding is available. The need
for data is essential for proper management plans. The more that is known about the
populations in the area, the better the ability to develop a plan that takes reptiles and
amphibians into account. With no data, they are almost forgotten, and are not accounted
for when changes in the system are being made. Most people in the watershed area are
probably unaware that they have two, somewhat rare turtles living in their backyards. As
with most things, these species are “out of sight, and out of mind.”
More information needs to be collected in the Salmon River watershed
concerning reptiles and amphibians. A great deal of research is going into the fisheries of
the area, but there is clearly a need to obtain a better picture of the entire watershed and
all of its biota. Without proper data and information, it makes it very difficult to develop
an effective management plan that will take into account the entire system with all its
components.
2.3 Fish and Fisheries Resources
Speak the words Salmon River Watershed, and the thought of annual spawning
runs of salmon will come to mind. For most people this is the only reason they are aware
of the area, and rightfully so. Since the retreat of the glaciers, the river has provided
annual runs of salmon that have shaped the history of the area. Other species, although
not as influential as the salmon, remain significant within the watershed.
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
21
2.3.1. History of the Fishery, Reach 1 (mouth to Lighthouse Hill development)
The Salmon River watershed at one time supported the best runs of Atlantic
salmon in all of the New York tributaries to Lake Ontario. Table 2-3 refers to surveys
done in 1939, from 1956 through 1990, and from 1994 through 1999. In addition, this
table lists migratory species by seasonal spawning runs, as well as some threatened and
special concern species.
Table 2-3. Fish species list for the Salmon River watershed.
Common Name
Sea Lamprey
Longnose Gar
Bowfin
American Eel
Alewife
Gizzard Shad
Brown Bullhead
Yellow Bullhead
Stonecat
Margined Madtom
Longnose Sucker
White Sucker
Creek Chubsucker
Lake Chubsucker
Northern Hog Sucker
Shorthead Redhorse
Central Stoneroller
Redside Dace
Lake Chub
Common Carp
Cutlips Minnow
Common Shiner
Golden Shiner
Emerald Shiner
Bridle Shiner
Blackchin Shiner
Blacknose Shiner
Spottail Shiner
Sand Shiner
Bluntnose Minnow
Fathead Minnow
Blacknose Dace
Longnose Dace
Creek Chub
Fallfish
Pearl Dace
Rainbow Trout
Brown Trout
Brook Trout
Scientific Name
Petromyzon marinus
Lepisosteus osseus
Amia calva
Anguilla rostrata
Alosa pseudoharengus
Dorosoma cepedianum
Ameiurus nebulosus
Ameiurus natalis
Noturus flavus
Noturus insignis
Catostomus catostomus
Catostomus commersoni
Erimyzon oblongus
Erimyzon sucetta
Hypentelium nigricans
Moxostoma macrolepidotum
Campostoma anomalum
Clinostomus elongates
Couesius plumbeus
Cyprinus carpio
Exoglossum maxillingua
Luxilus cornutus
Notemigonus crysoleucus
Notropis atherinoides
Notropis bifenatus
Notropis heterodon
Notropis heterolepis
Notropis hudsonius
Notropis stramineus
Pimephales notatus
Pimephales promelas
Rhinichthys atratulus
Rhinichthys cataractae
Semotilus atromaculatus
Semotilus corporalis
Margariscus margarita
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Salmo trutta
Salvelinus fontinalis
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
1939 1956-1990 1994-1999
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
22
Rainbow smelt
Central Mud Minnow
Northern Pike
Grass Pickerel
Banded Killifish
Brook Stickleback
White Perch
Rock Bass
Pumpkinseed
Bluegill
Smallmouth Bass
Largemouth Bass
Black Crappie
Yellow Perch
Log Perch
Walleye
Tessellated Darter
Johnny Darter
Fantail Darter
Iowa Darter
Mottled Sculpin
Slimy Sculpin
Osmerus mordax
Umbra limi
Esox lucius
Esox americanus vermiculatus
Fundulus diaphanous
Culaea inconstans
Morone americana
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis gibbosus
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus dolomeiu
Micropterus salmoides
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Perca flavescens
Percina caprodes
Stizostedion vitreum vitreum
Etheostoma olmstedi
Etheostoma nigrum
Etheostoma flabellare
Etheostoma exile
Cottus bairdi
Cottus cognatus
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Migratory Species
Fall
Chinook Salmon
Coho Salmon
Atlantic Salmon
Brown Trout
Steelhead Trout
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Salmo salar
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Winter
Steelhead Trout
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Spring
Brown Trout
Steelhead Trout
Salmo trutta
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Threatened
Lake Chubsucker
Couesius plumbeus
Special Concern
Blackchin Shiner
Notropis heterodon
X
Salmon runs, prior to any Western European impact or alteration to the river,
went as far upstream as the Salmon River Falls, approximately 20 miles from Lake
Ontario. The first documentation of their importance was by the Jesuits who observed
Indians with great catches of salmon during mid-July from 1657-1672 (Parsons 1973). In
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
23
1836, salmon resources had already been declining for 20 years (Parsons 1973). In 1837,
a dam was constructed just west of Pulaski. Exploitation of the fishery continued in spite
of the declining population. It had been estimated that skiff fishermen using spears killed
about 10,000 salmon in one year during the mid-1800’s (Parsons 1973). By 1900,
Atlantic salmon had been extirpated from the region as a result of mill dam construction,
over-exploitation, deforestation and pollution (Parsons 1973).
In the early 1900’s, smallmouth bass fishing below Pulaski was good, while
limited rainbow trout and brook trout fishing occurred above Pulaski. In addition, warm
water temperatures, resulting from the reservoir, accounted for low numbers of trout
taken in the main river. Orwell and Beaverdam Brooks, which are the largest tributaries
below the dam, still produced trout, while Spring Brook still held a few brook trout.
Between 1873 and 1898, 1,156,000 chinook salmon were stocked, but the effort was
considered a failure because there was no recruitment from natural reproduction, and the
program was discontinued (Parsons 1973). During the same period, 144,000 Atlantic
salmon fry were stocked, but survival and recovery was low (Parsons 1973).
The river was dammed in 1914 and 1930 for hydroelectric power generation,
creating the Salmon River (Upper) and Lighthouse Hill (Lower) Reservoirs, respectively.
In 1956, 1958, and 1959, 28,000 Atlantic salmon were stocked two miles below
Lighthouse Hill Reservoir, but none were recovered and the program was discontinued
(Parsons 1973). In 1968, 22,000 chinook salmon were stocked, but experienced limited
success due to predation by sea lamprey. The NYSDEC, in conjunction with the
Department of Fisheries of Canada (DFC), established a successful sea lamprey control
program in 1972. By 1974, large runs of chinook and coho salmon were returning to the
Salmon River (Wedge unpublished). In 1976, the NYSDEC issued a ban on the
possession of salmonids due to Mirex and PCB contamination (Wedge unpublished).
During the period of 1976 through 1981, stocked steelhead became an increasingly
important fishery, and today may attract more fishing effort than the pacific salmon
(Wedge unpublished).
Currently, the lower section of the river and its tributaries downstream of the
impassable barriers have the greatest variation in relative abundance of species due to: 1)
stocking to support the Lake Ontario salmonid program, 2) adults from stockings
returning to spawn, and 3) lake dwelling species entering the river for reproduction or
feeding (Wedge unpublished). In the estuary section of reach one, the dominant sport
species include: largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, rock bass, pumpkinseed, bluegill,
northern pike, yellow perch, brown bullhead, black crappie, brown trout and rainbow
trout (Wedge unpublished). The non-sport and forage fish in this area include grass
pickerel, carp, golden shiner, white sucker, creekchub sucker, shorthead redhorse, banded
killifish, and johnny darter. The seasonal spawning runs of sport fish, and species such as
smelt, alewife, emerald shiner, white perch, white sucker, bowfin, redhorse sucker, and
sea lamprey change the relative abundance of fish species throughout the year (Wedge
unpublished). In addition, small numbers of longnose gar, gizzard shad, margined
madtom, lake chub, bridle shiner, spottail shiner, sand shiner, bluntnose minnow, brook
stickleback, and log perch can be found in this reach.
Orwell and Trout Brooks are the only tributaries in this reach without dams.
These two streams support naturally reproducing brook trout, brown trout, rainbow trout,
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
24
smallmouth bass, rock bass, fallfish, creek chub, cutlips minnow, longnose dace,
blacknose dace, johnny darter, fantail darter, white sucker, northern hog sucker, sea
lamprey, and American eel, as well as coho and chinook salmon (Wedge unpublished).
Spring Brook has natural falls which prevent migration, but does contain self-sustaining
brown and brook trout populations, in addition to non-sport fish such as slimy sculpin,
northern hog sucker, white sucker, creek chub, common shiner, and johnny darter
(USFWS1994). Laney’s Brook is the same except that it has a dam, which prevents
upstream migrations, and has non-sportfish such as redside dace, blacknose dace,
longnose dace, creek chub, and white sucker. In Beaverdam Brook, the major sport fish
include yellow perch, pumpkinseed, smallmouth bass and rare occurrences of brook trout
(Wedge unpublished). The non-sport fish include cutlips minnow, brown bullhead,
fathead minnow, brook stickleback, redside dace, creek chub, white sucker, common
shiner, blacknose dace, fallfish, and fantail darter (Wedge unpublished).
2.3.2. History of the Fishery, Reach 2 (reservoirs and river between)
From 1934 to 1938, an average of 1,355 brown trout were stocked annually in the
Lighthouse Hill Reservoir (Senning 1940). Bullheads, sunfish and stocked brown trout
dominated the catch. Table 2-4 (after Senning 1940) lists all the species collected during
the 1939 survey that was part of the statewide biological assessments of the time.
Table 2-4. Fish species of the Lighthouse Hill and Salmon River reservoirs,
recorded in 1939 (Senning 1940).
Common Name
Brown Bullhead
Stonecat
White Sucker
Longnose Sucker
Golden Shiner
Cutlips Minnow
Bluntnose Minnow
Fathead Minnow
Creek Chub
Fallfish
Redside Dace
Blacknose Dace
Blacknose Shiner
Common Shiner
Rainbow Trout
Brown Trout
Brook Trout
Pumpkinseed
Fantail Darter
Slimy Sculpin
Scientific Name
Ameiurus nebulosus
Noturus flavus
Catostomus commersoni
Catostomus catostomus
Notemigonus crysoleucus
Exoglossum maxillingua
Pimephales notatus
Pimephales promelas
Semotilus atromaculatus
Semotilus corporalis
Clinostomus elongatus
Rhinichthys atratulus
Notropis heterolepis
Luxilus cornutus
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Salmo trutta
Salvelinus fontinalis
Lepomisgibbosus
Etheostoma flabellare
Cottus cognatus
Lighthouse Hill Bennetts Bridge
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
The reservoir produced a good brown trout fishery into the mid-1960’s. The
fishery was altered by the migration of yellow perch from the Salmon River Reservoir.
Dissolved oxygen levels were adequate, but considered limiting to salmonids during the
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
25
warm periods of the summer (Senning 1940). Between 1929 and 1938, brook and
rainbow trout were stocked, and brown trout was established after 1940. All three
species provided a substantial fishery by the 1950’s. However, brook and rainbow trout
numbers declined due to the introduction and establishment of yellow perch (Wedge
unpublished). The establishment of largemouth bass in the early 1960’s led to the decline
in the brown trout fishery (Wedge unpublished).
In 1967, a reclamation program was initiated in an attempt to restore a brook trout
population (Wedge unpublished). Survival of stocked yearlings to their second year was
poor. Net sampling investigations found that largemouth bass and yellow perch were
beginning to re-establish and rock bass had been introduced (Blake 1970). In spite of
stocking efforts, by 1976 the efforts to restore the fishery was discontinued since the
population continued to decline (Wedge unpublished).
Large numbers of forage and non-sportfish existed in the Lighthouse Hill
Reservoir during the 1930’s, which supported the population of large carnivorous fish
(Senning 1940). Table 2-4 lists the species collected from both reservoirs during the
1939 survey. Currently, the present fish population includes brown trout, rainbow trout,
yellow perch, pumpkinseed, brown bullhead, largemouth bass and rock bass (Wedge
unpublished). Until 1981, the Lighthouse Hill Reservoir had been managed for brown
trout. In 1982, rainbow trout stocking began, and it continues today at a rate of 4,300 fish
per year. Other species present include stonecat, white sucker, common carp, and a
variety of minnows. Management of the Salmon River Reservoir for cold water fishes
was discontinued in the 1970’s and the only recent stocking was 13,370 largemouth bass
in 1981 (NMPC 1982). Stunted yellow perch are presently the dominant species along
with small populations of rainbow, brook, and brown trout, due to high summer water
temperatures which create unsuitable habitat for salmonids (Wedge unpublished). Other
species include largemouth bass, rock bass, brown bullhead, and pumpkinseed, with
some of the small tributaries containing self-sustaining populations of brook trout,
blacknose dace, and slimy sculpins (Wedge unpublished). Additional species found in
the Salmon River Reservoir are stonecat, white sucker, longnose sucker, fantail darter,
and a variety of minnows (Wedge unpublished). There is little suitable habitat for
sustaining fish in the stretch between the two reservoirs, and this area has had little
sampling.
2.3.3. History of the Fishery, Reach 3 (above the impoundments)
Native brook trout and wild rainbow trout, introduced into the Mad River in 1926,
dominate the upper reaches of the Salmon River System. Between 1929 and 1938, brown
trout were stocked in Fall Brook, while rainbow trout and brook trout were stocked in
Fall Brook, Mad River, and the North Branch of the Salmon River (NYSCD 1940).
Currently, brook trout dominate these streams with the presence of some brown and
rainbow trout. Other sport fish found in this reach include rock bass and brown bullhead
(Wedge unpublished). The naturally reproducing trout population has been
supplemented by stocking of brook and rainbow trout since the 1980’s. Other species
found in these reaches include the white sucker, northern hog sucker, central stone roller,
cutlips minnow, creek chub, longnose dace, blacknose dace, spottail shiner, pearl dace,
central mud minnow, brook stickleback, johnny darter, fantail darter, slimy sculpin, and
mottled sculpin (Wedge unpublished; NYSDEC 1992b).
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
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2.3.4. The Altmar Hatchery and Associated Fisheries
The Salmon River Fish Hatchery has contributed to a successful reproductive and
stocking program to support a currently sustainable fishery. NYSDEC began operation
of the Salmon River Fish Hatchery in 1981 and is one of the most modern hatchery
facilities in North America. The hatchery raises coho, chinook, steelhead, Atlantic
salmon and brown trout to meet the stocking needs of Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake
Champlain and their tributaries. The reproductive cycles of trout and salmon are the
basis of operation for the Salmon River Hatchery. Ripe eggs are taken from females,
mixed with milt from males to fertilize them, incubated, transferred to start tanks and
allowed to grow from three to six inches in length before stocking, dependant on the
species. The process of incubation, hatching, and growth requires a fingerling to remain
at the hatchery from 3-14 months, dependent on species. The Salmon River Fish
Hatchery has the capacity to produce 200 million fry and up to 300,000 fingerlings. The
Salmon River Fish Hatchery is allocated the largest operating budget in the New York
State hatchery program. In 1997/98 the operating expenses were $169,000 and
contributing positively to the local economy (Oswego Chamber of Commerce). The
NYSDEC continues to enhance its hatchery facility operations in Altmar to produce fish
that are growing faster and more resistant to disease.
The hatchery, together with natural reproduction in the River, provides the fourth
largest public fishery in New York State (Verdoliva 1999). With nearly 60,000 anglers
putting effort of over 364,000 angler-days, millions of dollars of revenue flood into the
local economy over a 6-week period in the fall (Verdoliva 1999).
Figure 2-3. Workers sorting fish at the Altmar Hatchery (photo: K. Limburg)
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
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2.4. Aquatic Benthic Macroinvertebrates
Viewed primarily as “fish food” by early stream ecologists, the study of benthic
macroinvertebrates and aquatic insects has since evolved into an integral component of
aquatic ecosystem analysis. The erroneous outlook of these early ecologists is
understandable. Many fish species do obtain most of their diet from various aquatic
benthic macroinvertebrates. Within the Salmon River, a “highly diverse and/or
productive benthic community has likely been a significant factor in the maintenance of
the diverse resident fish fauna and the success of the Pacific salmon introductions”
(Proch 1989, p. 2). The development of the River Continuum Concept (Vannote et al.
1980) introduced a paradigm that contributed to a greater understanding of the
significance of benthic communities “in the areas of structure, function, and stability of
riverine ecosystems” (Vannote et al. 1980). Aquatic invertebrates are now used in
monitoring and assessing water quality (Hilsenhoff 1987), and their role in nutrient
cycling and detritus processing has also been elucidated in numerous studies (e.g.
Gardner et al. 1981, Smith 1986).
The significance of a prosperous fishery in the Salmon River had historically
directed most biological investigations of its ecosystem toward the ecology of trout and
migratory salmon. As a result of these studies, lists of macroinvertebrate species had
been accumulated, but without discussion of their biology or ecology. A number of
studies have focused at least partially on benthic invertebrates in the last 20 years,
however.
Low (1983) presented a static look at four benthic communities within the Salmon
River. The samples were collected in a single day, and were done as a secondary
observation on her work of contaminant transport of Pacific salmon from Lake Ontario.
A few years later, Proch (1989) conducted a study with two objectives. One was to
describe the seasonal patterns of benthic invertebrate communities of four tributaries of
the Salmon River, and the other was to determine if spawning Pacific salmon had an
influence in the structural and functional organization of benthic communities. It was
concluded from this study that the spawning activity of salmon did not have a great effect
on “macroinvertebrate diversity, taxonomic composition or functional group structure in
the study streams (Proch 1989, p. 91).” Also, Proch found that anglers had a greater
influence on benthic communities than did the spawning salmon. The three dominant
aquatic macroinvertebrates in the tributary streams (Orwell Brook, Trout Brook, John
O’Hara Brook, and Spring Brook) of this study were Ephemeroptera (mayflies),
Trichoptera (caddisflies), and Diptera (true flies).
The New York State DEC Stream Biomonitoring Unit performs periodic
assessments of flowing waters of the state, and assessed the Salmon River water quality
in 1996 and 1999. These surveys are done using traveling kick samples in riffle areas at
six stations. The locations of these stations are from Redfield (Station 1), to Pulaski
(Station 6). The Stream Biomonitoring Unit has been able to assess that the water quality
is non-impacted at all sited from Redfield to Pulaski. Invertebrate communities at all
sites downstream of the Lower Reservoir indicate the presence of elevated nutrient levels,
but excellent water quality status has been maintained. To ascertain differences found
from different sampling methods used in biomonitoring of the Salmon River, three
indicator organisms are used because of their density, association with excellent water
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
28
quality, and continued health of populations. These indicator organisms are: a mayfly,
Stenonema vicarium; a caddisfly, Psilotreta spp.; a the stonefly, Acroneuria abnormis
(1996 Survey).
Impoundment effects, sometimes referred to as reservoir effects, often manifest in
the benthic invertebrate faunal communities of impoundment outflows. Each outflow has
its own characteristics, but some generalized traits have been observed that can be
applied to the majority of common outflows. The generalizations for these outlets are: a
noticeable succession of species that occurs over a short distance below the
impoundment; lower species richness below the outlet; an initial increase of productivity;
and other effects due to hypolimnetic versus epilimnetic releases. The DEC Stream
Monitoring Unit (1996 Survey), as well as Hallock (unpublished), noted the effects of the
Salmon River impoundment outflows. The DEC survey found a 62% decrease in species
richness downstream of the lower reservoir (Bode et al. 1996). Invertebrate communities
below the reservoir showed enriched condition (Bode et al. 1999). Hallock (unpublished)
documented the increase of total phosphorus, as well as total nitrogen and DOC,
downstream of the impoundments.
Hallock (unpublished) undertook a study of water chemistry, physical parameters,
and benthic macroinvertebrates of the Salmon River in the fall of 1999. He collected
three to four replicate benthic samples with a surber sampler every 6-12 weeks from each
of six main river riffles sites (initially) to document invertebrate densities and community
structure. Three of his sites were upstream of the impoundments on the East Branch of
the Salmon River (Osceola public access, Ryan Rd. access, Waterbury Rd. access, or
DEC site 1), and three were downstream of the impoundments (Upper Flyfishing access,
Altmar access, and Pineville access, corresponding to DEC sites 2-4, respectively).
Preliminary data from the first two samplings (late September, mid-November) show
moderate variability among sites, potentially due to differences in channel gradient,
reservoir effects, and disturbance history. Some broad patterns in diversity, numeric and
biomass densities, and interval production between sites upstream and downstream of the
impoundments are apparent, and are summarized below. As analysis continues and more
rigorous QA/QC is performed, some of these data may change.
Invertebrate filterers’ (mainly caddisflies) dry weight densities were substantially
higher at downstream sites during both sampling rounds, especially at the site
closest to the impoundments (site gradient was also highest, at 3%). Filterer dry
weight production between samplings ranged from 20.52 mg to 212.64 mg, and
from 4.56 mg to 14.88 mg at downstream and upstream sites, respectively.
Downstream of the impoundments, during both sampling rounds, filterer biomass
was greatest at the site closest to the impoundments and decreased with distance
downstream. Other taxa combined showed the opposite trend.
Although not always true, numeric densities generally decreased and individual
average size generally increased between sampling rounds.
Taxonomic richness in mid-November averaged 24.4 genera at downstream sites
vs. 36 genera at upstream sites. Richness was very consistent among sites
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
29
upstream of the impoundments, but quite variable downstream. Downstream site
richness was only 16 at the site closest to the reservoir, but increased to 29.7
several miles downstream. Several generic substitutions between upstream and
downstream areas were apparent, and are summarized in Table 2-5 below.
Table 2-5. Differences in Salmon River Benthic Macroinvertebrate Assemblage
Relative to Impoundments
Occurrence Level
Order
Family
Genus
Downstream
Upstream
of Reservoirs
of Reservoirs
Coleoptera
Elmidae
Oulimnius
Absent
Present
Coleoptera
Elmidae
Stenelmis
Common
Rare
Diptera
Tipulidae
Dicranota
Absent
Present
Ephemeroptera
Heptageniidae
Rithrogena
Absent
Common
Megaloptera
Corydalidae
Corydalus
Present
Absent
Plecoptera
Chloroperlidae
Sweltsa
Absent
Common
Plecoptera
Leuctridae
Leuctra
Absent
Present
Plecoptera
Perlidae
Neoperla
Common
Rare
Plecoptera
Pteronarcyidae
Pteronarcys
Absent
Present
Trichoptera
Leptoceridae
Triaenodes
Present
Absent
Trichoptera
Philopotamidae
Chimarra
Common
Rare
Common
Rare
Turbellaria
(class)
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 2
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