1. Physical Setting
1.1. Geology and Watersheds
It is important to examine the interactions between geology and watersheds; the
interaction between water and the surrounding land is critical. Qualities such as water
clarity, phosphorus loading, and residence time (all crucial parts of water quality) vary
according to regional patterns in geomorphology, soil type, and climate. Therefore, it is
important to look at the geology of the watershed, among many other physical factors. It
is crucial to look at both the geology of the watershed and land use to track how water,
pollutants, and nutrients flow through the system. Water chemistry, pollutants, and
nutrients are changed and affected by the geology of a particular area. The
geomorphology of watersheds is reflected in the “physical, chemical, and biological
events within the basin and plays a major role in the control of the watershed’s
metabolism, within the climatic constraints of the location” (Wetzel 2001).
Geomorphology is the study of the evolution and configuration of landforms.
The geology, soils, and landforms control the watershed drainage, the input of nutrients,
and the movement of pollutants. According to Wetzel (2001), “these patterns in turn
govern the distribution of dissolved gases, nutrients, and organisms, so that the entire
metabolism of freshwater systems is influenced to varying degrees by the geomorphology
of the watershed and how it has been modified (weathering or land use) throughout its
history.”
1.1.1 Central New York State Geology in Brief
In 90% of New York State, “bedrock is buried by surficial deposits that are more
than one meter thick. Most of these deposits were left by the continental glacier, an ice
sheet that was perhaps two kilometers thick” (Rogers 1990). Till is the most abundant
glacial deposit. It is an unsorted mixture of mud, sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders that
were picked up and transported by the glacier. Moraines are elongated ridges that formed
at the edge of the glacier and include sand, gravel, or till. The three major classes of rock
in the crust of the earth are igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
Surface deposits in central New York date almost entirely from late Wisconsinan
time, an expansion of the ice sheet that began some 27,000 years ago and culminated
with maximum extent perhaps 20,000 years ago (Cadwell 1991). The postglacial period,
beginning about 11,000 years ago, has offered enough time “for partial stream excavation
of valley fill and development of a modern barrier beach system along the eastern shore
of Lake Ontario” (Cadwell 1991). In this postglacial time, landforms in northern New
York experienced isostatic rebound, or rising, after the great weight of the glaciers were
removed. This rebound effect “has continued at different rates on opposite sides of the
Lake Ontario basin, and is indicated by the submerged river mouths along the
southeastern shoreline of Lake Ontario” (Cadwell 1991).
1.1.2 Salmon River Watershed Geology
The Salmon River Watershed is located in central New York in the eastern
section of the Lake Ontario drainage basin. The river originates in Lewis County, in the
Tug Hill Plateau (elevation about 1,800 feet). The majority of the river flows within
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 1
8
Oswego County and flows westward to its mouth at Lake Ontario where the elevation is
about 250 feet (NMPC 1993). There are no extreme landforms in the watershed except
for the 110-ft. Salmon River Falls (NMPC 1993).
The physiographic names of the Salmon River watershed, according to Cadwell,
are the Erie-Ontario Lowlands, Tug Hill Plateau, and some parts of the watershed are also
in the Appalachian Uplands. “The Erie-Ontario lowlands are underlain by relatively flatlying strata composed of Cambrian and Ordovician age sandstone, limestone, and shale”
(Cadwell 1991). Ice receded across the Ontario Lowlands and uncovered a landscape
made up of drumlins, kames, and kettle topography. Thin deposits of till exist on the Tug
Hill Plateau and much thicker till deposits are on the Erie-Ontario Lowland (NMPC
1993).
The geology of the Salmon River Watershed dates to the late Ordovician period,
about 400 million years ago (Rogers 1990). The bedrock of this area is primarily
sedimentary and consists of sandstone, limestone, shale, and siltstone (NMPC 1993).
“Overlying the bedrock and almost completely covering it are four main unconsolidated
glacial deposits:
1. Glacial till or ground moraine deposits
2. Kames and kame terraces
3. Glaciolacustrine deposits
4. Associated shoreline features and alluvium
All of these four types yield groundwater, which is the primary source of streamflow
during dry periods” (NMPC 1993).
The three main formations in the watershed are Queenstone shale, Oswego
sandstone and shale, and Pulaski sandstone, shale, and siltstone (Rogers 1990). See
Table 1-1 below, for description and geologic information.
Table 1-1. Summary of major geological formations forming the Salmon River drainage.
(From Isachsen 1991).
Rock and description
Age
Environment
Fossils
Queenstone shale
Late Ordovician
Non-marine to shallow marine, part
of large delta
Few
Lorraine
group
Oswego sandstone,
coarser grained
sandstone
Late Ordovician
Nearshore and beach
Few
Lorraine
group
Pulaski formation,
fine grained
sandstone
Late Ordovician
Shallow water
Many fossils on
bottom,
dwelling clams
& brachiopods
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 1
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1.1.3 Salmon River Watershed Surficial Geology
We examined two different surficial geology maps. Our GIS group provided one
map (Figure 1-1). The two additional maps used were titled, Surficial Geologic Map of
New York; “Adirondack sheet” and the “Finger Lakes sheet”. Both maps were compiled
and edited by Donald Cadwell et al., in 1991. According to the GIS group map and the
Cadwell maps, the three main types of surficial geology in the Salmon River watershed
are till (t), ablation moraine (ta), and kame deposits (k).
Figure 1-1. Surficial Geology Map of Salmon River Watershed (created by GIS group)
Surficial geology Key:
Abbreviation
al
d
k
lb
ld
lsc
og
pm
r
t
ta
tm
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 1
Explanation
Recent deposits
Dunes
Kame deposits
Lacustrine beach
Lacustrine delta
Lacustrine silt and clay
Outwash sand & gravel
(peat-muck) swamp deposits
Bedrock
Till
Ablation moraine
Till moraine
10
1.2 Soils
1.2.1 Soil Development
The soils that make up the Salmon River watershed were formed by glaciers
during the Pleistocene epoch about ten thousand years ago. All of New York State was
covered by sheets of ice, some of which were more than a kilometer thick. As the
glaciers pushed across the landscape, the heavy masses of ice scoured the ground,
forming hills and valleys and filling some of the latter with glacial debris. When the
climate warmed and the ice began to melt, the glaciers retreated and the glacial debris
deposited on the watershed became fresh parent material for soil formation. Over the
ensuing eons, parent material was exposed to the environmental gradients that eventually
weathered the parent material, producing the soils that are fond on the watershed today.
1.2.2 General Soil Types
A soil is a natural, dynamic entity composed of mineral and organic solids, gases,
liquids, and living organisms. Soils are the result of the interaction of plant
decomposition and rock weathering, and are important reservoirs of nutrients for plant
growth. The Salmon River watershed consists of three general soil types. The soils that
make up the greatest area cover nearly the entire eastern half of the watershed and consist
of deep soils that formed in so-called glaciofluvial deposits. These soils formed mostly
in glacial stream-deposited sand and gravel on terraces, alluvial fans, eskers, kames,
remnant beaches, deltas, and plains. The soils are excessively drained to very poorly
drained and are mainly coarse to medium textured. The slopes of the landscape are level
to hilly. The moderately drained soils in this area are used for farming, while the better
drained soil areas are used for community development. Some of the area is mined for
sand and gravel (USDA 1974).
Figure 1-2. Major soil classes in the Salmon River watershed. Numeric codes (NY refers to New York
State): 034: thixotropic/loamy; 081: coarse/loamy; 084: coarse-loamy/sandy; 106 – 108 fine-silty; 130: very
fine; 138: hydrous-pumaceous; 152: hydrous/sandy; 155: medial-pumaceous; W = open water.
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 1
11
The western half of the watershed consists of a mix of two general soil types. The
predominant type is made up of deep soils that formed in glacial till deposits derived
mostly from sandstone. The soils are mainly well drained to somewhat poorly drained
and are moderately coarse textured. Most of the soils have a strongly expressed fragipan
(a natural subsurface horizon of low permeability). The slopes of the landscape are
mostly level to moderately steep. As these soils tend to be very stony, they are used
mostly for woodland and wildlife habitat (USDA 1974).
The other general soil type that covers less area in the western part of the
watershed consists of deep soils that formed in glaciolacustrine deposits. These soils
formed mainly in lake bed deposits of silt, clay, and sand that are free of coarse
fragments. They are well drained to very poorly drained and are predominantly mediumto fine-textured soils. The slopes of the landscape are mainly level to rolling. The welldrained and moderately well drained soils are used mostly for dairy farming and
community development. The more poorly drained soils are used for woodland and
wildlife habitat (USDA 1974).
1.2.3 Soil Concerns
Erosion is a major concern regarding soils in watersheds. Soil erosion is the
process of detachment, transportation and deposition of soil particles. It reduces the
productivity of a site by decreasing the amount of organic matter, nutrients, water holding
capacity, and infiltration of a soil. “Erosion selectively removes organic matter and fine
mineral particles while leaving behind mainly relatively less reactive coarse fractions.
The quantity of essential nutrients lost from the soil by erosion is quite high” (Brady
2002). This can lead to sediment and nutrient loading into local streams, with attendant
water quality problems.
Soil erosion within a watershed is driven by soil texture and land use. Soil texture
is the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay in a soil. Soil texture is determined by the
dominant particle sizes in the soil. Sands are those particles in a soil that are less than 2
millimeters, but greater than 0.05 millimeters in size. Sandy soils are considered to be
coarse textured soils. Silts are the particles in the soil that are less than 0.05 millimeters,
but greater than 0.002 millimeters in size. Silt soils are considered to be medium textured
soils. Clays are the smallest particles that make up the soil, less than 0.002 millimeters in
size. Finer textured soils like clays have a lower permeability than coarser textured soils.
Permeability is the ease of movement of liquids and gases through the soil. According to
the Environmental Protection Agency, the Salmon River watershed has a soil
permeability of about 0.2 inches per hour to 2.0 inches per hour which is considered to be
slow to moderate. Soils with relatively lower permeabilities will facilitate erosion by
increasing the amount of overland flow that occurs during a storm event compared to
soils with greater permeabilities.
Currently, land use is the most important factor in determining soil retention or
erosion. The land around the Salmon River has maintained the same character for the
past fifty years. The area is still over 75% forested. Most of the land adjacent to the river
has been under the ownership of the Niagara Mohawk Corporation. However, Niagara
Mohawk is in the process of subdividing major tracts of land along the river for
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 1
12
development. The popularity of the river for recreation purposes has also grown, which
has led to increased property taxes on forested properties that are threatening large
landowners to consider the subdivision and development of their lands (Forness,
abstract). This potential for change from forest land use to development land use of large
amounts of land adjacent to the river could have a significant effect on increasing the
amount of soil erosion that takes place in the watershed, particularly by the mainstem of
the river. By changing the nature of the landscape from forest to areas of development,
the potential for overland flow and soil erosion to occur is increased drastically.
Development will also lead to increased nutrient loading of phosphorus and nitrogen on
the watershed which can be a major threat to the soils and water quality in local areas.
The increased loading of phosphorus on the watershed is probably the most important
concern, as phosphorus becomes locked into the soil particles and accumulates in the
streams, causing eutrophication. Development will also increase the amount of septic
tanks being used in the watershed, and can cause an increase in the amount of nitrogen
that leaches into the soil and surrounding water bodies.
1.3. Geochemistry
Literature on chemical parameters of the Salmon River is somewhat limited.
Considering the lack of industrial development in the area, the topography, and land use,
it is predicted that the water quality of the Salmon River is fairly good. According to the
Environmental Protection Agency Watershed Health Information, the Salmon-Sandy
Watershed scored a 3, designating less serious problems and low vulnerability to the
aquatic resources (USEPA 2002) in relation to water quality.
In order to confirm the quality of water draining from the Salmon River
watershed, samples were collected near the mouths of four tributaries, and three
mainstem sites, in Febraury 2002 by the ESF Watershed Ecology Class. Samples were
analyzed for pH and for a range of elements, using a pH meter and inductively coupled
plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), respectively. Elemental chemistry was
analyzed in the Chemistry Department at SUNY-ESF with a Perkin-Elmer 3300DV ICPOES capable of measuring elements simultaneously over 4 orders of magnitude.
Standards and quality controls were run to ensure accuracy.
Table 1-2 below summarizes the results of the February 2002 investigations.
Concentrations of various cations (Ca, Mg, Na, and K) are relatively low, typical of
waters draining the Adirondack Mountains. Data collected by K.E. Limburg for the
Mohawk and Upper Hudson Rivers are included in the table for comparison. The Upper
Hudson drains the eastern Adirondack Mountains, whereas the Mohawk drains a mix of
geology from the Western Adirondacks to the north and ancient marine bed deposits to
the south. Of the two, the Upper Hudson’s geochemistry most resembles that of the
Salmon River watershed.
Despite the low abundance of cations, all sites surveyed in the Salmon River
drainage were circumneutral (pH near 7). However, data collected throughout the year
by J. Hallock, SUNY-ESF, showed that pH values from 14 sites averaged 6.77, with a
range of 5.93 to 7.64. The drainages to the east of Lake Ontario receive some of the
highest inputs of acid rain in the Northeast (Driscoll et al. 2001), so the geochemistry of
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 1
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the watershed, while not a serious problem at the moment, should be monitored from
time to time in the future, as the levels of acid neutralizing cations in the soils are not
high (reflected in the water chemistry, Table 1-2).
Table 1-2. Geochemical parameters of the Salmon River watershed. Tributary sites are
labeled with (T).
Ca
mg/L
Mg
mg/L
Mn
µg/L
Sr
mg/L
Si
mg/L
Ba
µg/L
Fe
µg/L
S
mg/L
Na
mg/L
K
mg/L
pH
East Branch (T)
7.23
2.13
4.91
0.014
0.027
6.00
12.70
1.77
0.432
0.314
7.4
North Branch (T)
5.56
1.45
5.99
0.011
0.022
5.23
17.35
1.74
0.360
0.193 7.37
Upper Res. Dam
7.10
1.93
12.95
0.014
0.018
6.45
17.15
1.85
0.408
(0.271) 7.4
Beaverdam Brk (T)
8.32
2.41
20.95
0.016
0.024
6.74
23.90
1.94
0.545
0.548 7.03
Pineville
8.25
2.34
14.65
0.016
0.026
7.05
23.40
2.00
0.891
0.698 6.88
Trout Brook (T) 11.60
3.52
6.50
0.022
0.032
6.19
12.8
2.6
1.82
0.742 7.32
9.29
2.63
13.15
0.021
0.028
7.64
24
2.21
1.79
0.622 7.45
Site
Estuary
For comparison: Ca (mg/L) Mg (mg/L) Mn (µg/L) Sr (mg/L) Si (mg/L) Ba (µg/L) Fe (µg/L)
8
54
0.325
1.93
48
145
Mohawk River 36.5
2.77
22
0.032
2.04
24
77
Upper Hudson River 15.7
Salmon River Watershed Chapter 1
S
n.a.
n.a.
Na (mg/L) K (mg/L)
21.8
2.01
8.9
0.85
14