ALTERNATIVE ELECTRICAL ENERGY SOURCES
FOR MAINE
W.J. Jones
M. Ruane
Appendix
B
CONSERVATION
P. Carpenter
S. Raskin
W.J. Jones
R. Tabors
Prepared for the Central Maine Power Company.
Report No. MIT-EL 77-010
MIT Energy Laboratory
December 1977
This appendix is one of thirteen volumes; the remaining volumes are as
follows: A. Conversion of Biomass; C. Geothermal Energy Conversion;
D. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion; E. Fuel Cells; F. Solar Energy
Conversion; G. Conversion of Solid Wastes; H. Storage of Energy;
I. Wave Energy Conversion; J. Ocean and Riverine Current Energy
Conversion; K. Wind Energy Conversion, and L. Environmental Impacts.
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II
Acknowledgments
Initial literature reviews and drafts of the various technical appendices
were prepared by the following people:
Appendix
Conversion of Biomass - C. Glaser, M. Ruane
Appendix
Conservation - P. Carpenter, W.J. Jones, S. Raskin, R. Tabors
Appendix
Geothermal Energy Conversion - A. Waterflow
Appendix
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion - M. Ruane
Appendix
Fuel Cells - W.J. Jones
Appendix
Solar Energy Conversion - J. Geary, W.J. Jones
Appendix
Conversion of Solid Wastes - M. Ruane
Appendix
Storage of Energy - M. Ruane
Appendix
Wave Energy Conversion - J. Mays
Appendix
Ocean and Riverine Current Energy Conversion - J. Mays
Appendix
Wind Energy Conversion - T. Labuszewski
Appendix
L
Environmental Impacts - J. Gruhl
Numerous people shared reports and data with us and provided comments on the
draft material. We hope that everyone has been acknowledged through the references
in the technical sections, but if we missed anyone, thank you!
Ms. Alice Sanderson patiently weathered out many drafts and prepared the final
document with the assistance of Ms. Dorothy Merlin.
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Preface
The Energy Laboratory of the Mass. Inst. of Tech. was retained by
the Central Maine
as
possible
Power Company to evaluate several technologies
alternatives
to the construction
of Sears
(a 600 MWe coal fired generating plant scheduled
Island
#1
for startup in
1986). This is an appendix to Report MIT-EL 77-010 which presents
the results of the study for one of the technologies.
The assessments were made on the
basis that a technology should
be:
1) an alternative to a base -load
power
generation facility.
electric
Base- load is
defined as ability to furnish up to a rated
capacity output
2) not
restricted
for 6570 hours per year.
to a single
plant.
It
may be several plants within the state of
Maine.
The
combined output, when
viewed
in isolation, must be a separate, "standalone" source of power.
3) available to deliver energy by 1985.
APPENDIX B
INCREASED CONSERVATION
Page
1.0
INTRODUCTION
B-1
1.1
Discussion - General
B-1
1.2
Definition of Conservation and Motivation for Same
B-1
Reduction of Energy (Btu) Consumption
B-1
1.2.2
"Dirty Fuels"
B-1
1.2.3
Vulnerability of Supply
B-2
1.2.4
Balance of Payments
B-2
1.2.5
Cost
B-2
1.2.6
Conservation of Oil
B-2
1.3
Scope of Paper
B-2
1.4
Problems in the Implementation of Conservation
B-2
1.5
Actions/Measures to Result in Conservation
B-3
1.6
Assessment of Conservation Measures
B-4
1.6.1
Evaluation
B-4
1.6.2
Effectiveness
B-4
1.6.3
"Turn-around-Time"
B-4
1.6.4
Political and Administrative Feasibility
B-5
1.7
2.0
1.2.1
B-5
Comment
ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSERVATION POTENTIAL IN MAINE
B-6
2.1
B-7
Residential Sector
2.1.0
Base Residential Demand Characteristics
and Methodology
B-7
2.1.1
Heating and Cooling
B-8
2.1.2
Lighting and Home Appliances
B-8
2.1.3
Residential Electric Energy Conservation
B-8
Measures
2.1.3.1
Heating and Cooling
2.1.3.1.1
Improved Thermal Integrity
B-15
B-15
2.1.3.2
Heating System Thermostat Setback
B-15
2.1.3.3
Set-up Air Conditioner Thermostat
B-15
2.1.3.4
Air Conditioner Tune-up
B-15
2.1.3.5
Efficiency Improvements in New
Air Conditioners
B-15
2.1.3.6
Improve Lighting Efficiencies
B-15
2.1.3.7
Setback of
Electric Water Heater
Thermostats
B-16
2.1.3.8
Reduce Hot Water Use
B-16
2.1.3.9
Improvement in Hot Water Heater
Efficiency
2.1.3.10
2.1.3.11
B-16
Improvement in Efficiencies of
Refrigerators and Freezers
B-16
Summary
B-16
i
Page
2.1.4
22.1.5
2.2
2.3
Results of Implementation of Potential Residential
Conservation Measures
B-18
2.1.4.1
B-18
Heating and Cooling
Conclusions (Residential Sector)
CCommercial Sector
B-20
22.2.1
Introduction
B-20
22.2.2
ASHRAE 90-75 Standard (Effects of Implementation)
B-20
22.2.3
Retrofit and New Construction
B-21
2.2.3.1
Building Envelope
B-21
2.2.3.2
Building Systems
B-22
2.2.3.3
Self Imposed Actions
B-26
2.2.3.4
Conservation Targets
B-27
22.2.4
Conservation Potential in Maine
B-31
22.2.5
Commercial Overview and Conclusions
B-31
Industrial Sector
B-36
2.3.1
Introduction
B-36
2.3.2
Energy Consumption
B-36
2.3.3
Conservation Activities
B-36
2.3.4
Energy Conservation Projections for the
Industrial Sector in Maine
2.3.4.1
Introduction
2.3.4.2
Electrical Energy Coefficients,
B-47
Impact of Electrical Energy
B-50
Conservation
2.3.5
B-40
B- 40
Maine/USA
2.3.4.3
3.0
B-19
Government Program
B-50
Electrical Energy Conservation, Summary and Conclusions
B-55
3.1
Introduction
B-55
3.2
Savings
B-55
3.3
Conclusions
B-56
Technical [lote A
B-58
References and Bibliography
B-68
ii
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1
Consumption of Electricity Estimated End-Use
in percent, Maine
B-14
F
B-17
2.2
Thermostat Set Back,
2.3
Progress Toward 1980 EPCA Goals
B-51
2.4
Paper Industry Status
B-53
2.5
Report of the American Paper Institute
B-54
11 1
h
1:
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table
1977 and 1985
2.1
Maine Housing Inventory
2.2
Maine Heating and Cooling Saturations
B-9
by Housing Type (1977 and 1985)
B-10
(Percent of all units)
2.3
Maine Applicance Saturations by End-Use
B-ll
(Fraction of Housing inventory)
2.4
Average Annual Consumption per "Appliance"
B-12
by End-Use
2.5
Maine Residential Electricity Consumption
B-13
by End-Use
2.6
Improved Thermal Integrity Options for
B-15
Saving Energy in Maine
2.7
Energy Savings Resulting from Conservation
2.8
Savings as a Result of Insulation Retrofit
B-16
Measures
B-18
Program
2.9
Present Levels of Weatherization
2.10
Potential
Savings from Conservation
and Home Appliances
for Lighting
2.11
B-18
Measures
Impact of ASHRAE 90-75 Standard on Northeastern
B-20
Commercial Buildings
2.12
Possible Reductions in Energy Consumption -
2.13
Possible Reduction in Energy Consumption -
Prototypical N.E. Retail Store/ASHRAE 90
N.E. School Building/ASHRAE 90
Building Design Conservation
2.15
Potential Savings in Commercial Sector Energy
Consumption--New Construction 1979
Energy Conservation Factors for Residential
B-25
Building Use and Operation
B-26
Conservation Measures
2.19
Possible Energy Conservation
2.20
Electricity
2.21
Summary of Commercial Sector
Measures
Savings in the CommercialSector
B-27
B-28
B-30
Electricity-Saving Targets
2.22
B-23
B-24
and Commercial Buildings
2.18
B-21
Systems and Equipment
Conservation Measures
2.17
B-21
B-22
2.14
2.16
B-19
Estimated Savings from Restricting
Retail
B-30
Hours
2.23
Summaryof Estimated Potential
2.24
Commercial Floorspace in Maine
Alternative
Conservation
iv
Savings from
Scenarios
B-31
B-32
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Table
2.25
Page
Northeast Electrical Energy Requirements
Per Square Foot of Commercial Space
2.26
Commercial Electrical Energy Consumption
2.27
Commercial Sector
2.28
Estimated 1985 Savings from Alternative
in New England and Maine
B-33
Electrical Energy Consumption in Maine
Conservation Scenarios in Maine
2.29
B-34
B-35
Distribution of Energy Consumption
within the Manufacturing Sector:
1971
2.30
Net Energy Consumption per Dollar of Value
2.31
Electrical Energy per Dollar of Value Added
Added
1954 - 1990
KWh/S Value Added 1967-1990
2.32
Historical and Projected Energy Requirements
2.33
Maine Manufacturing Sectors
1954 - 1990
B-37
B-38
B-39
B-41
KWh Consumption per $ Value of Shipments
2.34
B-33
B-45
Six Major Manufacturing Energy Users 1967
Comparison of Value Added to Value of
Shipments ($xlO9)
2.35
Coefficients Compared to the National Average
2.36
B-46
Industrial Sector Electrical Energy
Consumption 1974, 1985
2.37
Maine Electrical Energy Conservation Scenario
2.38
Targets for
B-48
B-49
ercentage Improvements in Energy
Efficiency
2.39
B-46
Maine Manufacturing Electrical Energy
B-50
Industrial Energy Efficiency Improvements as of
Dec. 1976
B-52
v
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Discussion - General
Until recently, the energy content and efficiencies of processes, equipment, procedures,
and consuming devices have been determined almost exclusively by consideration of the
following:
a)
Is it technically feasible?
b)
Is there a demand?
c) At what level of production, use and price will it become economically attractive?
At last, we are asking "How much do we need?" a question that has no definite answer.
Any answer will depend on the assumptions made about our standards of living, personal
mobility, economics, GNP, sources of food and materials, possible technological developments,
and, of course, military security.
Traditionally, conservation has been virtually ignored or dismissed in works dealing with
energy.
As recently as 1972, a major U.S. financial institution released the following:
"Analysis of the uses of energy reveals little scope for major
to the nation's economy and its standard of living...The great
utilized for essential purposes...There are some minor uses of
regarded as strictly non-essential but their elimination would
savings."
reduction without harm
bulk of the energy is
energy that could be
not permit any significant
(Chase Manhattan Bank, 1972)
Forecasts of the Energy Research and Development Administration and the Federal Energy
Administration, however, suggest that overall energy consumption can be reduced as much as 30%
and that this reduction may be obtainable by the adoption of existing end-use technologies
that are more energy-efficient.
The newly formed Department of Energy has been charged with
the responsibility for the development of conservation programs to reduce demand below
current levels.
Discussion of the opportunities for "energy conservation" requires public agreement as
to:
a)
establishment of objective(s)
b)
agreement as to which one(s) are our concern
c)
consensus as to the "proper" methodology for implementation
d)
continuous evaluation, so as to optimize desired results while minimizing untoward
consequences.
1.2
Definition of Conservation and Motivation for Same
Why should we conserve?
What do we hope to accomplish by conservation?
A listing of
reasons suggest how very different the meanings of the term "energy conservation" can assume
and, hence, the variations in acceptable methodologies and consequences.
do so?
Why do we want to
At what cost in money or inconvenience are we willing to brook various energy conser-
vation measures?
1.2.1
Reduction of Energy (Btu) Consumption
Is it, for example, because energy (Btu) consumption threatens to damage the planet
(by melting the ice caps or interfering with the protective function of the upper atmosphere)?
Then energy consumption in terms of gross Btu must be addressed:
1.2.2
"Dirty Fuels"
Is it the consumption of energy derived from a particular fuel(s) or a source(s)
that results in undesirable environmental impact?
concern with specific environmental impact:
B-1
Solutions might properly include primary
i
Improved extraction. processing, consumption and/or waste disposal of the
particular fuel(s);
ii
Switching from those pollution-causing fuel(s) to others which are less
polluting.
1.2.3
'ulnerability of Supply
Is it that the U.S.A. reserve/resources of particular fuels are finite?
If so,
good husbandry might be for the U.S.A. to increase imports and to defer use of domestic
supply for emergencies at some time in the future when foreign sources are no longer
available.
1.2.4
Balance of Payments
Is it prudent, because of economic considerations, to reduce importation of fuels
to the point where balance of payments is favorable or acceptable to our economy?
Conservation under this premise could be defined as a "re-adjustment" of our consumption
patterns and fuel choices with secondary concern of environmental impact.
1.2.5
Cost
Are the quantum increases in petroleum prices, and subsequent increase in prices
of alternatives due to increased competition for them, sufficient cause and justification
for energy conservation?
Increases in the productivity of energy are then required for
purely economic reasons.
Husbandry of particular fuels or conservation for reasons of
national security or environmental impact are not then primary considerations.
1.2.6
Conservation of Oil
A consideration that is really an extension of 1.2.4 (Balance of Payments), but can
be considered separately, is the concept that conservation is defined as the reduction
of consumption of oil and in particular, reduction of imports of oil.
One way would be
to switch from petroleum as a source of energy to electricity derived from coal, nuclear
materials or solar derived sources.
1.3
Scope of Paper
We will examine the opportunities for the reduction of the consumption of electricity
in Maine (not by switching to other forms of energy) to determine if by 1986 electricity
demand
per capita will have been reduced.
1.4
Problems in the Implementation of Conservation
In our study of how energy conservation can be accomplished, we have had to consider
the following questions and suggested answers:
a)
What "drives" the individual consumer, commercial organization, or industry?
b)
Can those driving forces, once identified and fully understood, be reached
and manipulated with the facility of an organ ("fundamental frequency." "overtones,"
"loudness," and "harmony," etc.) so as to "steer" the economy as desired?
Improper
and uninformed manipulation will result in economic and social discord.
c)
What constraints exist as far as laws, customs or beliefs (domestic and worldwide)
and what
rreversibilities in degree of government participation, interference, and
financial support are involved?
d)
Who has the responsibility and authority to influence the levels of energy consumption
in the several sectors?
If an energy conservation measure or action is cost-effective, and obviously so, it will
probably be adopted.
The basic driving forces have not been identified nor have they been tested to determine
the degree of effectiveness and the undersirable "side effects" of each.
B-2
__
I
Without this information we will not be able to steer the forces and control their
various intensities for maximum effectiveness and a minimum of "damage".
Government activity in relation to the determination of targets and control of
energy consumption in those areas is considered by some to constitute another encroachment upon civil liberties.
If this is a valid or possible hazard the American people
must be made aware of the potential so that they establish the necessary safeguards.
Once "made aware" of an energy issue, it is the public that then decides what it
It Is the "informed consent" that is
will permit the "government" to do about it.
granted to specific groups who have the necessary authority and confidence of the public
to influence the levels of energy consumption.
There are countless users of energy using countless quantities of energy in
countless ways.
Even though a standard, known energy-consuming device (car, home,
appliance, etc.) may have a measurable energy consumption data sheet on the
"shipping platform," the end-use energy consumption data will be different for each unit.
There are, to be sure, "classes" but the resultant numbers derived from classification
into "groups" are broad estimates.
There are less than ten principal internal combustion, surface transportation
vehicle manufacturers in the United States.
It was "relatively" easy to enact legislation
that could result in the increasing of miles-per-gallon performance of automobiles.
The
laws are simple and compliance is easy to monitor.
It is also "relatively" easy to enact legislation, operating through the avenues
of federal loan guarantee programs or building codes, to result in all new housing construction to comply with particular, and well-defined lifetime energy costs.
It is not at all easy to enact legislation that would result in householders maintaining thermostats below and/or above certain values.
It is not at all easy to enact
legislation that will result in humans turning off lights when not needed.
1.5
Actions/Measures to Result in Conservation
Every conservation measure involves the four following considerations:
a)
technical feasibility
b)
economic viability
c)
social acceptability
d)
political possibility
There are three kinds of actions that can be used to induce people to adopt energy
conservation measures:
a.
b.
Exhortation:
Policy"
Advisory/informational policies (educational, labeling)
Incentive/disincentive type actions ("carrot" and "stick",-subsidies
and taxes).
c.
Proscriptive:
Mandatory/regulatory policies (prohibition of use of certain
equipment, building codes).
Of all three, exhortation has proven to be the least effective.
temporary response.
There is only
Speed limits are ignored, thermostats are reset to pre-embargo levels,
etc.
Common to all three is uncertainty in identification, prediction, and sometimes
measurements of:
a.
The degree to which people will respond to a given action, even a mandatory one.
B-3
b.
The length of time between initiation of the measure and detectable response,
There are existing stocks of appliances which will have to "run a normal life"
before replacement.
The lifetime of the existing stocks are different so that
retirement is complex and extends over a time period,
c.
The overall supply perturbations and possible movements of consumers from each
form of energy to others.
d.
The interactions between domestic and world energy supply, demand, policies,
and technological, social, economic, and political developments.
The major problem then, is to convince the public that there are energy supply and
demand issues, that these issued have to be addressed and that in the area of energy conservation there may be actions or measures which will be expensive and/or inconvenient.
The success of energy conservation measures will be dependent on how much the public
perceives each requested action is valid or credible,
1.6
Assessment of Conservation Measures
1.6.1
Evaluation
A program for the assessment of strategies and methods for conserving energy should
be designed so as to produce a broad gauge appraisal of alternative methods for controlling
or moderating the consumption of energy.
This task, to identify those sectors, technologies,
and policy changes, required specification of a set of evaluation criteria,
Any recommended change in policy or new technical development must be evaluated in
terms of its overall effect on society, including;
i
standard analysis of measurable economic costs
nd benefits, including long-run
consequences, and
ii
environmental effects, both favorable and unfavorable,
Furthermore, the analysis
should treat these outcomes as uncertain, as they always are, and present the
range of possible first-and higher-order effects along with some Judgment as to
relative likelihood,
1.6.2
Effectiveness
This is a measure of how much energy might be conserved by a particular technological
change or revision in public policy,
i
Effectiveness is a combination of;
the overall magnitude of the category of energy consumption affected (home
heating may be more energy consuming than refrigeration so should receive prime
attention)
ii
the amount of change in energy consumption to the particular changes
contemplated (the introduction of increased home insulation will yield greater
energy savinas per household in Vermont or Texas than it will in Hawaii)
iii
responsiveness to normal market forces and to policy developments apart from
those directed specifically to energy conservation (e,g., environmental laws,
policy changes),
1.6.3
"Turn-around-Time"
This is a close corollary of the effectiveness criterion,
The "turn-around-time" is
the length of the period between the initiation of an action or measure and when the
reduction of consumption of energy becomes noticeable or significant,
B-4
Some technological applications, policy changes, and practices may yield rapid reductions in
energy.
Otheres may take many years to yield significant changes.
1.6.4 Political and Administrative Feasibility
A complete assessment must consider the steps necessary to implement particular
conservation measures and the relative likelihood that they can actually be carried out
successfully.
The existence of a favorable economic and environmental assessment does not
mean it can actually be adopted.
Furthermore, a decision to adopt a particular measure
does not necessarily guarantee that it will be carried out as originally intended.
A great
deal depends on the orientation and capacity of the existing and potential agencies that will
be involved in the details of implementation.
1.7
Summary Comment
In the absence of comprehensive evaluation of response to conservation activities
on the part of government agencies, we have found that the real world does not permit an
accurate prediction and quantification of the amount of energy that can be saved or the
time scale and schedule of the savings.
Conservation will be the result of interactive
decisions of millions of individuals and thousands of industries, and hundreds of political
units (federal, state, local).
We can only identify the potentials and make crude estimated of what might happen if
one were to initiate a conservation action or measure,
The government agencies must
initiate the procedure, once having judged that something might be feasible, of making
trial start and observing the results.
a
In order to establish its effectiveness and
minimize damage they must be prepared to continue, modify, or cancel the action or measure
as time passes and situations alter.
B-5
2.0
ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSERVATION POTENTIAL IN MAINE
The potential for electrical energy conservation in the United States, and more
specifically in the state of Maine, is difficult to estimate,
There have been extensive
studies completed to date by the Federal Energy Administration and others which report
on the potential for savings in fuels,
Within certain sectors there have been studies
completed to estimate electrical energy savings by specific end-use such as appliances
in the household and, to a lesser degree, in commercial and industrial establishments,
The summary study which follows is divided into four major sectors; residential,
industrial, commercial, and electric utility.
For each sector, a review of available
literature on electrical energy conservation was undertaken,
In addition; for the
residential, industrial, and commercial sectors, there is a projection of electrical
consumption in the State of Maine to 1985 and an estimate of the level of electrical
energy conservation possible in that sector.
It should be noted at the outset that
only limited information was available for conservation potential in manufacturing and
the electrical utility sectors.
To date the majority of the nationally oriented analyses of electric energy
conservation potential have focused on the residential or household sector, with
limited additional analyses completed in the commercial and industrial areas,
Companies,
individually, have analyzed their energy requirements and many have initiated conservation measures
There is no collation of the results of the several individual actions.
The state of Maine has recently completed a comprehensive energy study,
This plan
charts the history of energy consumption for the state and dwells, in summary form only,
upon the relevance of electrical energy conservation in the state,
While the study focused
strongly on the potential for total energy savings in the major sectors, little attention
was paid to the potential for saving of electricity,
The executive summary of the
referenced report which describes the scenarios follows.
It can be seen that these options
pay little attention to electric energy conservation;
Transportation -
Conservation projections'for the transportation sector are based on
increased fuel economics mandated by Federal law, and an increasing
proportion of smaller automobiles,
Residential -
Conservation in the residential sector is based on two criteria, First,
it is assumed that all new housing will be built to a minimum standard
of energy efficiency. And, second, it is also assumed that some existing
housing will be winterized to improve their energy efficiency,
Commercial -
The amount of conservation which can be expected from the commercial
sector will come mainly from reductions in lighting and heating, with
some conservation also through operation changes which will reduce energy
consumption,
Industrial -
Since the embargo of 1973-74, industries in Maine have significantly
reduced their energy use. By improving efficiencies in their operations
and installing new equipment, this trend is expected to continue,
Miscellaneous -
The amount of energy conservation possible through conservation activities in
addition to those listed above is not readily quantifiable, It is possible
that electric powered automobiles may increase in number so that they will
have to be considered as a significant consumer of electricity (for
recharging of batteries). This eventuality has not been addressed in this
paper but should not be ignored in studies that may be made five years from
now.
B-6
The analysis which follows reflects the work of the Maine Energy Planning Office, the
Electric Power Research Institute, the Federal Energy Administration, the Energy Research
and Development Administration and others in attempting to quantify the potential for
electric energy consumption and conservation in the state of Maine.
2.1
Residential Sector
2.1.0
DemandCharacteristics
Base Residential
and Methodology
The consumption of electricity in Maine since 1950 has shown the most significant
and dramatic
gain among the residential
terms..."residential
(12.6% of the total
in 1974...".
electricity
consumption increased steadily
from 6.2 x 1012 Btu*
demand) in 1950 to 26.6 x 1012Btu (34.0% of the total)
residential
Residential
energy sources in both absolute and relative
energy consumption as a fraction
remainedfairly constantsince 1950 at approximately
of the total
25-30 percent.
consumption has
But in absolute
terms,
the residential consumption of energy in Maine increased 58 percent between 1950 and 1974.
Since the demand for any energy source is a derived demand (one does not demand
electricity per se, one demands that which the electricity operates) it is necessary to
analyze the residential demand for electricity by end use category.
The methodology
employed in this analysis is represented by the following equation:
=
RE
i
H
S. * E.
1
i
1
where
REi = residential electricity consumption by end use i.
H
= total Maine housing inventory
Si = saturation (as percent of housing inventory) for end use i
Fi = unit energy demand for end use i
This simple relationship functions well when one analyzes appliance consumption, but not as
well when space heating is considered due to significant variations in heating system and
requirements by housing type.
To make predictions it is thus necessary to predict the future
housing stock mix.
Fortunately, a computerized simulation model of this type has been developed by
Richard Daifuku at the Brookhaven National Laboratory and later implemented at the
New England Energy Management Information System (NEEMIS) of the Energy Laboratory of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology for each New England state3 .
In addition to pro-
jecting housing demand by housing type, age and fuel type, the model predicts fuel demand
for each housing type based on engineering relationships within prototypical residences.
This structure allows one to modify the state's residence characteristics (insulation levels,
storm doors, storm windows and weatherstripping levels) to determine potential effects of these
measures on fuel consumption.
The results of this analysis for Maine are discussed in detail later.
The remainder of
of residential
this section will describe the current and future (1985) characteristics
electricity
consumption in Maine in terms of the end use categories: heating and cooling,
lighting and home appliances.
B-7
2.1.1
Heating and Cooling
In Table 2.1 are listed the current and predicted Maine housing inventory by housing type
(single-family detached (SFD); single-family attached (SFA); multi-family low rise (MFLR);
multi-family high rise (MFHR); and mobile homes), year built and heating system fuel type.
Notice that the heating systems in the current and future inventory are predominantly oilburning.
Also, an insignificant number of electrically heated homes were constructed in
Maine prior to 1964.
1977 and 1985.
heated.
The total housing inventory is projected to grow by 9 percent between
Thirty-eight 3 percent of the new homes are projected to be electrically
The proportion of all homes that employ electric heating systems and central air
conditioning are presented in Table 2.2.
2.1.2
Lighting and Home Appliances
Saturations and unit consumption demands for lighting and home appliances are indicated
in Tables 2.3 and 2.4 respectively.
The projection of appliance saturation to 1985 is based
12
on past national trends as reported in current issues of the periodical "Merchandising Week"'
and by the Central Maine Power Saturation Survey, 19762.
It is of course impossible to predict,
especially for one state, appliance saturation with great accuracy given the uncertain effects
of fuel and materials prices, tastes and technological change.
It is felt that the approach
used provided a good balance between historical trends and good judgment.
The results of the Daifuku base case analysis and of the implementation of the equation
presented earlier are shown in Table 2.5.
Notice that the percent share of electricity to space
heating is predicted to increase relative to all other categories.
The total consumption figures
correspond very well to the predictions made by the Maine Office of Energy Resources.
These
numbers do not reflect transmission line loss since they are included as consumption at the point
of use.
Figure 2.1 presents these results in diagrammatical form.
2.1.3
Residential Electric Energy Conservation Measures
This section describes specific physical actions that could be taken by a homeowner, home
builder or appliance manufacturer to reduce the amount of electric energy that would normally be
used in a given household function.
This discussion constitutes a review of the existing residential
energy conservation literature as specifically applied to electric energy.
The demand for electric energy in the residential sector can be conveniently divided into
three end-use categories:
space heating and cooling, lighting, and home appliances.
The home
appliance category is dominated by water heaters, kitchen ranges, televisions, refrigerators, food
freezers, and clothes dryers.
Potential conservation measures exist within each category.
Some
of the measures can be taken only as a result of voluntary homeowner action, others can be mandated
by government action.
stock.
Some apply only to new houses or appliances, others can affect the existing
Deliberately excluded from this discussion are energy conservation measures that save
fuel other than electricity, and measures which are capital-intensive such as the introduction of
solar energy systems and the substitution of, or augmentation by, heat pumps for electric resistance
heating units.
These latter measures may be partially viable alternatives but they are not likely
to make contributions in Maine for several years.
B-8
TABLE 2.1
MAINE HOUSING INVENTORY 1977 and 1985
1977 INVENTORY (xlOOO UNITS)
SFD
· CATEGORY
1965-1977
1965-1977
1965-1977
1940-1965
1940-1965
Pre-1940
Pre-1940
ELEC
OIL
GAS
OIL
GAS
OIL
GAS
TOTAL
SFA
MFLR
MFHR
ROBILE
9
19
0
3
9
0
2
2
0
0
5
20
57
1
8
0
4
0
1 21
3
37
1
14
0
2210
58
22
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.0
0
0
4
25
__
TOTAL INVENTORY 319
1985 INVENTORY (xlOOO UNITS)
CATEGORY
1977-1985
1977-1985
1977-1985
1965-1977
ELEC
OIL
GAS
ELEC
1965-1977 OIL
1965-1977 GAS
1940-1965 OIL
SFD
SFA
MFLR
MFHR
MOBILE
6
6
8
0
1
3
0
112
32
0
0
3
9
2
2
0
0
0
0
54
1
5
4
14
0
9
19
1
3
1940-1-965
GAS
0
Pre-1940
Pre-1940
OIL
116
0
25
0
0
0
12
0
GAS
3
1
0
0
TOTAL
222
54
24
4
TOTAL INVENTORY
348
SFD - single family detached
SFA - single family attached
MFLR - multiple family low rise
MFHR - multiple family high rise
(from Daifuku, 1974)
3-9
0
0
0
0
0
0
D
'{
44
TABLE 2.2
MAINE HEATING AND COOLING SATURATIONS
BY HOUSING TYPE (1977 and 1985)
(Percent of all units)
CENTRAL A/C
SFD
SFA
MFLR
MFHR
MOBILE
1977
.005
.002
.006
.008
.004
1985
.020
.008
.024
.082
.016
SFA
MFLR
ELECTRIC HEATING SYSTEM
SFD
MFHR
MOBILE
.19
1977
.04
.05
.09
.00
1985
.06
.11
.12
.00
(from Daifuku, 1974)
SFD - single family detached
SFA - single family attached
MFLR - multiple family low rise
MFHR - multiple family high rise
B-10
27.
ALL UNITS
.05
.10
TABLE 2.3
MAINE APPLICANCE SATURATIONS BY END USE
(FRACTION OF HOUSING INVENTORY)
END USE
1977
1985
LIGHTING
1.00
1.00
AIR CONDITIONING (ROOM)
.11(a)
.17(b)
ELECTRIC WATER HEATING
.46(e)
.54(d)
ELECTRIC COOKING
.67(c)
.79(d)
DISHWASHING
.24(a)
.32(d)
CLOTHES WASHING
.68(a)
.83(d)
CLOTHES DRYING
.46(c)
.55(d)
COLOR TELEVISION
.53(a)
.70(d)
BLACK & WHITE TELEVISION
.62(a)
.46(e)
FOOD FREEZING;!
.35(c)
.42(d)
OTHER
REFRIGERATION
1.00
1.00
SOURCES:
(a)
Central Maine Power
('b) Linear Extrapolation Based on 1965-1976 Central Maine Power
Saturation Data
(c)
Based on U.S. Census Data for Maine, 1970
(d)
Growth to 1977 and 1985 derived by applying national annual
saturation growth rate as reported in June 1976 issue of
Merchandising
(e)
Assumes color televisions displace black and white televisions
B-11
TABLE 2.4
AVERAGE ANNUAL CONSUMPTION PER "APPLIANCE" BY END USE
'Consumption
KWh e
'END USE
LIGHTING
937
AIR CONDITIONING (ROOM)
820
ELECTRIC WATER HEATING (a)
5446
ELECTRIC COOKING
1084
OTHER
DISHWASHING
381
CLOTHES WASHING
103
CLOTHES DRYING
996
COLOR TELEVISION
498
BLACK & WHITE TELEVISION
380
FOOD FREEZING
141
REFRIGERATION
132
Note:
(a)
Brookhaven National Lab, for New England
Weighted by Housing Type for New England Region
B-12
TABLE 2.5
MAINE RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION BY END USE
.(AT6 POINT OF USE)
(10 Btu equivalent kwhe)
(no Conservation)
%
1977
HEATING
CENTRAL COOLING
LIGHTING
1985
%
1,180,552
12.4
2,094.968
17.0
5,118
0.1
8,530
0.1
1,020,800
10.7
1,113,600
9.0
98,252
1.0
165,648
1.3
3,228,280
33.9
4,134,240
33.6
COOKING
790,801
8.3
1,017,204
8.3
DISHWASHER
100,772
1.1
144,768
1.2
76,034
0.8
101,094
0.8
498,916
5.2
650,760
5.2
AIR CONDITIONING
WATER HEAT-ING
WASHING MACHINE
DRYER
COLORTV
298,588
3.1
412,345
3.4
BLACK & WHITETV
257,114
2.7
208,104
1.7
FREEZER
531,326
5.6
693,216
5.7
15.1
1,566,000
12.7
100.0
12,310,477
REFRIGERATOR
TOTAL
- -1,435,500
9,513,053
(Heating & Cooling from Daifuku, 1977)
The remainder as adopted from reference
P. Carpenter of M.I.T.
B-13
by
100.0
IG
1977
1985
Figure 2.1
Consumption of Electricity Estimated End-Use in percent, Maine
B-14
2.1.3.1
Heating and Cooling
2.1.3.1.1
Improved Thermal Integrity
Weatherization actions that improve the thermal integrity
sulation
of the house include increased in-
in the roof, floors, and walls, and the installation of storm windows doors, and weather-
stripping.
The Maine Energy Conservation Workshop at Harvard University in June, 19.77 (Maine Enersy
Conservation Workshop, 1977) indicated that the following options (Table 2.6) would be the most
appropriate means of saving energy through improved thermal integrity:
Table 2.6
IMPROVED THERMAL INTEGRITY OPTIONS FOR SAVING ENERGY IN MAINE
Option
Level
1.
Weatherstripping
100% of windows
2.
Storm windows
100% of windows
and doors
3.
Storm doors
100% of doors
4.
Wall insulation
R-ll (3-1/4 inches)
5.
Floor insulation
R-19 (6 inches)
6.
Ceiling insulation
R-19 (6 inches)
R-30 (9 inches)
R- 38 (12 inches)
In this
analysis,
the third
ceiling insulation option (R-33, 12 inches) is used in combination
with the five other option levels identified above.
2.1.3.2
Heating System Thermostat Setback
For the purposes of this analysis, we assume a setback of 4F
0
and a setback of 12 F during eight hours of the night.
during sixteen hours of the day
While it is not known precisely what thermostat
settings predominate in Maine, national experience indicates normal inside house daytime temperatures
of 72-750 F during the heating season.
Thus, the measures above would indicate setbacks to 68-710 F du-
ring the day and 60-630 F during the night.
2.1.3.3
Set-up Air Conditioner Thermostat
This analysis evaluates the potential savings from a central air conditioner thermostat set-up
of 6F,
from 72 to 780 F.
2.1.3.4
Air Conditioner Tune-up
This measure involves an annual tune-up of central air-conditioning installations by a professional maintenance person.
2.1.3.5
Efficiency Improvements in New Air Conditioners
The Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Moyers, 1973) estimates that the average energy efficiency
ratio (EER) of room air conditioners is approximately 6.5 Btu/watt-hour.
This discussion will assume
that this average EER value can be raised by one-third to 8.7 Btu/watt-hour.
2.1.3.6
Improve Lighting Efficiencies
There are currently many energy-efficient electric lamps on the market which provide higher
light levels for the same electrical input
as incandescent lamps.
While these new lamps tend to
have a higher initial cost, their longer lifetimes and lower operating costs make them reasonable
dollar and energy conservation options to the homeowner.
lamp fixtures with fluorescent lamp fixtures.
It is possible to replace many incandescent
It should be emphasized that simply turning off lights
or the use of more efficient lamps in the winter season does not save appreciable amounts of energy
since the entire energy input to the lamp is discharged into the living area as heat, heat which
an electric or other type of space heating system need not provide.
The implementation of these
measures in the summer season, however, is a reasonable energy conservation measure.
B-15
2.1.3.7
Setback of Electric Water Heat Thermostats
As in measures 2.1.3.2 and 2.1.3.3, thermostat setback on domestic water heaters can be implemented by the homeowner without capital outlay.
We assume a setback of 20 °F, e.g., from 140 down
to 1200 F.
2.1.3.8
Reduce Hot Water Use
This measure has both energy and water conservation advantages.
This study evaluates the
savings based on a reduction in use of one-third.
2.1.3.9
Improvement in Hot Water Heater Efficiency
Electric water heaters are estimated to be 79% efficient at point of use.
through poor tank insulation.
Most losses occur
Redesign of water heaters to provide added insulation could save
substantial amounts of electricity.
2.1.3.10
Improvement in Efficiencies of Refrigerators and Freezers
Large electricity savings appear to be possible through improved refrigerator and freezer design.
Existing products of this type on the market vary in efficiency by a factor of two.
standards will help the consumer identify the most efficient unit.
Product labeling
Some of the potential design changes
(MIT-CPA, 1974) include:
a.. Change from single to polyphase motors, thereby increasing motor efficiency fro.,65 tO 75i
b.
Change insulation from fiberglass to polyurethane;
c.
Use condenser turbine in lieu of resistance heaters.
2.1.3.11
Summary
The assumed energy savings and sources for each of these conservation measures (as described
above) are indicated in Table 2.7.
Of course, the exact savings depend on the "penetration" into the
sector of each measure, climatic, economic, and other conditions.
as moderate potentials.
These values should be considered
Measure 2.1.3.1 (improved thermal integrity) is not includedin the table
since savings from this measure were determined specifically for Maine through the use of a computerized
simulation model (to be discussed
in the results section).
Savings from measure 2.1.3.2, heating
system thermostat setback, is described by the relationship between local climate and the size of the
setback shown in Figure 2.2.
Table 2.7
ENERGY SAVINGS RESULTING FROM CONSERVATION MEASURES
Measure
Savings, Percent
2.1.3.2
Heating Thermostat Setback (1)
2.1.3.3
A/C Thermostat Set-up (2)
6
2.1.3.4
A/C Tune-up (2)
5
2.1.3.5
Improve A/C Efficiencies (3)
2.1.3.6
Improve Lighting Efficiencies (3)
2.1.3.7
Water Heater Thermostat Setback (2)
25
2.1.3.8
Reduce Hot Water Use (2)
27
2.1.3.9
Improve Water Heater Efficiency (2)
10
2.1.3.10
Improve Efficiency of Refrigerators and
Freezers (2)
20
25
5
50
(1)
See Figure 2.2, A Weighted Averaqe of Daytime and Night.
(2)
From Dole, 1975.
(3)
From Lee, 1975.
B-16
nv
2000
80
3000
60
4000
5000
4.
C
6000
U
I
7000
0.
8000
)
C
W
9000
40
C
a)
C
(A
U,
20
.
5
Thermostat Set Back, °F
Figure 2.2
Minimum savings of heating energy obtainable by means of: thermostat
set-back throughout heating season as function of heating degree days
from (Dole,1975)
B-17
Maine
2.1.4
Results of Implementation of Potential Residential Conseryation Measures
2.1.4.1
Heating and Cooling
Table 2.8 describes the potential savings from the thermal integrity program described earlier.
It is interesting to note that, for all intents and purposes, 100% of the electrically heated homes
in Maine have their full complement of storm doors, storm windows, and weatherstripping (Maine Energy
Conservation Workshop, 1977).
Present levels of weatherization in Maine are indicated in Table 2.9.
The savings indicated result solely from improved home insulation, installed to the levels suggested
earlier.
The fact that most electrically heated homes are so well fitted can be attributed to the
fact that electricity costs have been such that home weatherization has made great economic sense
in Maine.
Table 2.8
SAVINGS AS A RESULT OF INSULATION RETROFIT PROGRAM
(10 KWhe)
Heating
Cooling (Central)
1977
1985
245
212
2 2
0.0029
0. 029
from (Daifuku, 1977)
Table2.9
PRESENT
LEVELSOF WEATHERIZATION
Prototype
Category
Structural
Category
Ceilings
Wall
Floor
WeatherInsulation Insulation Insulation Stripping
(R-Value)
(R-Value) (R-Value) (% of units)
Storm
Windows
(% of units)
SFD
Storm
Doors
(% of units)
1965-77
e
1965-77
d
1940-65
d
1940-65
m
pre-1940
du
pre-1940
mu
pre-1940
di
pre-1940
mi
19
19
11
11
0
0
7
7
11
11
7
7
0
0
1
1
11
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
100
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
100
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
1965-77
e
1965-77
d
1940-65
d
pre-1940
du
pre-1940
mu
pre-1940
di
19
19
11
0
0
7
11
11
7
0
0
1
11
6
0
0
0
0
100
30
30
30
30
30
100
80
80
80
80
80
100
80
80
80
80
80
MFLR
1965-77
e
1965-77
d
1940-65
d
pre-1940
du
pre-1940
di
19
19
11
0
7
11
11
7
0
1
11
6
0
0
0
100
30
30
30
30
100
80
80
80
80
100
80
80
80
80
8
0
0
30
59
80
11
11
7
7
11
11
100
30
100
s0
100
50
SFA
MFHR
1965-77
d
MH
electric
fossil
e = electrical
d = oil
m = gas
du = oil uninsulated
SFD - singlefamilydetached
SFA = singlefamilyattached
MFLR- multiple
familylow rise
MFHR- multiple
familyhighrise
mu = oas uninsulated
di = oil insulated
mi = gas insulated
Source:MaineEnergyConservation
Workshop,
(1977)
B-18
Table 2.10 indicates the potential savings for each suggested conservation measure for 1985.
One should hesitate to conclude that total savings can be obtained by adding up the individual values
since some measures may be mutually exclusive (such as water heater thermostat setback and reduced
hot water use).
It is clear, however, that at least 25% of total i985.residential electricity con-
sumption could be conserved if these measures were implemented.
Table 2.10
POTENTIAL SAVINGS FROM CONSERVATION MEASURES
FOR LIGHTING AND HOME APPLIANCES
Measure
1985 Savings
106 Btu
106 KWhe
418,994
123
2.
Heating Thermostat Setback
3.
A/C Thermostat
4.
A/C Tune-up
426
0.12
5.
Improve A/C Efficiencies
41,412
12.1
6.
Improve Lighting Efficiencies
55,680
16.3
7.
Water Heating
8.
Reduce Hot Water Use
9.
Improve Water Heater Efficiency
10.
Set-up
Thermostat
512
Setback
0.15
1,033,560
302
1,116,245
327 (164)
41.432
12.1
1,129,608
379.7
ImproveEfficiency of Refrigerators
and Freezers
2.1.5
Conclusions (Residential
Sector)
If we assume that the effects of reduced hot water use are diluted by 50% due to the other
water heater measures and include in Table 2.10 the potential savings shown in Table 2.8 then total
electrical energy savings in the residential sector in Maine in 1985 would (could is a much more exact
word) be greater than 4.0 x 1012 Btu input or 1.2 x 109 KWhe.
This represents a power plant with a
capacity of 186 MWe operating on an 0.75 capacity factor.
We caution, however, that these savings are estimates.
We have absolutely no way of estima-
ting how much, in fact, will be accomplished in the way of energy conservation.
There are several
reasons for the "softness":
a.
First, these calculated savings are in error by the same
1974) and the amount introduced by the MIT/NEEMIS modification.
amount of the data base (Daifuku,
These errors can be determined only
by more "field tests."
b.
Secondly, they are theoretical potential savings if all new housing were according to a
minimum energy-consumption-based code and all appliances were energy-efficient.
c.
"Turn-around time" permits realization of savings only over a period of time beginning
some time after the enactment of the measure or action.
d.
Many potential savings are achievable only through strongly enforced mandatory regulations
over the whole USAand then only if
the public agrees with the government's perception of an "energy
crisis."
e.
The increase in cost of electricity
over the past (post-oil
ready resulted in some space and hot water heating thermostat setback.
embargo)years mayhave alThe original 740 F and
0
140 F upper limits may now in Maine, on an average, have been reduced from 74°F to 720 F, and from
1400 F to 1300 F.
If so, the savings calculated by the state and federal governments, and by this
report, may be high.
B-19
2.2
Commercial Sector
2.2.1
Introduction
The commercial sector represents a wide range of unrelated activities, among them retail stores,
office buildings, hotels and motels, recreational facilities and warehouses.
building type used in this study are as follows:
The definitions of
office buildings, retail buildings, schools and
educational facilities, hospitals and health centers, and others.
Although this category covers
a diverse set of activities, the categorization allows for identification of alternative conservation
measures common to buildings within that group.
The sections discuss the findings of several studies of commercial sector energy and, where
available, electrical energy conservation opportunities.
2.2.2
ASHRAE 90-75 Standard (Effects of Implementation)
The ASHRAE 90-75 Standard (hereafter called ASHRAE 90) refers to those building standards released
in August, 1975 by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers.
These standards, if implemented in new construction, could save energy.
These measures include:
minimum thermal performance criteria
decreased ventilation rates
increased equipment insulation and efficiency
Maine has developed its own building standards, incorporating some of the standards of ASHRAE 90.
Table 2.11 identifies the energy reductions, both in total energy consumed and in electricity,
if ASHRAE 90 were implemented in newly constructed commercial buildings.
Table 2.11
IMPACT OF ASHRAE 90-75 STANDARD ON NORTHEASTERN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
(percent reduction)
All Energy
Electricity
Office Buildings
61.5
35.3
Retail Stores
41.6
33.0
School Buildings
45.6
27.3
(For a typical northeastern office building, those components that
typically use electricity experienced the following energy use reductions:)
Cooling
38.2%
Auxiliaries*
37.2%
Fans
60.2%
Lighting & Power
29.1%
(from Arthur D. Little Inc., 1975)
*Includes hot water, chilled water, condenser pumps, cooling tower fans,
and toilet exhaust fans.
None of the indicated reductions equal or exceed the overall energy reduction in the building.
In the overall building, the four energy end-uses (cooling, auxiliaries, fans, lighting and power)
comprise 57.2% of total energy used in the ASHRAE 90 modified office building versus 34.1% in the
conventional office building
When the ASHRAE 90 was applied to a proto-typical retail store, an average reduction of 40.1% resulted.
A northeastern retail store is estimated to reduce energy consumption by 41.6%
The actual
energy requirements were significantly higher for the ASHRAE 90 modified retail store, 68.5% higher
in the northeast proto-typical retail store (where consumption is estimated to be 162.3 Btu per square
B-20
foot) than in the northeast proto-typical office buildings (where consumption is estimated to be
96.3 Btu per square foot).
For the proto-typical northeastern retail store, those components that typically use electricity
experienced the following energy use reductions as listed in Table 2.12.
Table 2.12
POSSIBLE REDUCTIONS IN ENERGY CONSUMPTION - PROTOTYPICAL N.E. RETAIL STORE/ASHRAE 90
Cooling
9.8%
Auxiliary*
33.3%
Fans
42.6%
Lighting & Power
31.5%
*Includes hot water, chilled water, condenser pumps, cooling tower fans, and toilet
exhaust fans.
(from Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1975)
A reduction in energy use by fans, which consume approximately one-third of the enerqv requirements
per square foot of retail space, is higher than the reduction in the overall building.
This is indi-
cative of a strong contribution by this change that will reduce electrical energy demand.
The average annual reduction in overall energy requirements of the proto-typical school building
due to the application of ASHRAE 90 was found to be 48.2%.
In the Northeast, a school building could
decrease its consumption by 45.6% by instituting ASHRAE 90.
In those school building end-use sectors
which typically are run by electricity, energy-use reductions were estimated to be as shown in
Table 2.13.
Table 2.13
POSSIBLE REDUCTION IN ENERGY CONSUMPTION - N.E. SCHOOL BUILDING/ASHRAE 90
Cooling
44.8%
Auxiliaries*
55.3%
Fans
33.3%
Lighting & Power
19.9%
*Includes hot water, chilled water, condenser pumps, cooling tower fans, and
toiler exhaust fans.
(from Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1975)
2.2.3
Retrofit and New Construction
In general, there are three prime areas in which a commercial building can obtain optimum
energy use through conservation.
self-imposed actions.
They are the building envelope, the building systems, and the
The first two may be implemented through engineering design, while the third
involves the human element.
2.2.3.1
Building Envelope
The exterior or shell design of a building and the material with which the building is made
determine the building's resistance to heat gain or loss.
efficiency of the building include:
Some factors influencing the energy
glass area, insulation in walls and roofs, exterior solar
shading (air conditioning), solar enhancement (heating), building orientation and/or landscaping.
Unless the building is an all-electric space-heated building, changing the characteristics of the
building through retrofitting or in new construction design would not significantly reduce electricity
demand.
As can be seen in Table 2.14 which follows, the potential effect of implementing energy
conservation measures in the building envelope would have little net effect on energy consumption.
B-21
Table 2.14
.BUILDING DESIGN CONSERVATION
MEASURES
Conservation Measure
·Proxy for Maximum Sector Response
Reduce window area
A 25 percent reduction of window area
in new buildings from 26 percent
Use insulating glass
A 50 percent introduction of insulating
(double) glass in both new and existing buildings
Install external
shades and/or
filtering glass
A year-round 25 percent reduction in
solar flux
Increased insulation
A reduction of 0.1 in the current
industry average U factor in new
building walls, no retrofit
Building orientation
A change from random orientation in
50 percent of new structures to an
optimum orientation
Net new construction
Energy conservation
Potential (percent)
Electricity Fossil
Fuel
Retrofit
potential
(Percent
of new)
14
(1)
16
1
,
100
100
7
1
\
I',
(from Salter, et al., 1976, p.40)
2.2.3.2
Building Systems
Building systems consist of the mechanical and electrical components utilized in a structure
for heating, air conditioning, water heating, lighting, and other services.
The design of the
systems and selection of the mode of operation will greatly influence the energy use within a
building.
ASHRAE 90 has attempted to set standards that would minimize energy use in newly
constructed office buildings.
Electrical energy conservation measures that could be instituted
in old buildings could include:
Electric Heat Pumps --used in connection with resistance heating heat, pumps can
potentially reduce the overall electric energy used for heat
System Design --
potential savings of 5 to 30 percent resulting from the
application of this technique as a result of the following
approaches:
Eliminate simultaneous heating and cooling of a room or zone
Reduce required heating and cooling capacities by proper
structure design
Design systems for optimum efficiency
Cool with outside air whenever possible
Select efficiently operating equipment
Select light levels and sources that reduce energy consumption
Higher Electric Efficiency Ratings (EER) -- improved air condition EER can reduce
energy consumption during the cooling cycle in a building by
20% or better.
More Efficient Light Fixtures -- eight-foot fluorescent tubes which emit the same level
of light at a cost of 60 watts versus the standard 80 watts of two
each four-foot lamps.
Table 2.15 summarizes the potential electrical and fossil fuel savings expected in newly constructed commercial buildings in 1979.
B-22
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In the final draft of the FEA Project Independence Blueprint, energy conservation
factors for four buildings representing four geographical regions were assessed (see Table 2.17).
Each index represents the probable average energy consumption achieved for energy conservation
(defined as those performance guidelines specified in (1) HUD's New Minimum Property Standard,
and (2) Design and Evaluation Criteria for Energy Conservation in New Buildings) across all
new and existing buildings within the same category.
These energy savings are the sum of
electrical and fossil fuel savings, thus they do not represent except in only a very crude
fashion potential electrical energy savings.
Table 2.17
Energy Conservation Factors for
Residential and Commercial Buildings
Note:
Combined fossil fuel and electricity
(1970 = 1.00)
Existing
Buildings
New
Construction
Office Buildings
Lighting
Auxiliary Equipment
Space Heating
Cooling
Hot Water Heating
.80
.95
.78
.82
.95
.50
.90
.60
.53
.90
Retail Establishments
Lighting
Auxiliary Equipment
Space Heating
Cooling
Hot Water Heating
.70
.95
.76
.76
.95
.50
.90
.50
.54
.90
Schools, Educational
Lighting
Auxiliary Equipment
Space Heating
Cooling
Hot Water Heating
.80
.95
.79
.81
.95
.50
.90
.50
.59
.90
Hospitals
Lighting
Auxiliary Equipment
Space Heating
Cooling
Hot Water Heating
.80
.95
.84
.91
1.00
.60
.90
.60
.67
.90
(from Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1974, p. 156)
B-25
2.2.3.3
Self Imposed Actions
Self-imposed actions include temperature control within the building, mode of equipment operation, and operational hours of the building.
Savings from reducing lighting loads,
operating hours, increasing temperatures during cooling cycles and night setback of thermostats
during unoccupied hours and weekends may reduce energy consumption by as much as 40 percent.
Twenty percent has been selected as the average savings which can be realized by this method
(National Petroleum Council, 1975, p. 53).
similar energy conservation alternatives.
Rand Corp., estimated similar savings from
Potential savings in electricity and direct fossil
fuel are shown as a percent of the total building energy use of each fuel (see Table 2.18).
The single largest potential savings could be in reducing lighting use (see Table 2.19).
Table 2.18
Building Use and Operation
Conservation Measures
Conservation Measure
Net New Construction
Energy Conservation
Potential
(Percent)
Fossil
Proxy for Maximum Sector Response Electricity Fuel
33
Retrofit
Potential
(Percent
of New)
(19)
100
4
32
100
An average of 5 to 12 percent
savings estimated by the FPC
"Guidelines for Energy Conservation for Immediate Implementation," January 1974
8
8
100
Operation Schedule
(including Automated
Control)
A 10 percent reduction in
equipment "on time"
3
1
100
Reduced ventilation
(and infiltration)
A 50 percent reduction in both
new and old buildings
8
100
Reduce decorative and
outdoor lighting
A 1 percent sector energy
reduction
rIJ
100
Lighting reduction
A 50 percent reduction in sector
lighting energy from an assumed
base of 10.4 kwh/sg ft (2.7W/sg ft
on 44 percent schedule to 2.0 W/sg
ft on 30 percent schedule)
Internal temperature
control
A 6 degree increase in cooling thermostat setting and a 6 degree decrease in heating thermostat
setting
Equipment maintenance
and feedback control
2
I
- negligible
demand
because
heat
contribution
from
lighting
is
( ) - increase in energy
reduced
(from Salter, et al., 1976, p. 40)
B-26
Table 2.19
POSSIBLE ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES
Life-Cycle
Cost
Savings
(Percent)
First
Cost
Savings
(Percent)
34
38
30
34
36
29
27
27
28
19
23
20
22
6
29
-2
13
-9
51
53
51
49
38
43
43
17
12
Energy
Savings
(Percent)
Measure
Reduce the light level from
full to half for the
Reheat system
Absorption system
Electic system
With full light, substitute
the economy system for the
Reheat system
Absorption system
Electric system
With half light and the
economy system for the
1
Reheat system
Absorption system
Electric system
I
UIill
2.2.3.4
a
I c
,
t
W.,
mLoV,
1
I -
Conservation Targets
In the report, Residual Oil Shortfall and Electricity Conservation in New England, an extensive
survey of commercial sector industries and associations was completed in order to identify
conservation targets (Harbridge House, Inc., 1974, pp. III-33 to III-37).
Representatives of
different commercial activities acquainted with electricity conservation were contacted and
asked to identify percentage savings that could be attained without undue dislocation.
summarized these interviews.
Table 2.20
Although this list is not exhaustive (some sources provided
unsatisfactory responses or refused to give information), it does include a broad range of
commercial activities, the target savings associated with these activities, and the measures
necessary to obtaining these savings.
Notably, lighting and climate control tended to be the
universally recommended methods for electricity conservation within the commercial sector.
Table
2.21 summarized the commercial sector electricity targets.
In addition, the Harbridge House report evaluated the four-day work week and change in school
and retail store operating schedules.
The calculated average monthly net savings from a four day
work week program, 250 million KWh, are outweighed by an annual loss in personal income of
about 6.3 billion dollars, a cut in production of almost 20%, and ultimately, perhaps some plant
closures.
Similarly, energy savings accruing from restricting school hours would be offset by
alternative activities pursued during closings, for example, incremental lighting, cooking, television
and so forth.
B-27
Table 2.20
ELECTRICITY SAVINGS IN THE COMMERCIAL SECTOR
Percentage Savings
Savings
Sources
OFFICE BUILDINGS
Recircuit lighting systems
Minimize lighting at night
Lower heat thermostat
Minimize lighting during day
Raise air conditioner thermostat
Add screening and shading to reduce heat loss
Daytime cleaning
15-20
American Consulting
Engineering Council
20
American Institute of
Architects
20
Hotel Sales Management
Association
American Hotel Trade
Association Executives
HOTELS/LODGINGS
Turn off excess lighting
Regulate heat and air conditioning
Eliminate vibrating beds
Eliminate sunlamps
Reduce heat in banquet halls
Eliminate spotlighting
American Hotel and Motel
Association
RETAIL AND PERSONAL SERVICES
Supermarkets
Reduce lighting
Cover refrigerating unit at night-20% savings
Reduce heat
Install heat recovery systems
Reduce use of power tools
20
15
National Association of
Food Chains
Star Market, Office of
Energy Coordinator
Shopping Centers
Reduce mall (open or enclosed)
lighting-20-23%
Reduce parking lot lighting-15%
Reduce store interior lighting-20%
Reduce display window lighting-20%
Lower heat thermostat-9%
20-33
International Council
of Shopping Centers
Laundromats/Dry Cleaners
Reduce lighting
Reduce water temperature from
1400 to 1200
Improve insulation
Use fluorescent instead of
incandescent lighting
10
International Fabric
Care Institute
RECREATIONAL FACILITIES
Amusement Parks
Lower wattage on lights
Lower or eliminate air conditioning
Use timers on advertising signs
20-25
International Association of
Amusement Parks and Attractions
Ice Skating Rinks
Lower room temperature at
indoor rinks
Reduce lighting-use it only at night
20
Ice Skating Institute of
America
5
Roller Skating Rink Operators
of America
Roller Skating Rinks
Minimal use of electricity
Table 2.20 continued on next page
B-28
Table 2.20 (continued)
Percentage
Savings
Sources
Mbvie Theaters
Turn on outdoor marquee after
dark
Eliminate matinees
Use fluorescent lighting
Limit indoor lighting
Minimize lighting for cleaning
20
National Association of
Theater Owners
20-25
National Club Association
5-20
Federal Power Commission,
Office of Chief Engineer
5-10
International Grocers
Association
5-10
American Association of
School Administrators
10
Commonwealth of Massachusetts,
Department of Occupational
Education
0-5
American Library Association
7-8
U.S. General Services
Administration
5-10
National Parking Association
Country Clubs
Eliminate electric golf carts
Minimize outdoor lighting
Wholesale/Warehousing
Eliminate cross-ventilation
inside warehouses
Reduce lighting
Public Schools
Reduce lighting in classrooms
Turn off lights in unused or
little-used areas
Reduce security lighting
Lower water temperature in
gymnasium showers
Raise air conditioning thermostats
Libraries
Lower heat thermostat
Reduce lighting
Government Buildings
(see Office Buildings
Parking Garages
Remove nonessential lighting
Cut back entrance lighting
Eliminate space heating
Minimize lighting of outdoor
advertising signs
(from Harbridge House, Inc., 1974, pp.
I-33
to III-37)
B-29
Table 2.21
SUMMARY OF COMMERCIAL SECTOR
ELECTRICITY-SAVING TARGETS
Targets
(as percents)
Sector
Office Buildings
15-20
Hotels/Lodgings
20
Retail and Personal Services
15-20
Public Schools and Libraries
5-10
Private Schools and Universities
15-20
Other
10
(from Harbridge House, Inc., 1974, p. III-38)
Restricting retail hours is a conservation measure similar to the previous one.
Institu-
tion of this conservation alternative was found to save about 1.3 million kilowatt-hours per hour
of closing.
1975).
Table 2.22 exhibits the costs and benefits of such a program (Harbridge House, Inc.,
The retail cutback option appears to be a reasonable and manageable solution from a
technical point of view.
In light of current efforts to institute 12 hours per day, 7 days per
week, hours for all types of retail stores, it is unlikely that it would be accepted by the
buying public and the merchants.
Table 2.22
ESTIMATED SAVINGS FROM RESTRICTING RETAIL HOURS
New England Retail Sector
Consumption: 6+ billion KWh's per year
Employment : 730,000
Sales
: $26 billion
Savings
per month
(millions of KWH's)
Est. Loss
in Wages
(millions of $)
Est. Loss in
Personal
Income
(millions of $)
Open 2 Hours Later
(Monday-Saturday)
67
60
120
No Tuesday Operation
57
40
80
10 Percent
33
25
50
20 Percent
66
60
120
30 Percent
99
100
200
Cut Hours
(from Harbridge House, Inc., 1974, p. III-16)
B-30
Table 2.23 summarizes the estimated potential savings that can be accrued from
instituting selected energy conservation measures.
The general consensus seems to indicate
commercial structures could save approximately 20% of the energy used, half or more of which
could be electricity savings. (For absolute numbers see Table 2.27). It is hypothesized that
the Maine commercial sector could accrue savings in the same realm.
Table 2.23
Summary of Estimated Potential Savings from Alternative
Conservation Scenarios
(percent)
ASHRAE 90-75
Standard
Harbridge
House, Inc.
Interagency
Task Force on
Energy Conserv.
Salter
et al
Office Buildings
35.3
15-20
26.9
NA
Retail Stores
33.0
15-20
35.4
NA
School Buildings
27.3
10-15
28.0
NA
Hospitals
NA
10e
22.9
NA
Other
NA
10
27.0
NA
ALL
NA
25.1
45
NA:
e:
NA
Not available
Estimated
(from Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1975; Harbridge House, Inc., 1974; Interagency
Task Force on Energy Conservation, 1975; and Salter, et al., 1976
2.2.4
Conservation Potential in Maine
The test of the value of any energy conservation measure instituted in the commercial sector
is the extent to which it will curtail future energy consumption.
The potential energy savings
accruing to the Maine commercial businesses was determined based on estimates of commercial floor
space and unit demands (BTU per square foot of floor space).
Estimates of floor space inventories
were based on statistics compiled by the F.W. Dodge Division of McGraw-Hill Information Systems
Company and Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Energy demands per unti area for each building type
in New England found in the report (Lee, 1976) were used.
The disaggregated electrical energy
demands are essentially the product of these two.
2.2.5
Commercial Overview and Conclusions
Since few historical and current regional data have been published on commercial floor space,
the 1972 commercial inventory was developed by regionalizing an inventory of commercial floor space
for New England developed by Brookhaven National Laboratory (Lee, 1976).
The office building
inventory was regionalized by using total number of employees in finance, insurance, and real
estate businesses.
distribution.
Regional distribution of retail inventory was based on the personal income
School, hospital and miscellaneous commercial floor space inventory was distributed
according to the size of the population.
In projecting new construction 1985 projections were shared in the same fashion as previously
noted, using earnings and personal income forecasts from OBERS projection (U,S. Water Resources Council,
1975) and Bureau of Census Series E population forecasts
U.S. Bureau of Census, 1974).
Forecasts of
all hospitals, schools, and miscellaneous commercial office space were assumed to grow at national
rates of 3.4% per year, 3.0% per year, and 3.6% per year, respectively Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1974).
B-31
These projections exclude conversions from oil and gas to electric-based energy consumption
of existing floor space.
be all-electric.
However, the figures assume that all new growth in floor space will
(See Table 2.24).
The unit demands (Btu/ft2) in the commercial sector (see Table 2.25) were originally derived
for the Northeast in the Project Independence Task Force Report:
Residential and Commercial
Energy Use Patterns, 1970-]990 (Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1974), and subsequently disaggregated by
using population weighted annual heating degree days (Lee, 1976).
The values assume a specific
building design and energy system characteristics (Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1974) and are probably
best regarded as prototypical, not average, values.
Projections based on these unit demands are
uncertain because of the wide variation in energy consumption per square foot between similar
buildings with comparable systems.
In forecasting future demand, these figures are reduced to
These reductions imply no major changes in technology or lifestyle.
reflect conservation impacts.
Between 1965 and 1975, New England electricity sales to commercial customers grew by 9.4%
per year, from sales of 8.2 billion KWh to 20.0 billion KWh, while Maine sales to the customers
grew 9.9% per year.
From 1964 to 1974, Maine electricity commercial sales growth averaged 10.5% per year reflecting increased lighting level, exhibits, air-conditioning, and some penetration made by electric
space heating.
:Table2.24
COMMERCIALFLOOR SPACE IN MAINE
(106 Square Feet)
.1975
1985
Electric
Based
Building
Type
Total
Electric
Based
Offices
10.5
3.2
18.5
11.2
Retail
18.0
5.5.
27.9
15.4
Schools
24.0
7.5
32.0
15.5
Hospitals
10.0
3.1
14.0
7.1
Other
25.0
7.7
36.0
18.7
87.8
27.0
128.4
67.9
Total
Source: (A.D. Little, 1974)
B-32
Total
Table 2.25
NORTHEAST ELECTRICAL ENERGY REQUIREMENTS PER SQUARE FOOT
OF COMMERCIAL SPACE
Building
Type
Space
Heating,
Offices
Air
Conditioning_
Lighting &
....
_
_Miscel1 aneous
165
9.6
31.6
Retai1
92
10.8
34.0
Schools
146
8.5
27.2
Hospitals
176
12.0
71.3
92
10.8
31.6
Other
(from Lee, 1976, p.26)
The slower sales growth (4.1% per year) between 1972 and 1975 are reflective of the
Mideast oil embargo and the self-imposed energy conservation measures which reduced commercial
energy consumption.
(See Table 2.26.)
Table 2.27 summarizes 1985 electrical energy consumption by the commercial sector in Maine.
Total 1985 electrical energy consumed by the commercial sector will be 11.6 trillion Btu's without
any conservation measures.
However, if energy conservation measures discussed are imposed, electricity
savings will approach 10% for new construction and as much as 28% if existing structures are retrofitted
in addition to new construction standards.
Thus savings accruing from institution of conservation
measures in the commercial sector of Maine could be as much as 3.3 trillion Btu's (see Table 2.28).
Table 2.26
COMMERCIAL ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION
IN NEW ENGLANDAND MAINE
(millions kilowatt hours)
Energv Consumption
Energv Consumtion
Year
New
Maine
Year
New
England
Mai ne
England
1963
7116
440
1970
14643
970
1964
7610
472
1971
16103
1081
1965
8191
526
1972
17710
1200
1966
8984
587
1973
19424
1284
1967
9876
724
1974
18904
1287
1968
12155
788
1975
20043
1354
1969
13146
866
(from Electric Council of New England, 1976)
B-33
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Table 2.28
ESTIMATED 1985 SAVINGS FROM ALTERNATIVE CONSERVATION
SCENARIOS IN MAINE
(109 Btu)
Building
Type
Imi
pl ement
ASI-RAE 90
Apply Harbridge
House Targets
Implement ADL
Conservation
Measures
Implement Salter
Conservation
Measures
Offices
580
245
621
NA
Retail
445
202
746
NA
Schools
397
147
789
NA
Hospitals
NA
1306
422
NA
Other
NA
148
679
NA
NA
848
3257
3137
TOTAL
NA:
Not available
B-35
2.3
Industrial Sector
2.3.1
Introduction
"In 1971 the manufacturing sector consumed 16.1 quadrillion Btu or roughly 27.9%
of total U.S. energy requirements. The distribution of energy consumption within
the manufacturing sector is heavily weighted for the primary products industry:
1, food; 2, paper; 3, chemical; 4, petroleum; 5, stone, clay and glass; and 6,
primary metals. The six industries accounted for over 83% of the energy consumed
within the manufacturing sector in 1971 or 23.2% of total U.S. requirements."
(From Federal Energy Administration, 1974, pp. 1,2)
The industrial sector in the United States consumes roughly 42% of all electrical energy
generated in the U.S.
Of this, 42% (the six most energy-intensive manufacturing industries)
consume 66% (28% of the total electrical energy consumed in the United States -- see Table
2.29).
Most attention on energy conservation both of fuels and of electricity has focused on
these six energy-intensive manufacturing industries.
Per dollar of value added the energy-intensive industries, excluding food processing,
account for 173 MBtu's as compared with only .016 MBtu's per value added for other
industries.
Five industries alone account for roughly 14¢ of energy for every dollar of
value added in the Industrial sectors.
energy of all other industries combined.
In addition, they consume twice the electrical
(From Federal Energy Administration, 1974).
Electrical generation in the United States for industrial purposes has undergone
a dramatic change since the mid-1950's.
In 1954 only 75% of the total energy used by
industries in the United States was purchased from power companies and 15% was selfgenerated either from on-site turbines or from on-site use of waste materials for electric
power generation.
Between 1954 and 1971 the proportion of on-site generated decreased by
25% to less than 14%.
Estimates by the Edison Electric Institute have indicated that this
proportion is likely to drop to 9% by the turn of the century.
2.3,2
Energy Consumption
Tables 2.30 and 2.31 show both the total energy consumption per dollar of value added
for the six major energy-consuming sectors and the consumption of electrical energy kilowatt
hours per dollar of value added (KWh/$V.A.).
As will be discussed in greater detail in the
analysis of conservation potential for manufacturing in Maine, the projected levels of
savings for fossil fuels is relatively high while for electrical consumption is much less.
2.3,3
Conservation Activities
In general, within the industrial sector, electrical energy consumption is the smaller
of the total energy requirements when compared with fossil fuel consumption.
As a result,
much of the attention of the Federal Government, as well as industrial groups, has focused on
the conservation of fossil energy rather than upon the conservation of electrical energy.
With this is mind, therefore, major conservation activities for electrical energy may be
listed as the following:
1.
A reversal of the trend away from on-site electric power generation on the part of
large-scale industrial establishments.
a)
Two-thirds of the heat generated in an electric power plant has to be dissipated
into the air or water (lakes, rivers, ocean).
transported for more than a few miles.
ing processes.
This heat cannot be economically
Many industries use heat in their manufactur-
On-site electrical generation would permit use of a portion of the
B-36
______
Table 2.29
Distribution of Energy Consumption
within the Manufacturing Sector: 1971
Purchased Fuels
Purchased Fuels
and Electricity
Six Energy Intensive
Manufacturing
Industries
BTU
%
BTU
%
(1) Food and Kindred Products
809
5.6
920
5.7
(2) Paper & Allied Products
1196
8.3
1315
8.2
(3) Chemicals & Allied Products
2443
17.0
2783
17.3
(4) Petroleum & Coal Products
2377
20.0
2956
18.4
(5) Store, Clay & Glass
Products
1291
9.0
1367
8.5
(6) Primary Metals Industries
3613
25.2
4030
25.1
12220
85.1
13371
83.2
Other Manufacturing
2109
14.7
2714
16.9
Total Manufacturing
14329
Total of Six
99.811
_/ Failure to sum to 100% due to rounding error.
(from Federal Energy Administration, 1974, p. 3)
B-37
16085
100.1/
Table 2.30
NET ENERGY CONSUMPTION PER DOLLAR OF VALUE ADDED
1954 - 1990
(MBTU/S Value Added)
1954
All Manufacturing
Six High Energy Consuming
Industries
70.29
161.65
1958
1962
1967
1971
1975
1977
1980
1985
1990
69.79
65.10
56.36
52.86
48.70
46.67
43.94
42.18
38.29
156.02 147.65 132.23 128.04 118.71 114.91 107.49 101.30
93.3Z
Food & Kindred Products
47.46
31.98
27.68
26.96
26.29
26.31
26.47
Paper & Allied Products
126.07
133.67 124.53 118.49 115.80
98.61
97.20
94.31
88.43
81.15
Chemicals & Allied Products
160.44
144.60 124.78 110.32
93.20
92.70
84.02
80.53
72.76
Petroleum & Coal Prod.
552.04
544.47 521.62 471.59 451.00 397.36 389.48 373.55 373.79 370.57
Stone, Clay & Glass
Products
176.41
16J.44 152.16 147.49 146.60 132.22 124.35 119.55 111.12 105.90
Primary Metals Industries
224.98
245.10 236.47 204.20 212.66 195.70 187.90 177.90 165.90 154.50
Total All Other
16.73
38.96
15.79
35.78
28.81
16.104 14.10
(from Federal Energy Administration, 1974, p. 26)
B-38
95.70
13.60
13.60
13.601 13.60
13.60
13.60
Table 2.31
ELECTRICAL ENERGY PER DOLLAR OF VALUE ADDED
KWh/$ Value Added 1967-1990
1967
1971
1977
1980
1985
1990
.91
1.22
.92
.89
.91
.91
Paper
2.64
3.07
3.79
3.90
3.82
3.78
Chemicals
4.08
3.43
3.46
3.28
3.37
3.19
Petroleum
2.92
3.53
3.07
3.01
3.12
3.32
Stone, etc
2.36
2.4
2.57
2.70
2.64
2.48
Metals
5.48
5.86
6.12
6.24
6.24
6.3
SIX TOTAL
Food
Primary
3.1
3.31
3.26
3.24
3.76
3.22
Other
.8
.88
.88
.88
.88
.88
TOTAL
1.62
1.65
1.64
1.82
1.61
Source:
1.7
Calculated from (FEA/PI)
B-39
reject heat.
If, at the factory, the required heat was normally generated by burning
fuel (coal, oil, gas) the savings would be fuel savings.
If the required heat were
made with electricity, the result would be conservation of fuel and generated electricity.
b)
"Co-generation," the term that refers to the generation of electricity and use of
the normally rejected heat, may not involve maximum generation of electricity per unit
of fuel (for technical reasons) but the overall conversion of energy in the primary
fuel to useful purposes can be increased by about 100% (from 33 to 66% conversion
efficiency of the energy in the fuel).
2.
A significant aspect of the operation of any industry under a situation of inexpensive
energy prices is a general attitude which allows equipment to continue to run when operators
are not present, to have lighting in excess of requirements for the job and in periods
when lighting is not required.
to Save Energy".
The paper industry has distributed a publication, "21 Ways
(American Paper Institute, 1973).
This pamphlet suggests a number of
means for energy conservation, only two of which apply to decrease in electrical consumption.
These are:
lighting.
curtailment of lighting loads and use of photocells for control of exterior
In addition to the 21 suggestions, FEA has added seven additional conservation
measures, none of which apply to the conservation of electrical energy by large-scale
manufacturing concerns, (from Federal Energy Administration, pp. 5-17).
The IEEE Spectrum, in June of 1974, listed 54 potential savings to heating and cooling,
none of which directly affected electrical consumption and then listed 22 items which would
reduce the lighting load in 42 process-related and transport industries -- only 8 of which
pertain to electrical conservation, and those were primarily in the area of "good housekeeping."
(From IEEE Spectrum, 1977, pp. 68-69)
3.
The paper industry is a major industry in Maine.
For that reason we have discussed, in
much greater detail, the conservation opportunities in that industry.
See also Technical
Note A to this paper.
As a general summary, it has to be stated that there is limited experience with capturing largescale energy savings in the consumption of electricity in the industrial sector.
Experience,
sufficient in depth and scope to enable one to offer suggestions as to conservation of electricity
without detailed first-hand knowledge of each manufacturing plant, is lacking.
Equipment, processes (many of which are company secrets), etc., differ from building to
building within a plant and from plant to plant of a single company.
Savings can be obtained
but only by "in-house" knowledgeable personnel.
2.3.4
Energy Conservation Projections for the Industrial Sector in Maine
2.3.4.1
Introduction
The 1973 ADL Study (ADL 1975) of New England energy consumption which has been used in this
analysis as a base showed little if any decrease in electrical energy consumption per dollar of
shipments from 1977 to 1985 (see Tables 2.32 and 2.33 for a complete listing of energy consumption
coefficients).
The ADL study, Raskin (NEEMIS) investigations, Central Maine Power Production
reports and the study of FEA/Project Independence (FEA/PI) are the principal sources for
analysis of electrical energy savings potential in the industrial sector in Maine.
B-40
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Table 2.33
Maine Manufacturing Sectors
KWh Consumption per $ Value of Shipments
SIC
Title of Sector
1974
1980
1985
20*
22
23
.28
Food and Kindred Products
Textile Mill Products
.74
Apparel and Other Textile
.26
Products
Lumber and Wood Products
.65
Furniture and Fixtures
.60
Paper and Allied Products 2.03
1.52
Printing and Publishing
Chemicals and Allied
Products
1.72
Petroleum and Coal
Products
0
Rubber and Miscellaneous
Plastic Products
.35
Leather and Leather
.32
Products
Stone, Clay, and Glass
2.92
Products
.23
Primary Metal Industries
Fabricated Metal Products 2.44
Machinery, Except
.12
Electrical
Electric and Electronic
Equipment
1.70
.50
Transportation Equipment
Instruments and Related
0
Produ cts
Miscellaneous Manufacturinc
Industries and Ornance
.27
and Accessories
.28
.81
.28
.81
.26
.67
.57
2.03
1.60
.26
.67
.37
2.03
1 .60
1.72
1.72
0
0
24
25
26*
27
28*
29*
30
31
32*
33*
34
35
36
37
38
39
.35
.35
.38
.38
2.92
.26
2.44
2.92
.27
2.55
.12
.12
1.70
.55
1.70
.57
0
0
* Major energy-consuming sectors
(from Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1975)
(Contains no inflation factor (constant 1974 dollars)
B-45
.27
.27
Table 2.34
Six Major Manufacturing Energy Users 1967
9)
Comparison of Value Added to Value of Shipments ($xlO
SIC
Value of 2
Shipments
Value Addedl
20
26
28
29
32
33
26.62
9.76
23.55
5.42
8.33
19.98
VA/VS
.28
93.77
17.82
'3.32
26.99
15.16
23.10
.55
.91
.20
.55
.87
1
Source:
FEA/!PI
2
Commerce, 1-0, 1974
Table 2.35
Maine Mfgr Electrical Energy Coefficients Compared
to the National Average
SIC
20
26
28
29
32
33
KWh/$ Value of Shipments
1980
19772
2
19741
1
U.S.
Maine
U.S.
Maine
.28
2,03
1.72
2.92
.23*
.26
2.03
3.15
.61
1.41
5.32
.28
2,03
1 72
2.92
.26*
.25
2.15
2.99
.6
1.49
5.43
1985
Maine
1
.28
2.03
1.72
2.92
.27*
U.S
.26
2.10
3.09
.62
1.65
5.48
*?ote: given other sources such as Central Maine Power, this
coefficient appears low. A more reasonable estimate for Maine
appears to be 1.3 to 1.5
1
2
from Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1975
iote: Relationship of value added by sector to value of shipments per sector as seen in Table 2.15 for 1967 have been
assumed constant over time.
B-46
In an effort to reconcile the coefficients derived in each of those studies it was
necessary to benchmark the relationship between value added and value of shipments for the
major energy-consuming sectors.
The results of this effort are shown in Table 2.34.
Assuming a constant relationship between Value added and Value of Shipments over time
(1977 to 1985) allows for the conversion of U.S. electrical energy coefficients,
measured in KJh/$Value Added to 'Lh/$Value of Shipments.
Table 2.35 shows the results of
this conversion when compared to the ADL projections for Maine.
2.3.4.2
Electrical Energy Coefficients, Maine/USA
Comparison of the electrical energy coefficients for Maine and for the U.S. demonstrate
a number of points concerning electrical energy consumption for the state.
In SIC 20, Food and kindred products, the similarity of the two sets of coefficients reinforce the initial hypothesis that despite the heterogeneity of the sector, the fact that food
processing occurs relatively evenly, guarantees a similarity in coefficients across the
United States.
In SIC 26, Paper and Allied Products, shows a nearly identical pattern to that for the
United States.
SIC 28, Chemicals represents a sector for which there appears no consistent data set for
1974.
Raskin reports no consumption while ADL shows 429 x 106 KWh.
38.1 x 106 KWh.
Central Maine Power reports
The analyses which follow assume a value for Maine as a whole double that
supplied by CMP.
This gives a KWh/$Value of Shipments coefficient in tables 2.33 and 2.35 of
1.72, less than that for the U. S.
Given the extreme heterogeneity of this sector, this appears
a good assumption.
SIC 32, Stone, Clay and Glass is again a highly heterogeneous sector whose energy requirements
vary widely within the sector.
Maine required more electrical energy than the average for the
United States in SIC 32.
SIC 33, Primary Metals appears as an error in the ADL study.
The coefficients reported are
considerably lower for Maine than for the United States as a whole.
In addition, utilizing figures
provided for sales to this sector by Central Maine Power, it would appear that a more likely
coefficient would be less than that of the United States but on the order of 1.3 to 1.5 KWH/$Value
of Shipments.
Given the apparently small projected change in electrical energy consumption in manufacturing,
and the divergence of Maine consumption coefficients from those of the United States as a whole,
the following scenario was developed to analyze the potential energy conservation savings in
electrical consumption in 1980 and 1985/6 in Maine.
SIC 20:
Electrical energy consumption/$Value of Shipments would be reduced to that of the
United States.
SIC 28:
Electrical energy consumption/$Value of Shipments in Maine would be reduced by the
same proportion as was projected in the FEA/PI study for the United States, i.e., down 5% from
1974 in 1980 and down 3% from 1974 in 1985.
SIC 26:
Maintain the electrical energy consumption coefficients at the level projected in
the ADL study, i.e., do not allow for increased levels of purchased electrical energy at the
expense of self-generated energy.
SIC 32:
Maintain a constant level of consumption per unit of shipments, i.e., do not show
an increase as is indicated in the total U.S. figures.
SIC 33:
Hold constant at the 1974 value as calculated in the ADL study, i.e., do not allow
to increase as projected by both ADL and FEA/PI.
Other sectors:
Hold constant as in the ADL study.
B-47
Table 2.36
INDUSTRIAL SECTOR ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION 1974, 1985
By SIC (KWh x 106)
1974
1974
1980
2
ADL
Corrected
1985
ADL
Corrected
1985
SIC
State of Maine
* 20
124.3
216.o2
105.7
199.
216.5
162.7
22
138.8
164.8
107.9
194.8
172.2
166.1
23
14.7
11.9
L4
129.9
141.3
2i
9.1
7.4
b
CMP
19.5 a
21.6
90.8
22.
CMP
30.0
204.4
218.2
139.8
12.6
8.3
16.6
2054.5
1217.5
10.da
* 26
72.8
1546.0
790.9
1833.0
Z7
78.4
11.j
2.1
134.6
148 .8
100.3
118.9
58.7
* 28
b
428.7
_
c
38.1a
5.2a
* Z9
3.2
8.0
30
34.3
63.8
31.9
63.
84.0
49.1
31
135.5
93.4
69.6
137.1
18.1
106 .4
* 32
77
74.5
65.3
107.8
105.1
100.5
* 33
11.5
29.3
39.7
20.8
34
128.4
36.0
13.5 a
53.7 a
191.1
106.2
82.7
35
7.4
38.1
5.4
13.9
16.7
8.3
63.7
55.6
164.
200.1
J.6
41.4a
66
68.2
63.7
2.8
4.6
3860.2
2325.3
3U
,5.
37
411.9
33
39
TOTAL
6.1
2.9
149;. 7
2431. 3
3.0
3J31.
36 J1 -I
,10.5
* Six iajor energy c,)s,.lers in
.S. - 85' of total U.S. energy consumption.
a. ;ioconsumption reriorted by Annual Sirvey of Manufacturers, 1974 or
Discrepancy in
igures - see Raskin
b. Probable Error; in (A.D. Little, 1975)
c.
Assumed value for calculation of Table 2.33 and 2.35 was double value of
CMP or 76.2 x 106 K'in
Notes: 1. Calculated from A.D. Little, Inc., 1975 N.B.Discrepancy for
sector 26, Paper and Allied Products, and for Chemicals and Allied Products.
Note that if one adds Paper and subtracts Chemicals, i.e,
1495.7 + (1546-72.8)-428.7=2540.2 or roughly the Raskin (Note 2) figure.
Source: 2. Raskin, Susan K., "Manufacturing Industries Energy Requirements
in New England and the 1United States". MIT-NEEMIS-77-008TR, April, 1977, as
adapted from U.S. Bureau of Census, Annual Survey of Manufacturers, 1974 (GPO)
3. Central Maine Power, Uniform Statistical Report Year Ended
Dec. 31, 1974, page E-15.
4. Assumed 4%/annum compound growth
Power (1974 to 1985). Allocation to sectors
CMP production -- (Weak assumption but given
sources such as Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1975
B-48
rate as given by Central Maine
completed in proportion to 1974
unreliability of other projected
this appears only option).
Table 2.37
Maine Electrical Enerqy Conservation Scenario
1980
ADL
1
199
1833.
100.3
20
26
28
-
29
Conserv
2
175
1833.
100.3
-
107.8
29.3
107,8
25.9
TOTAL
OF
SIX
2269.4
2241.4
Other
1261.6
1261.6
3531.0
3503.6
32
33
-
ADL
1985
Conserv
216.5
2054.5
118.9
201
2054.5
118.9
15.5
0
0
0
3.4
105.1
39.7
105.1
33.8
0
5.9
27.4
2534.7
2513.3
21.4
1325.6
1325.6
0
3860.2
3838.9
(1%)
24
0
0
0
(1%)
from corrected ADL 1980, 1985 Table 2.36
Source:
2
Conservation Scenario summarized:
a. Food (SIC 20): will be reduced equal to FEA/P.I.
averager protection for U.S. (see Table
b. Paper (SIC 26): Maintain Maine projected level
c. Chemicals (SIC 28): maintain at Maine level
d. Stone (SIC 32): Hold constant - no increase as
would be indicated by U.S. figures.
e. Primary Metals (SIC 33): Hold at ADL projected
1974 level.
f. Other Sectors assumed ADL projections of consumption coefficients.
B-49
2.3.4.3
Impact of Electrical Energy Conservation
The above scenario was then used to project the impact of electrical energy conservation
in the industrial sector to 1980 and 1985 as compared with the Base Case (ADL) and Central
Maine Power, Table 2.36.
Table 2.37 presents the results of the projection of electrical energy conservation
in the industrial sector in Maine for 1980 and 1985.
As can be seen using the above scenario,
the impact of electrical energy conservation in the six largest energy-consuming industries
is minimal though one might anticipate a range about the values shown in Table II which would
take into account conservation efforts in the other industrial sectors.
It should be pointed
out, however, that the focus of the federal energy conservation plans in the industrial
sector has centered strongly on primary fuels and not upon electricity.
In addition, given the
level of primary fuels consumption, the use and purchase of electricity in the industrial
sector represents a relatively small segment of the total.
Few of the energy conservation policies
put forth at present focus attention on electrical energy conservation in manufacturing.
2.3.5
Government Program
The U.S. Department of Commerce and the U.S. Department of Energy have initiated, and are
funding, programs to accelerate energy conservation in industry.
materials handling and substitution
circulated
through conventional
they may transmit
energy
are beiny invesiydtea
channels and, in addition,
Processes, equipment and
ana improved. Information is
the trade organizations
are funded so
conservation information as directly as possible to the members whom
they represent.
Progress is monitored under the Voluntary Industrial Program which entered a new phase
with the enactment by Congress of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 (EPCA).
Under the U.S. Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA) guidelines, major energy-consuming
firms, in industries for which efficiency improvement targets have been set by the DOE (FEA),
are required to report on their energy efficiency and conservation goals (Ref. 32).
for
These targets,
ercentage improvements in energy efficiency by 1980 are listed in Table 2.38.
TABLE 2.38
SIC
No.
Industry
Chemicals and Allied Products
Primary Metal Industries
Petroleum and Coal Products
Stone, Clay and Glass Products
Paper and Allied Products
Food and Kindred Products
Fabricated Metal Products
Transportation Equipment
Machinery, Except Electrical
Textile Mill Products
Source:
28
33
29
32
26
20
34
37
35
22
1980
Net
Target
14%
9
12
16
20
12
24
16
15
22
U.S. Department of Energy, 1977
The progress as of December 1976 towards the 1980 goals as illustrated in Fig. 2.3 and
listed in Table 2.39.
B-50
Progress Towards 1980 EPCA Goals
Perceni t
J"%^'
3U
Target
EN Progress
25
24
22
20
20
15
16
16
II
15
_
\
I
14
12
12.25
12
16.8
12.2
10
N.
_
9.1
/
9.3
9
7.'@
7.3
5
n
v
3.75
3.8
K
-
SIC
.
28
K
33
V
- - --
K
.
l-l
29
32
|-
26
Figure 2.3
Source:
11.2
\,,,
11.4
U.S. Department of Energy, 1977
B-51
N
-.
\
.- ..
20
34
-
--
37
---
-
35
22
TABLE 2.39
Industrial Energy Efficiency Improvements as of Dec. 1976
SIC
Code
Percentage of
Enerqv Efficiency
Improvement
Industry
28
Chemicals and Allied Products ......
9.1
33
Primary Metal Industries ...........
3.8
29
Petroleum and Coal Products ........
12.2
32
Stone, Clay and Glass Products .....
7.3
26
Paper and Allied Products ..........
9.3
20
Food and Kindred Products ..........
11.4
34
Fabricated Metal Products ..........
3.75
37
Transportation Equipment ...........
12.25
35
Machinery, Except Electrical .......
16.8
22
Textile Mill Products ..............
11.2
Source:
U.S. Department of Energy, 1977
B-52
An analysis of the Paper and Allied Products Industry performance is illustrated in
Fig. 2.4 and 2.5.
The data indicate that while overall btu/ton of product decreased, the energy mix has
also altered. Natural gas use has decreased in the proportion contributed by it, but
purchased electricity (and oil and coal) have increased their proportions.
Percent
r
DU r--
II
1972
:...1976
40
43.3
.''. '.'...: .'.
...........
J.............
38.2,,,,,,
..... :... . .
__
36.3
' ''' ' . .'
*."'''
#' """.
'''o .:'"
-& -%;t'' ,:1
:,'
.,.
,.
.
'
.:
''.,'.
. '..'......'.·
"''.:''.'''
' ..·'..·....· ........
' o·
:.'' ''.`'-'--'--2*
........
· .· .· . .· .· . ..
..........`
.....
.. .. ..
.... .
. .....
... ..... ..........
.. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . · . . ·. · .
. . .
30
__
''';"'·
' ' 0'........
''''''''''''''''''''"
'·.·'~~~~~':::..·...
. . .....
;:·:·:·.
.·.·:·:.
. ..
20
. ..
.
..
..
,''
*'s*
_
..
18.4
h£'''Lw
..-''-''-"
.........
r..
.,.,.
, .......,....--..-
. ... i.iiii
/ ~4 iii.iiiiiiii
.........
::::':'·.:
i':' . .::::::::
".::
:":.:
:::::::::::
:',-':,'.'::¥-.':
.:.:.:.:.:.:..-
.............
.,... .. .....
''......'..'.' .
:.:::
:.:::..
... '...,'.....
.........
.'..','..:"-.'.'
28.
...
..... ....
-.·.· ·..
.. ...................·
. .::., ....' ..'. ...
:
,:'
..*.......
~'' ... ....
, ::. r::::::::::::.::::::::
...- ...:-:...:..
.-.'
. . . . . . '. '. '. . '. .
. . ..-. . . . . . .. =
'Xq
;:!.!.i!:
F::::
. .:.:::.
..:
·,-.,::. : ... : ... .........
:·. · · ·- ·. . .·-.
. . . . .. .
9.6
10
F. . ......
.X. X. . . .. . . .
... .. . . . . 4 ...
i? 11::
i:::~:1
· -%:i~i~i~i~i
i 'i::iiii
:::::::::;.:.'::
.:!:!:.
. iii.i
:: ....
::::ii:.:::::
..
. .:.:.:.::::::::::::
....
. ... .. ... . ..
j:
1"''''
.........:.. .:.:.::.:..:..
.,.,. '''""'"'"
..
..
.
.
. . ... ...
.. .. . . . . . .
. . · I. . . ... . . .. .. . .. ...
. . . . . I:. ·. . ·. ·. . ·. ·. ·. . ·. ·..
. . . . . . . . . . .~
. . . .. . .I .
::.:::.:::
.,,.,.:-:- ··..
~~"
.
.
..
.
::: ::::::::
..
Fuel Oil
Coal
Figure 2.4
Paper Industry Status
Source:
:::::::
..
........... . .. . . .
l..............
· · i. ..
Purchased Electricity
. .
U. S. Department of Energy, 1977
B-53
.
Natural Gas
Energy Efficiency Table*
Production
1972
(106 tons)
54.231
Btu's (1015 Fossil Fuels &
Purchased Electricity)
Ratio
1976
56.806
1.0313
(106 Btu's/ton)
19.017
0.9801
17.253
Percent Improvemznt Over
Base Year
Base Year
9.3
Recent Energy Trends
Energy obtained from waste products such as hogged fuel and bark increased from an estimated
1i.6 percent of total energy consumed in 1972 to 44.9 percent
affe-cted the industry's energy efficiency, for example:
Capacity
utilization
was 94.2 percent
during
in 1972 and 90.2 percent
1976.
in 1976.
Other factors
This
decreased the potential energy efficiency by an estimated 2.3 percent.
Environmental control energy requirements were determined by a National Council
for Air and Stream Improvement (NCASI) survey taken in 1976. These figures
indicated a decrease in energy efficiency due to these controls of 0.8 percent.
Energy
Fuel
Purchased Electricity
Purchased Steam
Coal
Residual Fuel Oil
Distillate Fuel Oil
LPG
Natural Gas
Use
1972
1976
%
%
7.3
1.7
17.4
36.6
1.6
0.2
36.3
9.6
1.6
18.4
41.8
1.5
0.1
28.4
(1.1)
100.0
(1.6)
100.0
Other Purchased
0.2
Energy Sold
Total
Background Information
The American Paper Institute's (API) energy reporting system receives monthly reports from
365 pulp, paper and paperboard mills operated by 111 companies around the nation. In 1976
these mills accounted for 85 percent of U.S. paper, paperboard and dried pulp production.
* The energy data reflects only that reported and is not adjusted to represent all
industry production as in previous reports.
Figure 2.5
Report of the American Paper Institute
Source:
U.S. Department of Energy, 1977
B-54
3.0
ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSERVATION, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
3.1
Introduction
The principal focii of the U.S. energy conservation policy appear to be:
reduction of
oil imports and to encourage switching from oil and natural gas to coal as the primary fuel
forms whenever possible.
These national energy conservation goals may meet at the expense of an increase in the
consumption of electricity.
That is, using electricity, derived from coal, nuclear, hydro,
etc., to accomplish things that have hitherto been done by the direct use of oil or natural'
gas in a process.
Whereas the total amount of electricity consumed may increase, there is no absolute
reason why the amount of end-use electricity per unit of goods or services cannot be reduced.
It is believed that reduction can be obtained without a noticeable affect on life-style by
increasing energy productivity.
The reduction, however, is not easy to accomplish.
Energy production may be traced back
to a few hundred producers who may be influenced by a'few government actions or inactions.
Energy consumption decisions, on the other hand, are made by millions of individuals, tens of
thousands of industries and businesses, and thousands of political units.
The oil embargo of 1973-74 and the rapid increase in prices of all forms of energy have
done much to cause reductions in energy consumption in the maintenance of comfort, production
and use of materials, equipments and in the provision of services.
The U.S. national policy, with some notable exceptions, is based primarily on a procedure
of persuasion and conviction rather than by conscription and compulsion.
Automobile mileage
standards and appliance efficiency ratings are examples of-the few exceptions to the policy.
Our calculations and projections of possible electrical energy savings do not take into
account any of the above mentioned constraints.
is probable".
They are based on "what is possible" not "what
"What is probable" is left for the reader to speculate for probability depends
upon the readers' vision of the course of complex and intertwined world and domestic events in
which reason and idealism play unimportant parts.
Nationalism, pride and strange alliances
will influence energy supply, demand and policies.
3.2
Savings
In the residential sector, as detailed in Section 2.1.5, we calculated that an estimated
4.0 x 1012 Btu input or 1.2 x 109 kWhe (in electricity) might be possibly saved in 1985 in
Maine.
factor.
The output of a power plant with a capability of 186 MWe operating on a 0.75 capacity
The comments associated with this projection are repeated below.
They apply, for the
most part, to the commercial and industrial sectors as well.
We caution, however, that these savings are estimates.
We have absolutely no way of
estimating how much, in fact, will be accomplished in the way of energy conservation.
There
are several reasons for the "softness":
a.
First, these calculated savings are in error by the same amount of the data base
(Daifuku, 1974) and the amount introduced by the MIT/NEEMIS modification.
These errors can be
determined only by more "field tests."
b.
Secondly, they are theoretical potential savings if all new housing were according to
a minimum energy-consumption-based code and all appliances were energy-efficient.
B-55
c.
"Turn-around time" permits realization of savings only over a period of time beginning
some time after the enactment of the measure or action.
d.
Many potential savings are achievable only through strongly enforced mandatory
regulations over the whole USA and then only if the public agrees with the government's perception of an "energy crisis."
e.
The increase in cost of electricity over the past (post-oil embargo) years may have
already resulted in some space and hot water heating thermostat setback.
The original 74°F
and 1400F upper limits may now in Maine, on an average, have been reduced from 740F to 72 F,
0
and from 140°F to 130 F.
If so, the savings calculated by the state and federal governments,
and by this report, may be high.
In the conclusions for commercial sector, 2.2.3.4, projected possible savings are
summarized in Table 2.28.
An examination of the details, listed in Table 2.20, reveals that
they can be a result only of "hard" decisions on the part of the U.S. Government and acceptance
by commercial operators and the general public.
The reader has to judge for him or her self which of the actions or measures is likely
to be enacted by the government, implemented by the sector operators and accepted by the public.
The industrial sector in Maine appears in many ways to be relatively conserving of
electrical energy.
The stone and paper industries have goals for overall energy conservation
which may include switching from one energy form (oil, gas) to electricity.
For these reasons, electrical energy conservation in the industrial sector in Maine
is not likely to have a major impact on projected levels of consumption of electricity in
the state.
3.3
Conclusions
Many of the potential energy conservation actions and measures considered for the three
sectors, residential, commercial and industrial, have been put into effect already.
The
"easy", "inexpensive", "quick pay-out" ones have been exploited; the "harder" "long term
pay-out" ones will require considerable time in order to be adopted.
The projected energy savings, estimated for each of the three sectors, can be obtained
only by mandatory nation-wide actions on the part of the Federal government, something which
may be desirable from one point of view, but politically difficult from another.
In addition, "hardships" are perceived or imagined to be part of energy conservation.
Before many of the measures or actions become acceptable, they will have to be borne equally,
by all.
This is difficult, if not acceptable.
The various geographical actions of the U.S.
have different energy supply and demand situations, a result of climate, proximity to fuel
resources, and industrial activity.
The principal barrier to energy conservation is the absence of mandatory regulations,
regulations that will be difficult to enact under present public understanding of the energy
situation.
There is both reluctance to and resistance against the use of legislation
(regulation) to force conservation, particularly when it "appears" that energy, although not
quite as cheap as it used to be, is still abundant (with the possible exception of natural
gas) in all forms.
B-56
We can only recommend that theoretical projections and actual occurrences be closely
monitored by the electrical utility industry and regulatory boards so that the capacity to
supply electricity not be characterized by either expensive, excessive, surplus or intolerable
inadequacy.
B-57
TECHNICAL NOTE A
PAPER INDUSTRY
The four major paper and paper board products are newsprint,
containers,
and folding
boxboard.
writing
paper. corrugated
During the period 1962-73, annual U.S. production
products increased an average compound rates between 4.5 - 6.7% annually.
of these
Projections on a
national basis for 1973 - 1980 range between 2.7 - 5.0%.
Figures 1 through 5 detail the U.S.
averages of the flow of paper and paperboard pro-
duction and energy input.
Nationally,
of the bark removed from roundwood was assumed burned in bark/combination
o.5,;
boilers to product steam and power used in mill operations.
The combustible bark produces
10.5 MMBTU of gross heating value for every ton of bark burned.
Electrical energy required to manufacture paper and paperboard is principally associated
with drives for the paper machines, stock preparation, and waterpumping.
requirements for paper
Electrical energy
machines are estimated to be 300 - 400 kw per ton of product.
The
estimated distribution is as follows:
TABLE TNA-1
Electrical
Energy Requirements for Manufacturing
of Paper Products
Newspr i n t
300 kwh/ton
Writin
350 kwh/ton
Paper
Linerboard
325 kwh/ton
(medium)
Folding Boxboard
375 kwh/ton
Note: much of the material in this section is adapted from:
The DATA BASE/Potential for Conservation in Nine Selected Industries;
FEA. June 1974.
The output from the paper/paperboard machine is raw paper, often called "jumbo roll".
The processing of this bulk output into finished paper products is called "converting" in the
paper industry.
For most consumer products, e.g. tissues, sanitary napkins, paper towels, and
sometimesbags, writing paper tablets, reamsof typing paper, etc.. converting operations are
not generally performed at the mill.
Instead, they are located close to the markets.
Data concerning cost of the primary energy used in producting each of the selected paper
products for 1970 were available and are reproduced in Tables TNA-2 through TNA-4.
Similar
data for post embargo (1973-74) conditions could not be foJrd.
As can be seen, the primary energy cost as a percentage of products price is close for all
four products and hence the impact o
energy cost increases should be reasonably similar on all
finurproducts.
Observations
The data shown are for U.S. averages.
or coal vary between plants.
In the South and parts of the West, for earrple, gas constitutes a
very sizeable proportion whereas in
In 1971,
t'iEgenertiQn
over 50% of
aine it is practically negligible.
the total primary energy consumption in the case of newsprint, was for
of purchased electri,:energy.
content of the newsprint
Proportions of primary energy type, natural gas, oil
This high percentage is due to the high ground wood
Groundwood pulping is very electric energy intensive.
B-58
In additicn, the tylical newsprint mill purchases aproximately 80%of its electric energy
requirements. The mills for the other products, in addition to nrut requ-ring as much el2ctri.
energy, internally generae a highe, propo;tiri of their electric energy ;i-ed;.
purchased to internally
generated electric
Theratio of
energy is depicted for each of the paper; products
in Figures TNA-1 through TNA-4.
CONSERVATION OF THE NET ENERGY CONTENT
Perhaps the first
way to conserve energy on a national
fuel value of the paper products themselves.
paper products it produces.
basis would be to make use of the
Maine uses a very, very small proportion of the
The products are distributed throughout the U.S.
The end products
are discarded after use.
The gross heat of combustion of paper products is approximately 15.96 MMBTU per ton, the
equivalanet of about 3 barrels of oil.
With the hypothetical recovery of fuel value, the net
primary energy consumed per ton of each of the paper products would be reduced as shown in
Table 3, a calculation that can only be viewed from the standpoint of concern
U.S. situation.
with
the overall
The state of Maine can make its contribution, the estimated amount in
recoverable Btus could be based on population.
However, the end effect, reduction in the demand
for electricity, is very hard to determine and that which we can estimate is of no value in
planning energy sources.
INCREASE IN ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Trends which may increase energy consumption per ton of product include:
1.
The trend towards relatively more bleached products and the simultaneous trend
towards higher average brightness of the bleached products.
operation.
Bleaching is a highly energy
intensive
For example, in the production of SBS folding boxboard, approximately 16% of the
total primary energy consumption is attributable to bleaching.
2.
disposal.
Increased emphasis on air and water pollution abatement as well as solid waste
In particular, the operation of electrostatic precipitators wastewater treatment
facilities are energy intensive.
For example, in the case of SBS folding boxboard, it is
estimated that approximately 3.8% of additional primary energy consumption will be needed by the
average integrated mill to meet the various future air and water pollutant emission requirements.
DECREASE IN ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Trends which may decrease energy consumption per ton of product include:
1.
Continued increase in kraft pulping as a fraction of total pulping due to
increased demand for stronger and brighter products.
process than other chemical and groundwood pulping.
Kraft pulping is a less energy-consuming
Kraft pulping increased its share of
total pulp from 56% in 1958 to 69% in 1972 and the trend is expected to continue.
2.
Continued increase in the ration of sawmill residue to groundwood used in pulping.
Use of sawmill residue eliminated the energy, largely electrical, required for debarking and
chipping.
For example, in the case of the integrated mill for SBS folding boxboard, the
primary energy savings in a shift from 100%
per ton.
sawmill residue would be approximately 0.9 MMBTU
For the average 1971 case considered in this study, roundwood constituted 66% of
the total pulpwood requirements for this product.
For the total pulping operations in the
U.S., the ratio of roundwood to residue used in pulping was 94:6 in 1950 and 63:35 in 1971.
Projections for the lumber industry indicate an annual compound rate of growth of 4% from
1970 to 1980, and projections for the paper/paperboard industry indicate an annual compound
rate growth of 3.6% over the same period.
sawmill residue.
This indicates the relative availability of more
In addition, it is expected that the percentage recovery and use of saw-
mill residue by pulpmills will increase.
B-59
3.
Anticipated reversal of the downward trend in relative use of waste (secondary)
to virgin fiber as a result of environmental, and possibly economic, pressures to increase
fiber resource recovery.
The total primary energy consumed per ton of virgin newsprint was
estimated to be 21.95 MMBTU in 1971.
It is estimated that the production of one ton of
recycled newsprint made from deinked waste newspapers would consume about 19.5 MMBTU resulting
in a savings of approximately 7
in primary energy consumption.
Note, however, that on the
basis of gross energy consumed, the virgin newsprint mill consumes approximately 28.1 MMBTU
per ton.
This gross energy consumption includes the fuel value of the wood by-products fired
in the pulping operations.
On this basis, approximately 31% of gross energy consumption is
saved in shifting from virgin to deinked newsprint.
CONCLUSION
a.
There are opportunities for energy conservation in the paper and paperboard industry
in Maine.
b.
The savings must be evaluated against pay-back period for necessary capital invest-
ments.
c.
Energy consumption can also increase as a result of pollution abatement measures.
d.
Energy savings that
ight be enjoyed within the paper and paperboard industry could
be removed if plans for burning of wood residue for the generation of electricity for sale to
the public are implemented.
The question is, which would result in the greater benefit for
Maine?
B-60
___.__
Table TNA-2
Cost of Total Primary Energy Used to
Produce One Ton of Each Selected Paper
Product in the U.S.
Primary Energy
Cost
$/Ton
Newsprint
Writing Paper
Corrugated
Containers
SBS Folding
Boxboard
Sales Price
$/Ton ;(46)
Primary Energy as
Percent of Sales
Price
7.94
11.02
150
245
5.3
4.5
10.20
207
4.9
9.99
200
5.0
B-61
Table TNA-3
PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN BY TYPE
OF TOTAL MMBTU OF PRIMARY ENERGY
CONSUMPTION FOR PRODUCTION OF THE
SELECTED PAPER PRODUCTS IN THE U.S.
IN 1971
TYPE PRIMARY ENERGY
Coal
WRTTING
NEWSPRINT PAPER
CORRUGATED
CONTAINERS
SBS
FOLDING
BOXBOARD
6.6
19.3
25.8
17.1
Refined Oil Products
12.8
27.8
26.5
25.8
Natural Gas
13.5
23.5
42.6
40.6
Derivative Fuel
Products
(1.2)
Primary Fuels for
PurchasedElectric
Energy
TOTAL
67.1
29.4
6.3
16.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
TOTAL PRIMARY ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
MMBTU/TON 21.89
24.47
B-62
21.74
21.85
Table TNA-4
Maximum Potential Decrease in Total
Primary Energy Required for Production
Due to Energy Recovery from Discarded
Products
Total Primary
Energy Consumption
MMBTU/Ton
Gross Heat of
Combustion
MMBTU/Ton
Minimum
Primary Energy
Consumption
Newsprint
21.95
15.86
6.09
Writing
24.47
15.86
8.61
21.74
15.86
5.88
21.90
15.86
6.04
Paper
Corrugated
Containers
SBS Folding
Boxboard
B-63
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REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Brainard, J., H. Davitian, et al., A Perspective on the Energy Future of the
Northeast United States, National Center for Analysis of Energy Systems, Brookhaven
National Laboratory, June 1976.
2.
Central Maine Power Co., Appliance Saturation Survey, 1976.
3.
Daifuku, Richard, Simulation Model of Residential Space Heating and Central Air
Conditioning in New England Disaggregated by State 1970-2000, Technical Report
NEEMIS-MIT-77-003TR, February 1977.
4.
Dole, Stephen H., Energy Use and Conservation in the Residential Sector: A Regional
Analysis, Rand Corp., Santa Monica, California, June 1975.
5.
Energy Conservation Project Report, Newsletter of the Energy Conservation Project,
Environmental Law Institute, Washington,D.C., No. 4, January 1976.
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Jurgen, Ronald K., "What to Tell Your Neighbors," IEEE Spectrum, June 1974, pp. 62-69.
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Kurish, James B., Eric Hurst, Residential Energy Use Models for the Nine U.S. Census
Divisions, Oak Ridge National Lab, ORNL/CON-11, April 1977.
8.
Lee, John, Energy Supply and Demand in the Northeast United States, 1972, Brookhaven
National Lab, Energy Policy Analysis Group, Department of Applied Science, Informal
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9.
Maine Energy Conservation Workshop, Energy Conservation in Maine:
Weatherization
Improvements to the Existing Housing Stock, Department of City and Regional Planning,
Harvard University, June 1977.
10.
Tolley, G.S., C.W. Upton, V.S. Hastings, Electric Energy Availability and Regional
Growth, Ballinger Publishing Co., Cambridge, Mass., 1977
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Maine Office of Energy Resources, Maine Comprehensive .Eergy Plan, 1976, Vol. I, p. 1-6.
12.
"Merchandising Week", Billboard Publications, Rye, N.Y., N.Y. 10036.
13.
Central Maine Power Saturation Survey, 1976.
14.
Moyers, J.C., The Room Air Conditioner as an Energy Consumer, ORNL-EP-59, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, October 1973.
15.
Center for Policy Alternatives, "Productivity of Servicing Consumer Durables", MIT, 1974
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American Paper Institute, "21 Ways to Save Energy," pamphlet distributed to member firms
in October, 1973.
B-68
17.
Arthur D. Little, Inc., An Impact of ASHRAE Standard 90-75, Energy Conservation in New
Building Design, report to the Federal Energy Administration, Arthur D. Little, Inc.,
Cambridge, Mass., December, 1975.
18.
Arthur D. Little, Inc., "Residential and Commercial Energy Use Patterns 1972-1990"
(Volume I) in Federal Energy Administration Project Independence Blueprint Final Task
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19.
Arthur D. Little, Inc., Supply and Demand Projections of the New England's Energy
Requirements, New England Regional Commission, Boston, Mass., October, 1975.
20.
Electric Council of New England, Electric Utility Industry in New England Statistical
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21.
Electric Council of New England, Bedford, Mass., 1976.
Energy Conservation Project Report, Newsletter of the Energy Conservation Project,
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