International Journal of Humanities and Social Science
Vol. 5, No. 12; December 2015
Elephant in the Room: A Content Analysis of Unplanned Parenthood and
Subsequent Drop-Out for Black Community College Students
Leah P. Hollis, EdD
Assistant Professor
Community College Leadership Doctoral Program
Morgan State University
Abstract
Few studies examine the association between community college students’ risky sexual behavior, unplanned
pregnancy, and the subsequent withdrawal from school. Further, students’ nonchalant attitudes and lacking
access to health care and information about contraceptive use may exacerbate the problem. Hence,
comprehensive sexuality education can assist Black community college students to make sound contraceptive
decisions and to avoid unplanned consequences. Given the lack of empirical research on the connection between
unplanned pregnancy and student retention for Black community college students, this content analysis using
Krippendorff’s procedures (1980) develops themes from 100 articles and reports on sex education, relationship
status, social norms, and contraceptive use. The resulting analysis using social ignorance theory (Ungar, 2008)
shows that nonchalant attitudes regarding sexual practices and social norms influence risky sexual behavior for
Black community college students, which can be associated with unplanned pregnancy and eventually
withdrawing from school.
Keywords: Sex education, Community colleges, Student retention, and Black students.
Introduction
Student development theorists have considered various factors that affect college student retention. Financial aid,
work hours, commuting time, parents’ educational background, high school preparation, academic advising,
faculty involvement, orientation, and identity development have been the focus of such theorists studying college
student persistence (Astin, 1996; Chickering, 1969; Pascarella, Terenzini & Wolfle, 1986; Tinto, 1993). Other
student development theorists consider Black students’ socio-economic status, high school preparedness, campus
social connections, and developmental education (Grier-Reed, Madyun & Buckley, 2008; Harris & Wood, 2014;
Quaye & Harper, 2014). However, an overlooked element is sex, one of the major human drives, along with
eating and sleeping (Freud, 1923; Reiss & Havercamp, 1998). Despite sex being one of the major human drives,
student development theorists do not typically consider sexual behavior and contraceptive practices in their
analysis of student persistence and student retention.
Resultantly, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unplanned pregnancy have not been the focus of much
research in relationship to college student retention at the four-year or the two-year level. Notably, community
colleges host the age group of students who are in the highest risk age group for unplanned pregnancy. According
to 2015 information from the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC), the median age of
community college students is 24 (AACC, 2015), within the age group most likely to experience unplanned
pregnancy (Prentice, Storin & Robinson, 2012). More specifically, 68% of Black college bound students attend
community college (Carnevale & Strohl, 2013) and emerge from communities, which historically host
disenfranchised neighborhoods and lacking education. In turn, they have disproportionately more unplanned
pregnancies (Bryant, 2009; Ispa, Sable, Porter & Csizmadia, 2007).
Problem Statement
The American Association of Community Colleges (AACC), which advocates nationally for over 1,100
community colleges, worked in concert with the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy to
conduct primary research linking unplanned pregnancy with community college student drop-out rates.
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The findings reveal that 55% of unplanned pregnancies occur with women in their 20s (Prentice et al., 2012).
Within this context, one in 10 unmarried women aged 20 - 29 years had unplanned pregnancies; however, one in
six Black women in this age group had unplanned pregnancies (Antonishak & Connolly, 2014). Consequently,
births resulting from an unplanned pregnancy disproportionally affect Black students because Blacks were 40% of
respondents and Caucasians were only 30% of respondents within the Antonishak and Connolly study (2014).
Further, the AACC reported that 6,865,992 students enrolled in community college full-time and part-time.
Whites were 68% (4,668,874) and Blacks were 27% (1,853,817) of the community college student population
respectively. The problem reported in the Make It Personal Report (Antonishak & Connolly, 2014), showed that
7% of community college students drop-out due to unplanned pregnancy. Consequently, 480,619 community
college students drop-out due to unplanned pregnancy; potentially 129,767 (7% of the Black community college
student population) leave school annually because of unplanned pregnancy.
Purpose Statement
Based on the AACC report findings (Antonishak & Connolly, 2014), Black community college students are more
likely to make uninformed contraception decisions, resulting in unplanned pregnancy. In addition, an in-depth
search in Ebsco Host, ProQuest, ERIC, and Google Scholar databases returned over 5,100 articles on sex
education for college students, sex education for global students, attitudes about contraceptive use and sex
education, alcohol use and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and sexual victimization. However, no
researchers or theorists, outside of the AACC study (Prentice, Storin and Robinson, 2010) have empirically linked
unplanned pregnancy and community college student retention. Therefore, the purpose of this content analysis of
100 articles and reports is to reflect on students’ attitudes regarding sexual practices, social norms, sex education,
and the respective sexual behaviors of college-aged adults. By examining information on analogous populations,
four-year college-aged adults, Black four-year college-aged adults, college-aged adults in the community, and
Black college-aged adults in the community, this content analysis could reveal issues which influence Black
community college student unplanned pregnancy and subsequent drop-out rates.
Significance to higher education and community colleges
The rationale for concentrating on community colleges is the United States’ focus on the degree completion
pathway; this information is particularly pertinent to the community college population because two-year colleges
educate close to 52% of all publically educated college students (National Center for Educational Statistics,
2013). Also, the Obama Administration recommended that 60% of Americans have some college degree by 2020
(Department of Education, 2011). In turn, 5 million more students are expected to access community colleges to
complete their degrees (American Association of Community Colleges [AACC], 2015). Regarding Black students
at two-year colleges, a 2013 study from Georgetown University, confirmed that Black students disproportionately
attend the two-year open-access schools. Since 1995, “82 percent of new white enrollments have gone to the 468
most selective colleges, …[while] 68 percent of new African-American enrollments have gone to the two-year
schools” (Carnevale & Strohl, 2013, p.9). In short, because Black students are more likely to have less financial
support from home, they have less opportunity to attend more expensive senior institutions that have more
resources; therefore, they are more likely to attend community colleges, which have fewer resources to support
students (Carnevale & Strohl, 2013).
Literature Review
Several researchers focus on the risky combination of alcohol, sexual intercourse, and resulting STIs (Ahern &
Sole, 2010; Attin, 2012; Calderia, Singer, O’Grady, Vincent & Arria, 2012; McNair, 2011; Scott-Sheldon, Carey
& Carey, 2010). However, research typically does not reflect on how uninformed or nonchalant sexual decisions
and resulting unplanned pregnancy have an impact on a student’s ability to focus on academic progress. Further,
information from Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States, [SIEUS] (2015) and the
Office of the Surgeon General (2001) showed that comprehensive sex education can have a positive effect on
young adults’ sexual behaviors. Comprehensive sex education presents facts and consequences, beyond preaching
a just-say-no stance to pre-marital sex. The following sex education definitions and history on sex education
provide insight to how the American culture has laid the groundwork for uninformed college-aged students.
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Definitions of Sex Education
Sex education has several approaches such as comprehensive programming which is “medically accurate” and
“relates to human development, relationships, decision making, abstinence, and contraception and disease
prevention” (Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States, [SIEUS] para. 10, 2015). The
following definitions inform the discussion on sex education.
Type of Sex Education
Comprehensive sexuality education-Medically accurate information that relates to human development,
relationships, decision-making, abstinence, contraception, and disease prevention.
Abstinence-based- Focuses on abstinence and sexual behavior other than intercourse and offers disease
prevention information.
Abstinence-only- Only focuses on abstinence with no information on contraceptives or disease prevention.
Abstinence-only-until-marriage- Sexual activity inside marriage is the only morally correct sex. Emphasizes
abstaining from all sexual behavior outside of marriage.
Fear-based- Abstinence-only and abstinence-only-til-marriage programs that offer scare tactics and negative
messages to control sexual behavior.
According to SIECUS (2008), abstinence-based, abstinence-only, abstinence-until-marriage, and fear-based sex
education have proven to be less effective in altering young peoples’ sexual behavior. “Two-thirds of
comprehensive programs had positive sexual behavioral effects….Nearly 30% of comprehensive programs
reduced the frequency of sex [and] more than 60% reduced the incidence of unprotected sex” (SIECUS, para. 6,
2008). Nonetheless, according to the Guttmacher Institute (2015) only 22 states and the District of Columbia
require any sex education. Of those 22 states, only 13 require that the education be medically accurate. Further,
only eight states require that sex education eliminate race or gender driven bias.
Brief History of Sex Education
American sex education historically was designed to prohibit sexual activity. Sex outside of marriage was deemed
immoral; therefore, society had little need to understand contraceptive use. As a result, information about safe sex
or contraceptive use was not explored because sex education focused instead on totally avoiding intercourse
(Carter, 2001). In the early 1900s, the American sex education mission encouraged family life and protected birth
rates within the family structure. Consequently, abstinence-only sex education only focused on hygiene and
preventing venereal disease. However, society feared that sex education would be vulgar and commercial,
potentially encouraging prostitution and promiscuity (Carter, 2001). Sex often was believed to be a man’s issue;
in turn, many military units had sexual education for the enlisted to “prevent contagion and vice” (Carter, 2001, p.
220). Nonetheless, for this fear-based approach to scare men away from venereal disease, sex education also had
to discuss scurrilous topics such as adultery, prostitution, intercourse, and prophylactics. With sex education’s
roots based in disease prevention through fear or abstinence, other topics such as contraceptive use and other safe
sex strategies remained taboo (Carter, 2001).
Freeman (2008) also noted that sex education was about immorality and hygiene in the 1930s. Her study included
interviews with men and women who attended American high schools in the 1940s and 1950s to reveal common
themes about sex education. A major focus about sex education was to find a mate, a theme that aligns with
Carter’s discussion (2001) on preserving childbirth in families. The late 1960s brought sexual freedom through
the pill and other advancements in birth control. However, Irvine (2002) also noted this freedom that put sex
education in the public discourse also intensified the resistance from the religious right which wanted sex
education to focus on hygiene and abstinence. In response, religious groups intensified fear-based education
associating sex education with teen pregnancy and suicide (Irvine, 2002). Even through the late 1980s, pregnancy
outside marriage was considered a result of sexual immorality; therefore, comprehensive sex education typically
was not a viable classroom subject. Often adults and teachers skittish about the topic misrepresented the
information if such information was ever offered. Stanger-Hall and Hall (2011) reported that the United States of
all developed countries has the highest incidents of unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections.
Through their study, which used the Education Commission on the States data and policies from 48 states, the
researchers considered the sex education policy, wealth of each state, socioeconomic status, and educational
attainment.
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Through a multi-regression analysis, they found that abstinence-only state policies were ineffective and a
contributing factor to the high teen pregnancy rate. The state of Mississippi would be a prime example. In 2011,
Mississippi passed legislation, House Bill 999, for only providing abstinence-based sex education. However, the
state of Mississippi has the second highest teen birth rate in the United States (Mississippi First, 2015). Regardless
of the delivery and the intended audience, historically, sex education tended to focus on the physiology of the
birds and the bees, followed by a one-dimensional message of abstinence. According to Franklin and Dotger
(2011), abstinence-only sex education is the only federally funded sex education program in the United States.
Despite findings that abstinence-only programs have little impact on young people’s sexual behavior (FreedmanDoan, Fortunato, Henshaw & Titus, 2013), comprehensive sex education continues to be a contentious topic that
pits knowledge of sexual behavior against morality (Lamb, 2013). In contrast, other industrialized nations have
infused comprehensive sex education into the curriculum. Informing young people with accurate contraceptive
information has been successful. The result of comprehensive sex education resulted in lower conception rates
and lower rates of STI (Portier-LeCocq, 2014). In turn, lower conception rates mean fewer distractions to
students’ academic progress.
Theoretical Framework
Social scientists and philosophers have considered the role of ignorance, or a lack of knowledge, in relationship to
reasoning, decision-making, and morality (Guerrero, 2011; Harman, 2011; Howell & Shepperd, 2013; Kelsey &
Quiggin, 1992). Ignorance can exist outside the realm of information that is attainable. For example, one might
be ignorant regarding another solar system or galaxy because collecting data from such environments is beyond
the scope of most human capacity. Ignorance can also exist with those who do not have access to knowledge; the
knowledge is available, but given a person’s station in society, the knowledge may be unobtainable. This example
might consider how one is ignorant about different cultures or social mores because one’s station in society has
excluded him or her from those experiences or access to those cultures. Ignorance can also reside in the middle of
these extremes, emerging from a lack of knowledge; yet this knowledge is available and obtainable (Ungar,
2008).
The ignorance in relation to the obtainable knowledge, the knowledge that one chooses to ignore or not pursue
despite its availability, potentially applies to both college-aged adults and college administrators. By not seeking
knowledge, the knowledge receiver makes the psyche unaware or oblivious to the true consequence of knowing.
This theoretical ignorance serves as the framework for this content analysis on three levels. First, for college-aged
adults who choose not to seek proper education regarding the consequences of risky sexual behavior, the choice to
remain ignorant keeps them from critical knowledge regarding STIs, unplanned pregnancy and the potential longterm effects of these consequences. The knowledge of perceived sexual pleasure overrides the motivation to
reduce their ignorance or lack of knowledge. Second, many college-aged adults who come from disenfranchised
areas may not have access to health care and the education that comes through regular doctors’ visits. While this
group may also choose ignorance, lacking access to health care for socioeconomic reasons contributes to
ignorance if such accurate health information is unobtainable.
Third, for college administrators, potential ignorance to the need for comprehensive sex education for students
alleviates them from the responsibility to consider comprehensive sex education and the accompanying costs. By
choosing the unknown, which is choosing ignorance, educators have one less conundrum with which to grapple.
Further, administrators potentially remain ignorant to how comprehensive sex education could bolster student
retention rates. The aforementioned history on sex education establishes a culture where comprehensive education
about sex was shunned for decades in the United States. The culture’s past and present collective ignorance
misinforms young people creating a void without the specificity required to make truly insightful decisions
regarding contraceptive use. This collective ignorance also sets the stage for administrators to maintain that status
of ignorance because sex education has been very controversial in a culture where abstinence-only sex education
is the only type of education to receive federal funding (Franklin & Dotger, 2011). Given the history, the state of
ignorance has created a perceived safe yet uninformed space for all parties.
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The Study
Research Method
In an attempt to bridge the gap of information regarding Black community college students and sexual behavior
that may lead to unplanned pregnancy and potential drop-out, a content analysis was conducted on 100 articles
regarding college-aged adults and their attitudes and understandings about contraceptives. In the summer of 2015,
extensive searches on ProQuest, Ebsco Host, ERIC, and Google Scholar did not reveal any research articles
specifically addressing Black community college student sexual behavior, unplanned pregnancy and the potential
effect on student retention. In fact, only seven articles have been published since 1995 that address community
college student sexual behavior (Hannon, Hall, & Kuntz, 1995; Hannon, Hall, & Nash, 2000; Marchand, Glenn
& Bastani, 2012; Marchand, Glenn, & Bastani, 2013; Shapiro & Radecki, 1999; Smith, 2003; Trieu, Bratton, &
Hopp-Marshak, 2011). None of these articles address unplanned pregnancy or college retention, but instead
primarily focus on STIs. Therefore, information regarding four-year college students, and college-aged adults in
the community was used in this analysis to better understand the association between contraceptive use,
unplanned pregnancy, and student retention. From the literature, Black college-aged adult behaviors were also a
central focus. As community college students by definition emerge from the community, findings from analogous
populations can provide insight to the behaviors of community college students in the absence of articles
specifically examining Black community college sexual behavior and the unplanned outcomes.
Research Questions
In an effort to understand Black community college students’ sexual behavior, its association with unplanned
pregnancy, and the impact on Black community college student retention, these research questions were designed.
The absence of data on this issue led to the content analysis that considered information from college-aged adults
and Black college-aged adults to answer the following questions:
RQ1 What behaviors and attitudes do Black college-aged adults have about sex and contraceptive use?
RQ2 What factors influence Black college-aged adults’ behaviors and attitudes about sex and contraceptive use?
RQ3 How are Black community college student drop-out rates affected by student behavior, student attitudes, and
social factors related to contraceptive use?
Limitations
The limitations of this study emerge from the fact that no empirical studies, with the exception of the AACC’s
Make It Personal Report, connect Black community college student sexual behaviors, their attitudes to unplanned
pregnancy, and potential drop-out rates. Sex education researchers and student development researchers have not
considered these issues in concert. Therefore, the content analysis was based on Black college-aged adults’ and
college-aged adults’ behaviors and attitudes regarding risky sexual behavior, contraceptive use, and the potential
outcome.
Data Collection
Ninety-five articles were collected from ProQuest, Ebsco Host, ERIC, and Google Scholar. Five reports from
Georgetown, AACC and the National Campaign were also included in this analysis for a total of 100 documents
subject to the content analysis. Publication dates range from 1995-2015. Keywords used to garner the articles and
reports were contraceptive use, college student sexual behavior, Black college student sexual behavior, risky
sexual behavior in college, college unplanned pregnancy, college drop-out. Articles focusing on college-aged
adults or Black college-aged adults were chosen for this content analysis.
Validity
The researcher is a seasoned qualitative researcher who guides dissertation studies using qualitative methods. In
turn, a skilled researcher conducted this content analysis that relied on qualitative coding procedures. Consistent
with Creswell (2014), the maturity and experience of the researcher supports validity.
Data Analysis
This study used Krippendorff’s (1980) procedures for the content analysis. These procedures were utilized to
create knowledge and represent previously defined facts to determine potentially new courses of action. The
procedures for this study encompassed three steps that included data sampling, data reduction, and data analysis.
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Data sampling is the purposeful collection of written work for the content analysis. In this study, 100 articles were
chosen by specific keywords in order to create a sample for further analysis. Data reduction required omission of
information in the respective articles that were outside the scope of the purpose. For example, in this study,
information that focused on the LGBT community, international students attending non-American universities,
and information on assault were omitted from the analysis. Data analysis included and organization of data to
create themes (Creswell, 2014). Common phrases regarding college-aged adults guided the organization. Articles
were read and reviewed several times to distil information. After the review, open coding allowed for the
emergence of central themes to answer the posed research questions.
Results
Inconsistent attitudes and behaviors about condom use and oral contraceptives is a precursor to unplanned
pregnancies and STIs. College-aged adults 20-29 may not be properly educated about contraceptive use, do not
choose the proper application of contraceptives, or have mixed perceptions about condom use. The miseducation
and mixed perceptions contribute to this age group being the most likely to have unplanned pregnancies. Whether
the populations in the respective studies were four-year college students, Black four-year college students,
college-aged adults in the community, or Black college-aged adults in the community, common themes emerged
regarding contraceptive use.
Table 1 Category from Content Analysis
Themes
Number of articles/% of total
Contraceptive use
76
STI
64
Risky Behavior
57
Black college students
27
Social Norms
16
Hook up behavior
11
Attitudes/Communication
11
Relationship status
10
Community College
7
Alcohol Use
7
Pregnancy
7
Religiosity
6
Sexual Knowledge
6
College Retention
2
Articles for content analysis were assigned respective categories if that category was the focus of the abstract, in
the article’s purpose statement, or a significant finding of the research. Contraceptive use (76% of articles),
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) (64% of articles), and risky behavior (57% of articles) were anticipated
categories given the analysis on the sexual behavior of college-aged adults. Specifically, as the analysis sought to
understand Black college-aged adults, 27% of articles specifically considered Black students or Black adults.
Other categories included: alcohol use, 7%; attitudes/communication, 11%; hook up behavior, 11%; pregnancy,
7%; relationship status, 10 %; religiosity, 6 %; sexual knowledge, 6%; and social norms, 16%. The following
themes emerged to address the specific research questions.
Theme #1 Relationship Status
Theme #2 College-aged adults are uninformed
Theme #3 Attitudes and subsequent communication on contraceptive use
Theme #4 Black college-aged students are influenced by media
Theme #5 Impact on student retention
RQ1 What behaviors and attitudes do Black college-aged adults have about sex and contraceptive use?
Theme #1- Relationship Status
For college-aged adults and Black college-aged adults, their perceived relationship status informed how they used
contraceptives. If the sexual partner was the monogamous partner in a perceived committed relationship, collegeaged adults were less likely to engage in condom use. For casual partners, condoms were more likely to be part of
the negotiation before sexual intercourse.
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For example, in a qualitative study of 19 Black men attending HBCUs, study participants had vastly different
experiences from “the men did not express any apprehension when female partners introduced condoms,” to “… a
lot of unprotected sex which led to a lot of Plan B pills” and the subsequent worry about unplanned pregnancy
(Younge et al., 2014, p.78). These findings are similar to other studies (Gillmore et al., 2003; Noar et al., 2011;
Seal, Wagner-Raphael, & Ehrad, 2000) in which condoms were less than a priority in presumably monogamous
relationships. Consistent with the theme on relationship status, condom usage was the focus of another study
where some college men believed that condoms should be used to avoid contracting disease when they stray
outside of their monogamous relationship (Seal, Wagner-Raphael, & Ehrad, 2000). In a similar study of 223
undergraduate college students conducted 14 years later, Goldman, Martin, Bryan, DiClemente, and Ditrinco
(2014), confirmed that communication apprehension yields negative views in discussing condom use with
perceived monogamous partners.
Noar’s 2011 qualitative study of 38 Black students corroborates the theme that relationship status is a significant
consideration in condom use where participants were less likely to introduce the topic of condom use to a ‘main
partner.’ Men and women alike explained negotiated condom use was extremely difficult with their main partners.
In fact, for participants, “this was described as impossible… especially if other forms of birth control were being
used” (Noar et al., 2011, p. 965). However, for both female and male participants, “condom negotiation was often
used in casual relationships…” (p. 965) with the woman bearing the responsibility to open the discussion on
condoms.
Theme #2- College-aged students are uninformed about contraceptive use
In regard to sex, miseducation can be just as detrimental as no education at all. Young adults who do not know
proper contraceptive use can contract a sexually transmitted infection or conceive an unplanned pregnancy.
Studies on college-aged adults in the community also provide insight to young adults’ perceptions regarding
sexual behavior and contraceptive use for Black community college students. To support theme #2, a study of
1800 unmarried men and women, many women had prescriptions for oral contraceptives; however, lacking
knowledge of their appropriate use led to a 50% failure rate. Among those who used birth control pills, nearly half
(44%) incorrectly believed that it was necessary to take a break from the pill every few years (Kaye et al., 2009).
Other elements have an impact on young adult’s sexual beliefs. Some young people believed that pregnancy was
less likely if sex was performed while standing (Kaye et al., 2009). Others believed the old wives’ tale that a
woman cannot get pregnant if she was breastfeeding (Kaye et al., 2009).
The Toews and Yazedjian (2012) study also supported the second theme as their study of 1004 college students
found that the population had limited knowledge about contraceptive use. Their perspective considered Frost,
Signer and Fine (2007) that claimed the unintended pregnancies were a result of improper contraceptive use. The
Toews and Yazedjian (2012) findings stated that 82.4% incorrectly answered regarding birth control and
pregnancy; 79.5% missed the question about when women were most likely to become pregnant and 79.3% were
unaware of how birth control pills work. Their conclusions suggested that higher education needs to reconsider
the implementation of sex education and information about proper contraceptive use (2012). The theme of
misinformation in relation to the community college population affects more Black students given the
concentration of Black students attending community college.
In regard to birth control, the following passage highlights the issue: “For example, 94% of unmarried young
adults ages 18-29 say they have all the information they need to avoid having or causing an unplanned pregnancy;
however, 11% say they know ‘little or nothing’ about condoms, 42% say they know ‘little or nothing’ about
intrauterine devices (IUDs)” (Prentice et al., 2012, p. 8). As community college students by definition are of the
community and not in college housing, The Fog Zone, (Kaye, Suellentrop, and Sloup, 2009) specifically provided
insight to young people’s behavior and was adopted by the AACC to inform their support of comprehensive sex
education. Kaye, Suellentrop, and Sloup (2009) found that students’ low income contributed to the misnomers
regarding contraceptive use. Those without stable health care were uninformed or under-informed about
pregnancy and disease prevention. Other students also believed that it did not matter if contraceptives were used
or not. They believed fate produced or prevented pregnancy, not accurate reliance on contraceptives. Women’s
misinformation and biases about contraceptives also created unwanted pregnancy and disease. Some found it
“unreasonable to use contraception every time [they have] sex” (Prentice et al., 2012, p. 18).
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RQ2 What factors influence Black college-aged adults’ attitudes about sex and contraceptive use?
Theme #3- Attitudes and subsequent communication on contraceptive use
College-aged adults and Black college-aged adults comment on their strategies regarding contraceptive use. For
example, Davis et.al (2014) conducted a qualitative study of 60 heterosexual men, ages 21-35. The participants’
attitudes regarding condom use revealed that while all acknowledged the benefits of condom use in preventing
STIs and pregnancy, some saw condom discussions with a partner as a mood killer, giving her time to say “no.”
Another study with college students revealed that some men were apprehensive to introduce condom use, because
they did not want to be associated with disease or infidelity (Gillmore et al., 2003). Men were willing to consider
abstinence as a method to prevent STIs. However, they thought it would be frustrating to use condoms, even
though it built trust with a partner. Oral contraceptive use also appeared to have a negative effect on condom use
for some women of color. In a study of 1281 women under the age of 25 across three cities, Atlanta, Dallas, and
New York City, researchers analyzed the introduction of oral contraception and its association with continuing
condom use. The women using the health clinics in the study tended to be African American and Hispanic.
Before oral contraceptive use, 28% of women reported they used condoms regularly. However, six months after
taking oral contraceptives, only 14% always used condoms (Morroni, Heartwel, Edward, Zieman, & Westhoff,
2014). Previous information on failed oral contraceptive use (Kaye, et al., 2009), when coupled with discontinued
condom use, can lead to unplanned pregnancy.
Also, contributing to theme #3 is the nonchalance and non-committal attitudes that reinforce a “hook up” culture
for Black and white college-aged adults. In turn, sexual encounters can be quick and anonymous. While “hook
up” behavior does not always include intercourse, “a typical hook-up most often involved anonymous partners
and no expectations of future commitment” (Barriger & Velez-Blasini, 2013, p. 84). Such attitudes highlight some
young people’s flippant attitude about sex. This flippancy also appeared in partners’ attitudes regarding
contraception when males push for unprotected sex. Smith (2003) studied 247 anonymous questionnaires from
community college students to find that 46.7 % had unwanted no condom intercourse. The respondents reported
that influence from the male partner was a major reason for no condom use. Such attitudes diminished the
urgency for safe and protected sex, which increased the chance of unplanned pregnancy.
Theme #4- Black college-aged students are influenced by media
Theoretically, Lapinski and Rimal (2005) highlight how the media contributes to social norms. Social norm
theory, originally introduced in the 1980s, was used to explore college student alcohol use (Berkowitz & Perkins
1986; Berkowitz & Perkins, 1987). Researchers found that college students had a misperception of alcohol abuse
on campus, and in turn perceived such behavior as normal. The perception of normalcy then heightened the
inappropriate behavior. The application of social norms to Black college-aged adults’ sexual behavior includes the
media saturation of sexual images marketed to the young population. “People use the preponderance of behavior
depicted in the media to form their perceptions of the prevalence of the behavior…” and further such perceptions
inform people’s actions regarding that behavior (Lapinski & Rimal, 2005, p.127). In short, “human behavior is
guided by perceptions of popularity of the behavior“ (p. 129). For example, the over-sexualized images of Black
men and women in the media influence Black men and women’s acceptance and engagement in casual or
oversexed behavior (Staples & Johnson, 1993).
While social norms and peer perceptions were discussed in articles about both Black and white students,
researchers showed media driven social norms had a greater impact on college-aged Black adults than on collegeaged white adults. Some researchers (Brown & Keller, 2000; Chandler et al., 2013; Collins, 2005; Hall, 2012)
also reflected on the association between the media driven social scripts and Black college student sexual
behavior. Chandler et al. (2013) considered the impact of the media on Black college females, mean age of 20. In
a sample of 776 college women at a four-year public university, 51% of Black youth felt pressured to have sex
from society, and 48% felt pressure from the media. “On television, Black males are portrayed as nonchalant
about sex, and females depend on sex appeal rather than intelligence for their livelihood” (p. 2). Lacking or
hesitant communication with parents normalizes avoidance on the topic of sex for young Black adults.
Consequently, in the absence of such conversations with parents, Black youth will seek out the media, songs,
television, and videos for information on sex (Brown & Keller, 2000). Oversexed and inappropriate sexual scripts
that flood the media have a significant influence on Black culture (Stephens & Phillips, 2003). Historically, and in
contemporary media, Black womanhood is often presented in caricatures, as the sapphire, mammie, or mannish
workhorse (Collins, 2005).
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Such pervasive images proliferating the media influence young Black women who are crafting their own sexual
behavior and sexual identity. It’s a “bad bitch” that can slay a man, not get tripped up in love, and handle her
business (Collins, 2005, p. 125). Mammies are asexual, tending to children; but as an asexual figure, she, too, is
denied access to accurate sex education. Such historical scripts and media images overlook the need for accurate
and informed decisions about sex and seldom reflect on the consequences of risky sexual decisions (Collins,
2005). Further, Hall (2012) conducted a multiple regression study of 110 Black college women to consider how
the stereotypes of mammie, Jezebel, superwoman, and sapphire affected women’s sexual choices that may lead to
HIV. Those roles associated with mammy, Jezebel, and superwoman were significantly and positively related to
risky sexual behavior. Hall’s findings report a statistical relationship between stereotypical belief systems and
Black college women’s sexual behavior. These findings when considered in concert with the normalizing of such
stereotypes through the media, contribute to decisions that yield risky sexual behavior for Black college-aged
adults. The media driven social norms (Brown & Keller, 2000; Chandler et al., 2013; Lapinski & Rimal, 2005;
Staples & Johnson, 1993), when compounded with lacking transportation to health care, reliance on friends, or
fear that contraceptives had side effects, have deterred Black women from seeking birth control (Sable, Libbus &
Chiu, 2000). Within this context, Singh, Damrosch, Blastoff and Nadeau (2009) found that Black women who did
not want to displease their partners were often persuaded to engage in intercourse without contraceptives.
RQ3 How are Black community college student drop-out rates affected by student behavior, student
attitudes, and social factors related to contraceptive use?
Theme #5- Impact on student retention
As Porr and Acar (2010) noted, four-year college students’ risky sexual decisions negatively affect their academic
progress. Students often become distressed in the midst of dealing with unexpected conception or STIs. Despite
confirmed risky sexual behavior in the “hook up” culture of college, students who maintain ignorance about the
consequences are often surprised by the results, possibly leading to absenteeism, repeated courses and the
corresponding need for additional financial aid, or dropping out of school altogether (Porr & Acar, 2010).
Unfortunately, these numbers increase annually with the proliferation of STIs and unwanted pregnancy in the
four-year college student population (Adefuye, Abiona, Balogu & Lukobo-Durrell, 2009). In a cohort study in
which Blacks persisted at higher rates than the general population of the study, Baker and Robnett (2012)
confirmed that Black students who socialized and connected with the institution were more likely to persist.
However, if a student is struggling to balance childcare issues, his/her connection is with their children’s needs of
health, school, and supervision; connecting with the college experience can be a tertiary priority for single
parents.
Seventy-five percent of community college students surveyed for the Make It Personal Report stated that
pregnancy prevention was a priority (Prentice et al., 2012), as conflicts attributed to childcare lead students to
drop-out or take reduced course loads. Further, research revealed that community college students are often
misinformed about the proper application of contraceptives (Prentice et al., 2012). Education at the postsecondary level can help them delay parenthood, avoid STIs, and instead focus on education. The Make It
Personal Report from American Association of Community Colleges confirms that uninformed sexual decisions
can adversely affect student persistence. “Twenty-seven percent of female students with children report reducing
their course load or quitting” because of child care issues (Prentice et al., 2012, p. 4). As “61 % of those who
subsequently had children left college … compared with 37 % of those who never had children” (Bradburn, 2002,
p. VI), community college students are still interested in the topic despite the controversy associated with sex
education. Within an American focus that maintains a level of ignorance through abstinence-only education;
many young people without comprehensive sex education make poor decisions regarding contraceptive use. The
students in the community college sector are more vulnerable with the myriad of competing interests (jobs,
commuting, family responsibility) that are more likely to affect the two-year college population (Powell &
Agnew, 2007; Rodriguez-Kiino, 2013).
Discussion
The lacking information on contraceptive use and student retention creates a state of ignorance and a substantial
knowledge gap in relation to Black community college students. The problematic gap in knowledge leaves this
potentially disenfranchised population without representative data to guide community college administration
regarding a critical element and its impact on student retention.
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The five themes that emerged from the content analysis revealed a culture that chooses or is inadvertently
ignorant to the need for comprehensive sex education at the post-secondary level. Specifically, community college
educators can consider the culture of sexual ignorance constructed through media influenced social norms when
developing sex education. The primary focus of comprehensive sex education could dissolve some
misconceptions that Black students harbor regarding proper contraceptive use. As a result, sex education that
acknowledges social norms and includes accurate information about contraception use can help students be more
knowledgeable and avoid unplanned pregnancy. The resulting sex education that would align with the Office of
the Surgeon General’s recommendation for culturally sensitive sex education (2001) can in turn bolster degree
completion at the community college level.
A growing number of community colleges are emerging as minority serving institutions. “Nearly 22 % of the
nation’s community colleges are minority-serving institutions and are responsible for enrolling about 55 % of
college-going minorities” (Watson, 2015, para. 1). As the American demographic shift reflects that people of
color under 15 years of age are in the majority, these students of color, in potentially varying stages of ignorance,
matriculate disproportionately at the community college level. Empirically studying comprehensive sex education
and its association with degree completion for community college students could positively affect poor degree
completion rates in the two-year college sector.
Solutions and Recommendations
The findings confirm an aloof, non-committal, and potentially ignorant college-aged adult and Black college-aged
adult population regarding accurate contraceptive use. Further, information also shows that comprehensive sex
education, the style of sex education often eliminated from programming, can reduce ignorance and have a
positive impact on young adult sexual behavior and proper contraceptive use. As applied to the community
college sector, such programming can help community colleges minimize ignorance and bolster degree
completion rates. In turn, through the curriculum, community colleges can help students think critically about the
media blitz that normalizes promiscuity and unprotected sex. Instead, students can seek knowledge that keeps
them informed about sexual practices that will not jeopardize degree completion through unwanted pregnancy.
As community colleges continue to face mercurial enrollments and budget cuts from state and local governments,
the funding for new programs may not be available for major changes. However, the American Association of
Community Colleges has introduced cost-effective programs. Curriculum inclusion and campus-wide
programming can help inform these populations. The following solutions and recommendations emerge from the
findings and theoretical context to minimize ignorance regarding sex education:
1). Consistent with the Office of the Surgeon General (2001), interventions must be comprehensive and culturally
sensitive while considering prevailing social norms in the media. Abstinence-based or abstinence-before-marriage
sex education focuses on the mechanics of human interaction without focusing on accurate information on
contraceptive use. However, studies have shown that students must be approached from their respective social
contexts to truly engage in modifying their social behavior (D’Santiago & Hund, 2012). Interventions should
acknowledge the cultural differences in sex education. For the Black community, family support, church support,
and peer support are major catalysts. Curriculums that encourage engagement with these support groups can help
Black students rationally consider sexual behavior and minimize the effect of sexual archetypes in the media
(D’Santiago & Hund, 2012).
2). Curriculum development which includes comprehensive sex education can assist in educating community
college students regarding smart sex choices and proper contraceptive use. Choo and Karp (2013) confirmed that
community college students who take student success courses in the first academic term are more likely to persist
toward the second year. Further, the AACC hosts a grant, Make it Personal: College Completion Plan, which
gives grants to community colleges willing to create comprehensive sex education. Curriculum development can
be a key intervention with community college students. Faculty support is a critical element because community
college students commute and are less likely to engage in student activities outside of class. However, community
college students are more likely to modify academic and social behavior through student-faculty interaction
(Miller et al., 2005). This solution also relies on a comprehensive approach with faculty who will assuage
inappropriate cultural stereotypes. The faculty teaching comprehensive sex education should have certification to
provide accurate information. One or two faculty seeking certification can lead a train-the-trainer model to a
group of committed faculty to offer medically accurate sex education.
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3) Community college researchers should conduct primary research to further explore the connection between
comprehensive sex education and community college student retention. Quantitative methods such as correlation
studies and multiple regression studies that can consider a range of variables (age, race, educational level of
parental income) along with comprehensive sex education can examine if a statistically significant relationship
exists. This research could model the national study conducted by Stanger-Hall and Hall (2011), which also
utilized a multiple regression to consider comprehensive education along with a number of socio-economic
variables to establish a statistical relationship. Qualitative methods could yield data that highlights students’
attitudes and perceptions regarding comprehensive sex education, sexual behavior and the impact on their
progress to degree.
Conclusion
Regardless of a person’s age, sex can make one engage in irrational and uninformed behaviors, which jeopardize
other personal goals. Consequently, sexual activity can create outcomes that run counter to the goal of degree
completion for college students; a bad sexual encounter can derail a student’s academic progress through STIs or
pregnancy. While the AACC has presented the empirical research linking unplanned pregnancy and declining
college retention, comprehensive sex education that would properly inform young adults is primarily missing
from college campuses and the literature on student retention.
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