Psy 345
Chapter 8 – Goals
Content vs. Process
Approaches to Motivation
Cognitive Perspective on Motivation
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How we understand the world we live in.
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How cognition aids our effort to
– first, adapt successfully to the environment
– then, regulate behavior
Pioneer Theorists
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Edward Tolman
– Behavior has a purpose
– Intervening variable model
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Kurt Lewin
– need Æ intention Æ tension Æ goal-directed behavior
– Valence - positive or negative value of environmental objects
– The goal object becomes attractive in proportion to one’s need for it
Plans
Cognitive events that act as a motivational bridge from the present state to an ideal state.
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Incongruity
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TOTE model
Test Æ Operate Æ Test Æ Exit
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Psy 345
Chapter 8 – Goals
• Corrective Motivation
– adjust plan
– adjust behavior
– withdraw
Goals
Whatever we are striving to accomplish.
Goal-Performance Discrepancies:
– Discrepancy-reduction: Based on the discrepancy-detecting feedback that underlies plans
and corrective motivation.
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Discrepancy-creation: Based on a “feed-forward” system in which the person looks
forward and proactively sets a future, higher goal.
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Goals and Performance
Goals generally lead to better performance
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Goal difficulty
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Goal specificity
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Feedback
- Defines performance
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Acts as reinforcer
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Psy 345
Chapter 8 – Goals
Goal Acceptance
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Goal Acceptance
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Participation
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Credibility of Assigner
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Extrinsic Incentives
Short-Term vs. Long-Term Goal Setting
e.g. og short-term goals:
e.g. of long-term goal:
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Performance
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Persistence
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Intrinsic Motivation
Positives of Goal Setting Theory
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Well supported by research
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Increases job performance
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Impacts the bottom line
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Effective for individuals with high self-esteem
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Psy 345
Chapter 8 – Goals
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Limitations of Goal Setting Theory
Not good with complex jobs
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Group goals better than individual goals
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Individual differences
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Cultural differences
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Criticisms of Goal Setting
1 Increased Stress
*Goals seen as too difficult
*Goal overload
*Goal conflict
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Possibility for
Failure
*Difficult goals may lead to sub-goal performance and therefore to
detrimental emotional consequences associated with failure.
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Non-goal Areas
Ignored
*The purpose of goal is to focus attention and action in certain directions. So
non-goal areas are intentionally devalued.
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Short-Range
Thinking
*Short-term vs. long-term goal-setting debate.
5 Cheating
*Goals, when made public and when involving extrinsic incentives, can
create performance pressure and prompt efforts at cheating rather than
effort at skill development.
Undermines
6 Intrinsic
Motivation
*If task is interesting, short-term goals are typically experienced as
controlling and undermine intrinsic motivation.
*If task is uninteresting, short-term goals can create competence feedback
and increase intrinsic motivation.
Psy 345
Chapter 8 – Goals
Implementation Intentions
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Mental simulations: focusing on actions
Volitional Problems of Goal Attainment:
• Getting started
• Persisting
• Resuming
Implementation Intentions as a 2 step process
A specific goal-directed action, initiated at an anticipated future outcomes
Set the goal Æ Plan how to attain that goal
Plan on how to attain that goal
get started Æ persist Æ resume, if interrupted
Self-Regulation
Mental act of monitoring and evaluating one’s on-going effort to attain the goals one seeks
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