Chromosomes, Mapping, and the Meiosis-Inheritance Connection Chromosome Theory Chromosomal theory of inheritance - developed in 1902 by Walter Sutton - proposed that genes are present on chromosomes - based on observations that homologous chromosomes pair with each other during meiosis - supporting evidence was provided by work with fruit flies Chapter 13 2 Drosophila have 4 pairs of chromosomes - 3 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sexchromosomes (X and or Y) Sex determination in Drosophila is based on the number of X chromosomes 2 X chromosomes = female 1 X and 1 Y chromosome = male T.H. Morgan isolated a mutant white-eyed Drosophila - a white-eyed male –red-eyed female X white-eyed male gave a F1 generation of all red eyes – Morgan concluded that red eyes are dominant 3 4 5 6 Chromosome Theory Morgan crossed F1 females X F1 males – F2 generation contained red and whiteeyed flies in a 3:1 ratio – Closer examination showed all whiteeyed flies were male, there were no white-eyed females! – Morgan concluded that the eye color gene is linked to the X chromosome 1 Sex Determination Sex Determination Sex determination in birds is based on the number of Z chromosomes 2 Z chromosomes = male 1 Z and 1 W chromosome = female Sex determination in Drosophila is based on the number of X chromosomes 2 X chromosomes = female 1 X and 1 Y chromosome = male 1 X and 0 Y chromosome = male Sex determination in many insects is based on haploid/diploid make-up 2N= female 1N = male Sex determination in mammals is based on the presence of a Y chromosome 2 X chromosomes = female having a Y chromosome (XY) = male 7 8 Sex Determination Sex Determination Earthworms and many plants: both male & female in the same organism In many organisms, the Y chromosome is greatly reduced or inactive. genes on the X chromosome are present in only 1 copy in males sex-linked traits: controlled by genes present on the X chromosome Sex-linked traits show inheritance patterns different than those of genes on autosomes. Some reptiles: temperature of embryo at a certain stage determines the sex Some organisms shift sex depending on circumstances: too many males in the population, some turn into females and vice versa 9 10 Sex Chromosomes Dosage compensation ensures an equal expression of genes from the sex chromosomes even though females have 2 X chromosomes and males have only 1. In each female cell, 1 X chromosome is inactivated and is highly condensed into a Barr body. Females heterozygous for genes on the X chromosome are genetic mosaics. 11 12 2 Chromosome Theory Exceptions Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain genes. traits controlled by these genes do not follow the chromosomal theory of inheritance genes from mitochondria and chloroplasts are often passed to the offspring by only one parent 13 14 Genetic Mapping Chromosome Theory Exceptions Maternal inheritance: uniparental (oneparent) inheritance from the mother the mitochondria in a zygote are from the egg cell; no mitochondria come from the sperm during fertilization in plants, the chloroplasts are often inherited from the mother, although this is species dependent 15 Early geneticists realized that they could obtain information about the distance between genes on a chromosome. - this is genetic mapping This type of mapping is based on genetic recombination (crossing over) between genes. 16 Genetic Mapping Determining the order of genes can be done with a three-point testcross the frequency of double crossovers is the product of the probabilities of each individual crossover therefore, the classes of offspring with the lowest numbers represent the double crossovers and allow the gene order to be determined 17 18 3 Genetic Mapping Mapping genes in humans involves determining the recombination frequency between a gene and an anonymous marker Anonymous markers such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) can be detected by molecular techniques. 19 20 21 22 23 24 Human Genetic Disorders Some human genetic disorders are caused by altered proteins. the altered protein is encoded by a mutated DNA sequence the altered protein does not function correctly, causing a change to the phenotype the protein can be altered at only a single amino acid (e.g. sickle cell anemia) Human Genetic Disorders Some genetic disorders are caused by a change in the number of chromosomes. nondisjunction during meiosis can create gametes having one too many or one too few chromosomes fertilization of these gametes creates trisomic or monosomic individuals Down syndrome is trisomy of chromosome 21 4 Human Genetic Disorders Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes can result in: XXX triple-X females XXY males (Klinefelter syndrome) XO females (Turner syndrome) OY nonviable zygotes XYY males (Jacob syndrome) 25 26 Human Genetic Disorders Human Genetic Disorders genomic imprinting occurs when the phenotype exhibited by a particular allele depends on which parent contributed the allele to the offspring a specific partial deletion of chromosome 15 results in: Prader-Willi syndrome if the chromosome is from the father Angelman syndrome if it’s from the mother Genetic counseling can use pedigree analysis to determine the probability of genetic disorders in the offspring. Some genetic disorders can be diagnosed during pregnancy. amniocentesis collects fetal cells from the amniotic fluid for examination chorionic villi sampling collects cells from the placenta for examination 27 28 29 30 5