Introduction to Communication Theory
Comm. 1510-01
M R 4-7:50 PM
Prof. Matt Rolph
POSTMODERNISM
Postmodernist Communication Theories
A buzzword … but what does it mean?
Post-atomic uncertainty
• One conventional explanation of
postmodernism suggests that it arose in
response to the discovery of the
devastating power of the atomic bomb,
and the uncertainty about authority
thereby created.
•
•
Between 1945 and 1962, the United States
conducted over 300 atmospheric nuclear tests
above the ground, in the ocean or in outer space.
One government-commissioned publication
suggested that wearing a hat might offer some
protection from the heat flash of a detonation. The
same pamphlet suggests lying down in the furrows
of a plowed field. School children experienced
‘duck and cover’ drills. These measures, however,
could easily seem to be more about controlling
people than actually saving them.
Post-atomic uncertainty
• Without understanding many specifics, public concern grew.
•
•
Scientists and educated people, aware of more facts, also experienced fear and
uncertainty despite measures taken to restrict access to the technology.
Views regarding communication and scientific innovation shifted for many.
Within a certain radius of the blast, no
hat, plowed field, or duck and cover
procedure will save you. Even outside
that zone, consequences of detonation
are devastating and irreversible.
Critique
• While it is accurate to state that postmodernism arose after WW II,
the ‘response to the atomic bomb’ hypothesis neglects the cyclical
nature of mistrust and uncertainty in human societies. The French
Revolution (1789-1799), among others, features many of these
concepts. Atomic power may be unprecedented, but any power or
innovation can lead to a similar responses irrespective of place and
time. Theorists like Jean-François Lyotard, author of La Condition
postmoderne: Rapport sur le savoir (The Postmodern Condition: A
Report on Knowledge), 1979, contend that there has always been
« postmodernism »
• It is more accurate to state that postmodernism is a response to the
perceived failings of modernism, which essentially suggests progress
and innovation are always good, authorities trustworthy, and quality
of life bound to improve without limits
Common postmodernist elements
•
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•
•
•
•
•
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Mistrust of established authority and hierarchical structures
Uncertainty (about everything)
No perfection; heroes and gods are simply lies and misconceptions.
Accepting multiple perspectives (all valid, or varying in relative
validity) - no single ‘truth’. Everything referential.
No objectively superior lifestyles or beliefs.
No metanarratives (progress of history, truth, justice, modernity, end
of history).
Everything is a game, a language game, a power game, a meaning
game.
Sense of irony and play.---architecture/movies
Heavily influenced by French theorists
Borges, Baudrillard, Eco
SIMULACRA AND
HYPERREALITY
Literary Postmodernism
• Many postmodern ideas are expressed in literature. Postmodern
literature features, for example:
– Antiheroes – heroes without heroic characteristics – who cannot
be , are not, or are only incompletely heroic.
– Unreliable narrators, shifting perspectives.
– Multiple, often equally valid perspectives.
• Ryūnosuke Akutagawa’s Rashomon, (1915) , made into a famous
Akira Kurasawa film (1950), inspired many similar narrative
constructions (including a Simpsons episode). Akutagawa was
concerned with the absolute faith in Imperial authority, military
tradition, and ‘progress’, and expressed his convictions by writing
stories in which, for example, samurai, long held up as paragons of
honor, were human, imperfect, even foolish or dishonorable.
Jorge Luis Borges, 1899-1986
• Argentine writer, best known in the English
speaking world for his short stories and
fictional essays, poetry, criticism, translations
and "wisdom".
• Loved the map as an analogy and symbol. In
his first book, Fervor de Buenos Aires
(1923), he wrote, of his beloved home city,
“… the city, now, is like a map of my
humiliations and failures; from this door, I
have seen the twilights and at this marble
pillar I have waited in vain.”
• Fascinated by the complex relationship
between reality and fantasy, the ‘real’ and the
‘unreal’
Borges Map Analogy
• Borges created a fictional epigraph, a quote at the beginning of
another work, purporting to be a book by a Suarez Miranda from
1658.
• In a single paragraph, Borges creates a story of an empire whose
scientists – cartographers – created a life sized map of the empire
that covered the land itself. Over time, the science that created it fell
into disfavor and was forgotten, and the map decayed into shreds that
were still visible in wild places, “inhabited by animals and beggars.”
Jean Baudrillard, 1929-2007
• Elaborating on analogies like Borges’, Baudrillard,
a keen observer of a changing world, suggests that
our reality is a simulacra, like a life-sized
map covering a real territory -- except that
underneath it there is no ‘real’ territory. Even if
there were, we would prefer the simulacra, which
reinforces our preconceptions, to the reality, which
might challenge them.
• "The simulacrum is never that which conceals the
truth--it is the truth which conceals that there is
none. ... The simulacrum is true." ~ Jean
Baudrillard, Selected Writings, ed. Mark Poster,
Stanford University Press, 1988.
Disneyland
• Baudrillard, Umberto Eco, Louis
Marin, and many other 20th c.
theorists, use the example of
Disneyland. Reality, they contend, has
become more like a theme-park
version of itself: hyperreality.
• The hyperrealistic is ‘authentically
fake’ and, though we know it is an
illusion, more real that the ‘reality’ it
is meant to allude to.
Umberto Eco
Eco: Adventures in Hyperreality
•
“Disneyland’s Main Street seems the first scene of a fiction whereas it is an
extremely shrewd commercial reality. Main Street – like the whole city, for
that matter – is presented as at once absolutely realistic and absolutely
fantastic, and this is the advantage (in terms of artistic conception) of
Disneyland over other toy cities. The houses … are full‐sized on the ground
floor, and on a two‐thirds scale on the floor above, so they give the
impression of being inhabitable (and they are) but also of belonging to a
fantastic past that we can grasp with our imagination … their interior is
always a disguised supermarket, where you buy obsessively, believing that
you are still playing. … In this sense, Disneyland is more hyperrealistic than
the wax museum, precisely because the latter still tries to make us believe
that what we are seeing reproduces reality absolutely, whereas Disneyland
makes it clear that within its magic enclosure it is fantasy that is absolutely
reproduced … masterpieces of falsification … but genuine merchandise, not
reproductions. What is falsified is our will to buy, which we take as real …
Disneyland not only produces illusion, but – in confessing it – stimulates the
desire for it …” (43‐44)
Main Street USA, Disneyland, CA
Questions
• How are theme-parks ‘more real than real’?
• What else in contemporary life is like that?
Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari
THE RHIZOME
The Rhizome
• Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari used the term "rhizome" to
describe theory and research that allows for multiple, nonhierarchical entry and exit points in data representation and
interpretation. In A Thousand Plateaus, they offer it as an alternative
to an “arborescent” (tree-like) conception of knowledge, which work
with dualist categories and binary (right/wrong, black/white) choices.
• A rhizome works with horizontal and trans-species connections,
while an arborescent model works with vertical and linear
connections. Their use of the "orchid and the wasp" was taken from
the biological concept of mutualism, in which two different species
interact together to form a multiplicity (i.e. a unity that is multiple in
itself). Horizontal gene transfer would also be a good illustration.
Pierre Bourdieu
HABITUS AND DOXA
Pierre Bourdieu, 1930-2002
• Bourdieu "was, for many, the leading
intellectual of present-day France... a
thinker in the same rank as Foucault,
Barthes, and Lacan” … an activist for those
he believed to be subordinated by society.
In 2001, a documentary film about Pierre
Bourdieu – “Sociology is a Martial Art”
was an unexpected hit in Paris. For
Bourdieu, sociology was a combative effort,
exposing the un-thought structures beneath
the physical (somatic) and thought practices
of social agents. He saw sociology as a
means of confronting symbolic violence
and exposing those unseen areas where one
could be free.
HABITUS
• Bourdieu re-elaborated the concept of habitus from Marcel Mauss,
Aristotle, Norbert Elias, Max Weber, and Edmund Husserl--and used
it, in a systematic way, in an attempt to resolve the question
of objectivism vs. subjectivism. \
• Habitus can be defined as a system of dispositions (lasting,
acquired schemes of perception, thought and action). The
individual agent develops these dispositions in response to the
objective conditions it encounters.
• Bourdieu theorizes the inculcation of objective social structures into
the subjective, mental experience of agents. The objective social field
places requirements on its participants for membership within the
field, shaping members’ cognitive and somatic dispositions. Social
competence is used to legitimize social distinctions.
HABITUS
• Bourdieu sees habitus as the key to social reproduction because it is
central to generating and regulating the practices that make up social
life. Individuals learn to want what conditions make possible for
them, and not to aspire to what is not available to them. The
conditions in which the individual lives generate dispositions
compatible with these conditions (including tastes in art, literature,
food, and music), and in a sense pre-adapted to their demands. The
most improbable practices are therefore excluded, as unthinkable, by
a kind of immediate submission to order that inclines agents to make
a virtue of necessity, that is, to refuse what is categorically denied
and to will the inevitable.
DOXA
• Doxa (another concept derivative of Classical philosophy) are
learned, fundamental, deep-founded, unconscious beliefs, and values,
taken as self-evident universals, that inform an agent's actions and
thoughts within a particular field.
• Doxa favor the particular social arrangement of the field, thus
privileging the dominant and taking their position of dominance as
self-evident and universally favorable. Therefore, the categories of
understanding and perception that constitute a habitus, being
congruous with the objective organization of the field, reproduce the
structures of the field.
Michel Foucault on Jeremy Bentham’s
THE PANOPTICON
Michel Foucault, 1926-1984
• Beginning in the 1960’s when he held a
series of professorships in France and
often spoke around the world, an
important voice of postmodern thinking
– criticizing established medical, social,
intellectual, and sexual norms, speaking
for prison reform and in support of
minority groups.
• In 1975, influential thinker Foucault
compared the whole of modern society
to Jeremy Betham’s 1791 unrealized
prison design, the Panopticon.
The
Panopticon
All prisoners can be
viewed from a central
location by a warden,
but cannot see him or
each other – creating
a feeling of an
invisible, omniscent,
judging presence.
Designer Bentham
called it “a new mode
of obtaining power of
mind over mind, in a
quantity hitherto
without example.”
The Panopticon
• Foucault points out many elements of modern society, including
media, that create the same illusion of an omnipresent, omniscient,
invisible judging presence similar to a god or an Orwellian ‘big
brother’ – from which escape is essentially impossible.
• Though cannot identify one ‘big brother’ who creates, controls, and
enforces conformity with many norms, but the norms exist and are
perpetuated and it is difficult not to compare ourselves to them.
• A typical Foucault-style answer involves a call to rebellion against
established thinking and the establishment in any form, and
commentary to the effect that such rebellion is almost impossible, as
even the language and action we use to frame our rebellion are the
tools of the establishment.
Jacques Derrida, 1930-2004
DECONSTRUCTION
Deconstruction
• Derrida’s deconstruction, in a nutshell, has to do with undermining
the binary relationships common in Western thinking.
• We ‘privilege’ some ideas over other associated ideas – labeling, for
example, some good and others bad. Deconstruction asks ‘what if
these values were reversed? What if the opposite were true? What
would be different?’
• Criticized as complicated, parasitic (because it is simply an inversion
of existing ideas rather than a new set of ideas); and as obfuscating
simple ideas with complex language (Chomsky). At its best, though,
deconstruction provides insight into values and ideas.
• As with Baudrillard and Foucault, some of these specific ideas can be
traced back to Jorge Luis Borges; as a public figure, however,
Derrida gave loud and public intellectual voice to the criticism of the
establishment and established thinking.
Social Capital
J.S. Coleman and Robert Putnam
J.S. Coleman, James Samuel Coleman, 1926-1995
• Sociologist, one of the earliest users of the term ‘social capital’;
pioneer of the use of mathematical models in sociology.
• The 1966 Coleman report on “Equality of Educational Opportunity”
was commonly cited to suggest that funding levels have little effect
on educational quality; the data from over 150,000 students more
likely suggests that student background and socioeconomic status are
more influential than per pupil spending.
• This research also showed the benefits of racially integrated
classrooms, but that “white flight” away from high class mixed race
schools lead to failures, undermining the intentions of the mass
bussing system intended to achieve those benefits.
SOCIAL CAPITAL - Coleman
• “Social capital is defined by its function. It is not a single entity, but a
variety of different entities, having two characteristics in common:
they all consist of some aspect of a social structure, and they facilitate
certain actions of individuals who are within the structure”
– (Coleman 1994: 302).
• Social capital, like real capital, can be used to ‘buy’ various things
and gain access to superior opportunities; is not the result of a single
factor, but of several kinds of entities that a) consist of a social
structure or network, and b) facilitate the relative success of
individuals who are members of that social structure.
SOCIAL CAPITAL - Putnam
• “Whereas physical capital refers to physical objects and human
capital refers to the properties of individuals, social capital refers to
connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of
reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. In that sense
social capital is closely related to what some have called ‘civic
virtue.’ The difference is that ‘social capital’ calls attention to the fact
that civic virtue is most powerful when embedded in a sense network
of reciprocal social relations. A society of many virtuous but isolated
individuals is not necessarily rich in social capital”
– (Putnam 2000: 19)
Robert Putnam
• A contemporary sociologist and theorist. Has written extensively
regarding social capital.
• In his book Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American
Community (2000), Putnam uses large quantities of data (roughly
500,000 interviews) to demonstrate how we have become
increasingly disconnected from family, friends, neighbors, and our
democratic structures. He warns that our stock of social capital has
plummeted, impoverishing our lives and communities.
• “Today we sign fewer petitions, belong to fewer organizations that
meet, know our neighbors less, meet with friends less frequently, and
even socialize with our families less often. We're even bowling alone.
More Americans are bowling than ever before, but they are not
bowling in leagues.” Putnam shows how changes in work, family
structure, age, suburban life, television, computers, women's roles
and other factors have contributed to this decline.
POSTMODERNISM
LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN
Wittgenstein and Postmodernism
• Foresaw the end of
philosophy (Tractatus Logiophilosophicus, 1921), but
became increasingly
suspicious even of his own.
• ‘Transcendent certainty’ is
impossible, a conceit (On
Certainty) – though so often
the goal of human intellectual
endeavor.
Wittgenstein and Language
• Language is inextricably woven into the fabric
of life, and as part of that fabric it works
relatively unproblematically.
• Philosophical problems arise when language is
forced from its proper home and into a
metaphysical environment, where all the
familiar and necessary landmarks and contextual
clues are absent — removed, perhaps, for what
appear to be sound philosophical reasons.
Wittgenstein and Language
• In later writings about language and culture we
find two important aspects that are related to
postmodernism.
– The first is, briefly, that 'languages are holistic
structures‘
– The second is 'it is one of the most basic parts of our
linguistic competence to transgress the boundaries of
structures, to move between them, to project them, -to 'misuse' them creatively and meaningfully.'
DONNA HARAWAY
THE CYBORG
MANIFESTO
“A Cyborg Manifesto”
• Haraway creates what she calls “an ironic political myth” (p. 149)
which combines postmodernism with socialist feminism centered on
the “cyborg”, which is “a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine
and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of
fiction.” (ibid). The cyborg is a metaphor for the postmodernist and
political play of identity as well as for a lived reality of new
technology.
• The cyborg stands for shifting political and physical boundaries,
which, in its interface with us and the world around us, often wittily
pulls the rug out from under what we perceive to be ‘natural’
Cyborgs …
Fun
Get your own ‘Cyborg’ name decoded at
http://cyborg.namedecoder.com/
http://www.joe-ks.com/
The Future Soon
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LDiDK_yBCw0
• A World-of-Warcraft machinima for “The Future Soon”, Jonathan
Coulton's “anthem for geeks and nerds everywhere. Those people
who make fun of you now will be sorry, because in the future, you'll
be running the whole show, and it'll be the future soon...”
• “Cause it’s gonna be the future soon
And I won’t always be this way
When the things that make me weak and strange get engineered
away ”
Can the subaltern speak?
GAYATRI CHAKRAVORTY
SPIVAK
G. C. Spivak
• While she is best known as a postcolonial theorist, Gayatri Spivak
describes herself as a "para-disciplinary, ethical philosopher" though
her shingle could just as well read: "Applied Deconstruction." Her
reputation was first made for her translation and preface to
Derrida's Of Grammatology (1976) and she has since applied
deconstructive strategies to various theoretical engagements and
textual analyses: from Feminism, Marxism, and Literary Criticism to,
most recently, Postcolonialism.
• “My position is generally a reactive one. I am viewed by Marxists as
too codic, by feminists as too male-identified, by indigenous theorists
as too committed to Western Theory. I am uneasily pleased about
this.” (Post-Colonial Critic).
Can the Subaltern Speak?
• Spivak's contribution with "Can the Subaltern Speak" is to politicize
Derridean deconstruction in order to elaborate a method for
emancipatory readings and cultural interventions. She defines her
project as fourfold:
– 1) Problematize the Western subject and see how it is still
operational in poststructuralist theory (Foucault & Deleuze);
– 2) Re-read Marx to find a more radical decentering of the subject
that also more leaves room for the formation of class
identifications that are non-essentialist;
– 3) Argue that Western intellectual production reinforces the logic
of Western economic expansion;
– 4) Perform a close reading of sati to analyze the discourses of the
West and the possibilities for speech that the subaltern woman
has (or does not have) within that framework.
In brief …
• Can the subaltern speak?
– No. Spivak says the Subaltern can’t speak because by having a
single “voice” you are being essentialist, reductionist, bipolar
(“master and slave dialectic) and not looking at class.
– The forces that create subaltern status act on those in that class
and on the rest of society, creating complex conditions that both
prevent members of this class from speaking for themselves and
would keep them from being heard even if they could speak.
– “in seeking to learn to speak to (rather than listen to or speak for)
the historically muted subject of the subaltern woman, the
postcolonial intellectual systematically “unlearns” female
privilege.”
Imitation and Gender Subordination
JUDITH BUTLER
Gender is Performative
• Butler suggests all gender is performative.
• Although there is no origin, gender still imitates in a manner that
produces the notion of an original, standard gender. Heterosexuality
constantly needs to uphold an idealization of itself because it fears
that it can be undermined by homosexuality or transexuality.
• Butler states that drag inverts the notions of imitated and imitation
and effectively exposes the supposed "norms" of heterosexuality.
Theatrics, not biology
• Butler does not deny that "male" and "female" are biological truths,
but she sees "masculine" and "feminine" as acts, theatrics. People,
she argues, have a "predisposition to think of sexuality and gender as
'expressing' in some indirect or direct way a psychic reality that
precedes it" (Butler 725). For example, a male perceives his
masculinity as a natural result of his physical maleness. A man
expresses his maleness through such masculine traits as rugged looks,
plain decor, and aversion to stylish, trendy fashion. Butler, rather,
proposes that gender "performance constitutes the appearance of a
'subject' as its effect" (Butler 725). In other words, masculinity makes
the male subject. Men mistakenly rely on "masculine" behavior in
order to show society that they are indeed men.
“After Modernity, Since 1979”
CHARLES LEMERT
Social Theory
• “Social theory is what we do when we find ourselves able to put into
words what nobody seems to want to talk about. When we find those
words, and say them, we begin to survive. For some, learning to
survive leads to uncommon and exhilarating pleasures. For others,
perhaps the greater number of us, it leads at least to the common
pleasure – a pleasure rubbed raw with what is: the simple but
necessary power of knowing that one knows what is there because
one can say it. This, whatever else, is what makes social theory worth
reading.” ~Charles Lemert (1999: 20)
Talking about it
• Lemert notes that one of the most important events in recent history –
the end of modernity itself or, at least, the beginning of a serious
conversation about postmodernity – slipped by without much note.
• Modernity is concerned with progress, must always look forward to a
next stage.
• Lemert situates many of the other theorists we have considered in a
metanarrative of social theory across disciplines since 1979 (a clue
that he himself may be more modernist or radicalized modernist, to
use Giddens term, than postmodernist).
• Uses architectural examples to explain how many influences, forces,
and considerations collide in contemporary existence.
“Postpositivist Case for the Classics”
JEFFERY ALEXANDER
J. Alexander
• “The ratio between exemplars and classics is so much different in
social science because in its social application science produces so
much more disagreement … [so] the more general background
assumptions which remain implicit and relatively invisible in natural
science here come vividly into play.”
• “Conditions of social science make agreement about the precise
nature of empirical knowledge … [and] explanatory covering laws …
highly unlikely.”
• Lemert contends that ‘classic’ works alleviate this “paradigm crisis”
in particular ways – briefly, that there are several specific reasons a
common foundation is important and useful.
Emancipatory knowledge (p. 380) &
Social analysis and communicative competence
(p. 381-383)
JÜRGEN HABERMAS
Realization of Human Potential
• In the traditions of Kant and the Enlightenment and of democratic
socialism, emphasis on the potential for transforming the world and
arriving at a more humane, just, and egalitarian society through the
realization of the human potential for reason, in part through
discourse ethics.
• While Habermas conceded that the Enlightenment is an "unfinished
project," he argued it should be corrected and complemented, not
discarded. In this he distanced himself from the Frankfurt School,
criticizing it, as well as much of postmodernist thought, for excessive
pessimism, misdirected radicalism and exaggerations.
Theory of Communicative Action
• Challenges the Marxist focus on economics (or alienated labor) as the
main or sole determining factor of oppression. Habermas argues that
the key to liberation is rather to be found in language and
communication between people.
• Theory of communicative action: communicative action serves to
transmit and renew cultural knowledge, in a process of achieving
mutual understandings. It then coordinates action towards social
integration and solidarity. Finally, communicative action is the
process through which people form their identities.
Lifeworlds
• This gives rise to a dual concept of modern society; the internal
subjective viewpoint of the "lifeworld" and the external viewpoint of
the "system". Distinguish system rationality from action rationality.
Lifeworlds become colonised by steering media when four things
happen:
– 1. Traditional forms of life are dismantled. ---diasporsa/social
upheaval
– 2. Social roles are sufficiently differentiated. --experts
– 3. There are adequate rewards of leisure and money for the
alienated labour. –frankfurt school
– 4. Hopes and dreams become individuated by state canalization
of welfare and culture. –subsumed by the state
Communicative Rationality
• Ideal speech situation: "The structure of the ideal speech situation
(which means that the discourse is) immunised against repression
and inequality in a special way… The structures of a ritualised
competition for the better arguments… The structures that determine
the construction of individual arguments and their interrelations".
Argument of some kind is central to the process of achieving a
rational result.
POST-POSTMODERNISM
PSEUDO-MODERNISM
Alan Kirby
• Kirby associates pseudomodernism with the triteness and
shallowness resulting from the
instantaneous, direct, and
superficial participation in
culture made possible by the
internet, mobile phones,
interactive television and similar
means: participating in events
that mean nothing…trancelike.
MEDIA ECOLOGY
Communication Theory
MEDIA ECOLOGY
• Media ecology looks into the matter of how media of communication
affect human perception, understanding, feeling, and value; and how
our interaction with media facilitates or impedes our chances of
survival. The word ecology implies the study of environments: their
structure, content, and impact on people.
The Water Cycle
This ecological model shows how water is
used, transformed, and reused on our
planet. Can you think of comparable
structures in media ecologies?
The Food Chain
This ‘food chain’ shows the interrelation of
life. Again, can you think of comparable
structures in media ecologies?
Christine Nystrom
• Media ecologists know, generally, what it is they are interested in—
the interactions of communications media, technology, technique,
and processes with human feeling, thought, value, and behavior—and
they know, too, the kinds of questions about those interactions they
are concerned to ask.
• But media ecologists do not, as yet, have a coherent framework in
which to organize their subject matter or their questions.
• Media ecology is, in short, a preparadigmatic science.
• —Christine Nystrom, Towards a Science of Media Ecology: The
Formulation of Integrated Conceptual Paradigms for the Study of
Human Communication Systems, Doctoral Dissertation, New York
University (1973).
Neil Postman
• Media ecology looks into the matter of how media of communication
affect human perception, understanding, feeling, and value; and how
our interaction with media facilitates or impedes our chances of
survival. The word ecology implies the study of environments: their
structure, content, and impact on people.
• An environment is, after all, a complex message system which
imposes on human beings certain ways of thinking, feeling, and
behaving.
– It structures what we can see and say and, therefore, do.
– It assigns roles to us and insists on our playing them.
– It specifies what we are permitted to do and what we are not.
Sometimes, as in the case of a courtroom, or classroom, or
business office, the specifications are explicit and formal.
Neil Postman: Media Ecology
• In the case of media environments (e.g., books, radio, film,
television, etc.), the specifications are more often implicit and
informal, half concealed by our assumption that what we are dealing
with is not an environment but merely a machine.
• Media ecology tries to make these specifications explicit.
• It tries to find out what roles media force us to play, how media
structure what we are seeing, why media make us feel and act as we
do.
• Media ecology is the study of media as environments.
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