Grape Species, Varieties & Rootstocks
Vine species: any member of the genus vitis
1- Vitis Vinifera -> European / 5 to 10,000 varieties / suitable for wine making
Native North America
2- Vitis Riparia
Resistant to Phylloxera
3- Vitis Rupestris
Provides root system for Vinifera
4- Vitis Berlandieri
Provides root
1) Vine anatomy
Shoots:
new growth a vine produces each year.
contains nodes that each will give a leaf + flower or leaf + tendril
Leaves:
responsible for photosynthesis by which plants use chlorophyll + energy from
sunlight to convert water + CO2 in sugar glucose and oxygen
The glucose will 1. Allow to vine to reinforce its structure
2. Store the energy necessary for the plant’s living
3. Concentrate in the fruit which makes it attractive to animals that
will propagate their seeds
Tendrils:
structure the vine uses to support itself by winding themselves tightly around trellis
wires to keep the shoot right
Flowers+Berries: reproductive organs. Grouped in bunches called inflorescences.
Flower pollinated  berry  grape
Buds
embryonic shoots that form between leaf + shoot
buds  shoots + leaves + flowers + tendrils the year after
1-year old wood: shoots  woody  old wood
critical as vines will only produce fruit on shoots that grow from buds from the
previous year
Cane:
Spur:
1-year old wood pruned + left with 8-15 buds (long)
1-year old wood pruned + left with 2-3 buds (short)
Permanent wood: wood > 1 year old restricted by pruning. Made of trunk + arms of the vine
(cordons)
stores carbohydrates reserves during the winter that will then fuel shoots’ initial
growth until leaves can support them
Roots
1. absorb water + nutrients from the soil
2. Anchor the vine
3. Store carbohydrates for winter survival
4. Can help protect against phylloxera
2) Origin of grape varieties
2 grapevines are from the same grape variety if the ancestry of every plant follows a line of cuttings
lead to the same single original parent plant. Different if 2 different seedlings found.
Varieties cannot be reproduced by planting the pips (seeds) of a grape.
Variations within species can come from
a) sexual reproduction: flower pollinated -> seed planted
every seedling is in theory a new variety although the child will bear
similarities with parents. Execption: Morio Muskat (Sylvaner + Pinot Blanc)
b) Mutations:
if error in copying process of new bud. Usually differences are small.
Exception: Pinot Blanc + Pinot Gris= mutated from Pinot Noir
3) Clones and clonal selection
For consistency, identical copies can be done via:
A) Cutting :
B) Layering:
Clonal selection:
section taken from healthy shoot before it has become woody and planted
bending a cane down and burying a section in the ground
take cuttings from a selected plant that displays best characteristics and
selling it for widespread use. The population grown from the cuttings are
clones.
Disadvantages: a) difficult to build long term vision b) homogeneity means
any weakness is general (diseases) c) uniformisation of taste
4) Crossings and hybrids
NEW varieties = difficult to create as
1. Difficult. Many fail in yr1
2. Lengthy. Minimum 2-3 years for 1st fruit
3. Costly. R&D Investment
Examples:
Pinotage (SA) / Dornfelder (GER): commercial success but
not noble grapes
Methods:
A) Crossings:
B) Hybrids:
both parents are from V. Vinifera.
Ex:
Cab Sauvignon: Cab Franc + Sauvignon Blanc
Thurgau: Riesling + Madeleine Royale
Pinotage: pinot Noir + cinsault
parents come from different species
Use in the US where Vinifera was struggling to grow. Outlawed in EU in 50s.
Now rarely used for winemaking but more for rootstocks
5) Phylloxera and rootstocks
Phylloxera
vine pest that caused widespread destruction off EU vineyards in mid XIXth
Cycle: lives underground + feeds from roots
Barely visible to naked eye
Bacteria + fungi infect the roots and slowly kills the roots and the vine
Only cure: grafting American rootstocks (cross incl. Berlandieri better adapted to
EU’s lime-rich soils) on to V Vinifera.
Rootstocky hybrids great vs.
phylloxera
Nematodes
Drought
Soil salinity
V Vinifera vigour control
Grafting:
technique used to join a hybrid rootstock to a V. Vinifera variety
a) BENCH grafting
short sections of 2 canes cut
2 canes spliced together by machine + store in warm humid
environment
= callus formed
b) HEAD grafting
existing vine cut back (only trunk remains) + bud of new
variety grafted onto trunk
If successful fruit ready with next vintage
6) Key grape varieties
W1 – Chardonnay
W2 -Sauvignon Blanc
W3 – Riesling
W4 - Pinot Gris
W4 - Viognier
W5 – Muscat
B1 – Pinot Noir
B2 – Cabernet Sauvignon
B3 – Merlot
B4 – Syrah
B5 - Grenache
B6 – Sangiovese
B7 – Tempranillo
The Growing Environment
Key vine inputs:
1234-
HEAT
SUNLIGHT
WATER
NUTRIENTS
Climate:
Weather:
from soil and sun
from sun and soil
from rainfall, irrigation, soil/bedrock
from soil deposits, bed rock, humus, fertiliser
annual weather patterns averaged over several years
variations of these patterns on annual basis
1) HEAT/ Temperature
< 10C cells stop functioning. Vine -> dormant
> 22C cells consumes more sugar vs possible via photosynthesis which lead to slowdown + vine stop
16C to 22C: ideal growing temperature
Factors affecting temperature:
a. Latitude
b. Altitude
c. Winds/currents. Ex: Humboldt and Beguela cools Chile and SA while Gulf Stream warms up NW of EU
d. Fog
e. Soil & water content
f. Aspect/sun exposition
Continentality: summer vs. winter temp.
Diurnal range: day vs. night
Cool nights => vine rest + longer season
Warm nights => accelerates ripening
Key temperature hazards
Large bodies of sea -> moderating effect
Lakes, rivers -> soften differences
Hi diurnal range => more aromatic + fresh
Lo diurnal range => more full bodied
1. <-20C winter freeze + vine death
2. < 0
spring frost -> new buds damaged/killed
Protections: burners, wind machines, sprinklers, vineyard design (in slopes)
3. Too mild winters -> disruption of cycles with 2 seasons in 1
4. Hot summers -> ripening acceleration + drought risk
Climate
Continentality
Rainfall
Hi
Low
Maritime
Lo to Med
Med/hi
(all year)
Mediterranean
Lo to Med
Low/Med
Continental
(mainly
winters)
Growing Season
temperature
Cool -> Champagne, Mosel
Mod -> Burgundy, Central Otago, Barolo
Warm -> Ribera Del Duero, Mendoza
Hot -> La Mancha, Port
Cool -> Muscadet
Mod -> Bordeaux, Rias Baixas
Warm -> Auckland
Mod -> Chianti, Carneros
Warm ->Chateauneuf, Napa Valley
Hot -> Murray-Darling
Growing season
sunlight
Very Sunny
Cloudy
Sunny
2) SUNLIGHT
Needed for Photosynthesis. The more light, the more vine vigor.
Ex: Hunter valley -> cloudy -> grape with low sugar levels
Factors affecting sunlight:
a. Seas+Lakes
-> more clouds
b. Latitude
-> longer summer days when further from equator. Ex: Washington State -> Cab Sauvignon
c. Aspect
-> steep + south-facing slopes help maximise sun exposure
Sunlight Hazards
Excess => sunburn . Bitter-tasting grapes
Lack of => less fruitful buds + difficult ripening of grapes. Hi acidity low fruit
3) WATER
Needed for:
photosynthesis + mild water stress to promote ripening.
Water needs rise with temperature.
Transpiration: way by which vine accesses water via roots up to leaves
Precipitation
Irrigation
Water Hazards:
3 techniques: DRIP / SPRINKLERS / FLOOD
Excess -> overgrowth + fungal infection
in growing season
-> rot + flavour dilution
in late growing season
Lack of -> transpiration stops + photosynthesis stops = no ripening
4) SOIL
Composed of: soil particles, stones & rocks, humus + plant nutrients
Ideal soil = few nutrients but well drained to store enough water for nxt season
Soil + Water:
soil needs to provide vine with good supply of water in early growing season to promote
buds flowering and then reduced supply throughout season to help ripening
Soil + nutrients: only very small amounts needed. Mainly Nitrogen, Phosphorous & Potassium key in hi
levels
Excess -> excessive vine vigour Lack of -> vine not able to grow properly
Chlorosis: lack of iron -> less cholorphyll in the leaves -> reduced synthesis -> poorer grapes.
Most common in hi limestone soils e.g. Champagne, Burgundy, Rioja, Barolo.
Terroir:
ensemble of environmental influences that give wine sense of place: aspect, weather, soil,
slope, grape variety, climate.
Vineyard Management
1) SITE SELECTION
A) Environmental conditions
B) Business considerations
C) Grape Variety
i.e. avg temp, rainfall, sunlight hours + soil fertility & drainage
i.e. proximity to infrastructure, workforce availability, access to machinery
driven by climate condition and by EU regs
2) PLANTING
Vines usually planted pre-grafted. Exception: very dry conditions
Protection of young vines vs. weeds by covering with mulch + vs. animals by sheathing the vines
Irrigation to support root system development
After 3 years of planting -> 1st yield. Most vines can live 30-50 years. Qty of fruit decreases with age.
3) MANAGING THE VINE
No action
 vines will grow grapes but not ripe enough for winemaking
Viticulture
 control vigour of vine by:
A) Size & shape
1. Pruning:
removal of unwanted leaves, canes & permanent wood
Winter: Determines location + nber of buds for nxt season
Summer: trimming canopy to manage vine vigor and ripeness
a. Replacement cane pruning / Single or Double Guyot
1 or 2 cane retained and horizontally trained along trellis to grow several buds
Not easily mechanised
b. Spur pruning
Large number of spurs with 2-3 buds each retained.
Allows mechanisation + better protection against frost
2. Training & trellising (to manage direction of season’s shoots)
a. Bush trained / Gobelet
e.g. Southern Rhone, Barossa Valley
b. Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP) single canopy consisting of shoots grown vertically
Lo or hi trained canes to benefit from heat/avoid frosts
Main benefits: well aerated / little shade / good for hi density
areas
c. Big Vines (Geneva/Lyre D.Curtain)
lower density areas
Usually spur pruned
Includes Pergola systems
Mechanisable
Good to balance vine vigour
B) Vine vigour
Vine Vigour:
nber + size of shoots & leaves a vine grows in the season. Determined by water, soil, heat, sunlight
Stress  forces plant to focus on fruit (i.e. way to preserve & reproduce itself)
High input  hi resources/bud  hi vigour  hi yields +lower quality
Lo input  lo resources/bud  lo vigour  low yields + higher quality
Methods:
1. Planting density
to encourage competition for water, nutrients (i.e. stress)
2. Grow cover crops
to introduce extra competition
3. Nber of buds per vine to spread the resources more thinly within the vine (big vines)
4. Rootstocks
to limit uptake of nutrients
C) Ripeness
Ripeness:
grape has reached sufficient levels of sugar and physiological ripeness for style of wine.
Inputs:
heat, water, sunlight
Hi inputs  Hi sugar production  fewer leaves needed to create sugar  higher alcohol
Lo inputs  lo sugar production  more leaves needed to create sugar  lower alcohol
Methods:
1. Canopy management
to enhance/reduce sun exposure
2. Buds / vine
to spread / not the resources
3. Limit water supply after véraison
e.g. pergola/summer pruning
D) Yields
To meet contractual and EU obligations on top of managing ripeness
Measured by tons of grapes/ha
hl of wine/ha
Method:
remove immature grapes after véraison if too hi
Yield vs. quality: no direct correlation
Cool climates  high yields  lower quality
Warm climates  high yields  good quality
E) PESTs & diseases
1. PESTS
a. Phylloxera
b. Nematodes: microscopic worms attacking roots + spread viruses.
Cure: difficult. Prevention by soil sanitising
c. Birds & mammals
netting
d. Insects & Arachnids can damage shoots & leaves
2. Non-systemic/fungal diseases (non-permanent)
a. Downy mildew
attacks green part of vine
Needs warm & shady conditions
b. Powdery mildew
attacks green part of vine
Needs warm & shady conditions
Reduces yields + makes wine bitter
c. Grey rot
damages green parts but esp. Unripe
damp/humid conditions
Cure: spraying or canopy management
d. Noble rot
botrytis cinerea
Fungus attacking ripe, undamaged white grapes concentrating acids
& sugars in them
Needs humid, misty
mornings (for devt) + warm, sunny afternoons (to restrain its devt +
evaporation)
Grapes turn golden and develop brown spots on the skins
More than 50% of water lost from grape in process
Not all grapes affected the same way & time so harvest in several
tries
3. Systemic diseases (permanent)
a. Fanleaf/Leafroll virus: distorted growth of canopy  lower yields
highly contagious + persistant
spread via cuttings or nematodes
no cure. Prevention by nematode-free healthy vines
b. Pierce’s disease
c. Eutypa dieback
Alternative viticultural practices
 Integrated PEST management
 Organic viticulture
 Biodynamic
incurable fatal bacterial disease spread by sharpshooters
kills the vine within 3 to 5 years
No cure
Chardonnay & Pinot Noir particularly susceptible
Originated in America. Still found in southern US+Central America
fungal infection attacking permanent wood, hence reducing yields
use of pesticides only when absolutely necessary
only natural pesticides
coincides with cycles of planets and stars
4) HARVEST
Machine:
quick, less costly (although cost of machine vs. small vineyard) but not selective & not in bunches
Hand:
selective but cost, time
Influenced by aspect, vinetraining, type of wine (e.g. Beaujolais, Champagne collected in bunches)
5) VINEYARD CYCLE
Budburst
N
S
Mar-Apr
Sept-Oct
10C min
Frost risk
Shoot
Growth+
Leaf
Apr-Aug
Sept-Mar
Good
supply of
water
needed
Shoots
trained
on trellis
PEST risk
Flowering+Fruit set
Véraison+Ripening
Harvest
Dormancy
May-June
Nov-Dec
15C+sunlight+no rain
July-Sept
Jan-Mar
Grapes start to ripen
and change colour +
berries swell with
water
Summer pruning
Green harvesting
Sept-Nov
Mar-Apr
Dry
condition
s required
Dec-Mar
Jul-Sept
>10C vine
dormant
No
spraying
Winter
pruning
Coulure+millerandage
risk
Coulure:
if more flowers than usual fail to fertilise
Millerandage: inclement weather condition causes development of large vs. small berries with small
without seeds. Can be desirable as seedless = very sweet
Winemaking & maturation
1) Common Elements
Oxygen:
gas that combines easily with other molecules and changes their characteristics
Too much or too little contact with O2 can lower quality
Controlled via: 1. Use of sulphur dioxide
2. Grapes picking at night (cool temp = less impact of O2)
3. Air-tight winery equipment (anaerobic)
Sulfur dioxide: chemical compound used as disinfectant and preservative
Max limits: 150mg/l for Reds; 200mg/l for Whites/Rosés
Oak vessels:
used in fermentation and/or maturation
Adds flavour and tannins + stabilise colour
Allows controlled oxygenation of wine
European oak  toast and vanilla + fine graine tannins
American oak vanilla & coconut + more aromatic
Charred new oak barrels  most flavour addition
225l  Bdx barrique
228l  Burgundy piece
Smaller the barrel => stronger concentration of flavour
Large oak vessels less used
Inert vessels:
Add no flavours and no interaction with wine
Stainless or concrete.
Easier to clean. Temperature control.
2) Constituent parts of a grape
5 components:
1. STEM  tannins
2. BLOOM  yeasts + bacteria
3. SKIN  flavour compounds, tannins, colours
4. PULP  sugar, water, acids (tartaric & malic)
5. SEEDS  bitter oils
3) Winemaking, maturation and packaging
REDS
ROSÉS
Key: extract colours and tannins from grapes by
disturbing and agitating grapes during
fermentation
Limit extraction of
colour and tannins +
retain fruit
SO2 grape treatment
GRAPE SELECTION
Grape destemming
Only if hand harvested
CRUSHING
Breaking the skins to release free run juice
Cold maceration
For greater colour and flavour extraction
Method 1: DIRECT
PRESSING like white
wine
(destem-crush-pressferment)
ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION
 2-3 weeks
 20-32C for more colour and tannin extraction
(most 30-32C)
 Cap management via: pumping over, punching
down, rack & return or rotary fermenters
Post-fermentation maceration
For greater tannins and little bit more colour
DRAIN
Free run wine
+ Skins & gross lees for pressing
Method 2: DRAWING
OFF
All the red wine juice
drawn off from 6 to
48 hours after start of
fermentation +
further fermentation
at cool temperatures
Method 3: BLEEDING
(saignée)
Same as drawing off
except only small part
of red wine juice
(with less colour and
tannins) removed
Method 4: BLENDING
Red added to White
(only New world +
Champagne Rosé)
MLF
WHITES
Key:
1) skin contact
2) clarity
3) fermentation temp + vessel
SO2 grape treatment
GRAPE SELECTION
Grape destemming
Only if hand harvested
Grape crushing
Breaking the skins to release free run juice
Skin contact
- Cool temperatures for a few hours
- Adds flavour intensity
e.g. Albarino, Muscat, Riesling
PRESSING
 Separates solids from liquid of the grape
 Vertical or horizontal
Pneumatic or screw
 Whole bunch option
Addition of sugar
a) to free ruin juice (from crushing)
b) to pressed juice
Increases alcohol levels during fermentation
If sugar not from grapes -> ‘chaptalisation’
Clarification
Desirable for Chardonnay but not for young wine
ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION
 Inert vs. Oak vessel
Inert -> varietal fruit
Oak -> more integrated and subtle oak flavour vs. oak
maturation
 12-22C. Hi vs. lo temperature
Lo -> slower + more aromas
Hi -> more complex + risk of aroma loss
RACKING OFF GROSS LEES
MLF (optional)
New made wine
Wine: alcohol (mainly ethanol), acids (tartaric, malic, lactic), colours, flavours, tannins
Blending e.g. press wine with new made wine
Maturation
Oak can add flavour & tannins // Inert vessels preserve fruit and freshness
Lees of lees can add flavour + textural roundness to wine
Blending e.g. Press wine with other matured wine
CLARIFICATION
1) Sedimentation & racking
2) Fining agents e.g. egg whites, bentonite that encourage unwanted particles to clump together and deposit
3) Filtration: physical removal via surface/sterile (very fine sieve) or depth (permeable material e.g. Kieselguhr)
Tartrate Stabilisation
Tartaric acid deposits as crystals in colour of wine
Methods: chilling wine below freezing for short period + add potassium bitartrate + removal by filtration
MICROBIOLIGICAL STABILISATION
Yeast, acetic acid bacteria and lactic acid bacteria can undertake further fermentation except if wine fermented to dryness+MLF+limited O2
exposure+hi acidity
3 ways: sterile/surface filtration; pasteurisation; cold bottling with sterilised bottles
PACKAGING
Slight addition of SO2 to ensure no O2 intrusion // Bottle sickness straight after bottling for short time
Wine for sale
Colour released quickly at beginning of fermentation and then slows down.
Tannins released slowly at beginning of fermentation and then accelerates.
Carbonic vs. semi-carbonic maceration
Carbonic maceration
1. Uncrushed unstemmed grapes place in VAT full of CO2
2. Grapes convert the glucose into alcohol, energy and CO2
3. Grapes burst and juice is collected
4. Normal yeasted fermentation
Beaujolais Nouveau -> banana, kirsch, bubblegum
Semi-carbonic maceration
Uncrushed unstemmed grapes with CO2 from fermenting berries at bottom
of the tank.
Beaujolais
Destemming but no crushing in Rioja and Spain.
Sweet Wine making methods
1. Interrupt fermentation
a. fortification (grape spirit)
b. addition of SO2 to stop fermentation + filtering
c. chilling the must +filtering
2. Adding sweetening component
a. Sússreserve (unfermented grape juice added at bottling)
b. RCGM = pure sugar solution extracted from grape juice (New
World brands)
3. Concentrating grape sugars
a. Noble rot e.g. trockbeerenauslese / beerenauslese
b. Drying grapes on the vine / Passerillage (need dry and warm
conditions) e.g. part of Sauternes
c. Drying grapes after picking e.g. PX Sherry and Italian passito
wines
d. Freezing grapes on the vine e.g. German/Canadian Icewine
Wine with Foods
Primary taste affected by Foods:
Food
characteristics
Sweet
Impact on wine
Increases 
Decreases 
Bitterness
Body
Astringency
Richness
Chemesthesis
Sweetness
Acidity
Fruit
Bitterness
Body
Acidity
Fruitiness
Astringency
Sweetness
Chemesthesis
Richness
Acidity
Sweetness
Fruitiness
Richness
Bitterness
smoothness
Acidity
Astringency
chemesthesis
bitterness
Bitterness
Body
Acidity
Richness
Astringency
Sweetness
chemesthesis
Fruit
Umami
Acidity
Salt
Bitterness
Chemesthesis
Flavour balancing:
Sweet , Savoury/umami, Sour, Salty, Bitter.
Match
Aromatic wines
Hi acidity wines
Full bodied rich and aromatic
wines
culinary technique to ensure well balanced food meets virtually any wine
e.g. if wine to harsh with food, add salt/lemon to make food match
Service + Storage
Type of wine
Medium-full bodied oaked whites
Light/medium bodied white
Serving temperature
Lightly chilled 10-13C
Chilled 7-10C
Sweet wines
Sparkling wines
Well Chilled 6-8C
Well Chilled 6-10C
Light bodied reds
Medium-Full bodied reds
Slightly chilled 13C
Room temperature 18C
Examples
White Burgundy, Fumé blanc
Muscadet, Pinot Grigio, NZ
Sauvignon Blc, Fino Sherry
Sauternes, Sweet Muscats
Prosecco, Cava, Sekt, Asti,
Champagne
Valpolicella, Beaujolais
Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz
Bordeaux
Climate
Moderate maritime with warming from Gulf Stream; hi rainfall (Atlantic)
Soils
Gravel (Médoc, Ht Médoc, Graves)
Clay+limestone (St Emilion, Pomerol)
Key grapes
Merlot
Cabernet Sauvignon
Cabernet Franc
adds body + tannins + softness + richness + colour + fruit
tannic + oak-friendly + blackcurrant
less body
Sémillon
Sauvignon Blanc
thin skinned + adds colour and body + oak-friendly +lo acidity
refreshing acidity + elderflower aromas
Grapegrowing Key challenges: ripeness + fungal diseases
Hi variation in seasons
Lower yields for higher quality
Hi density planting
Machine harvesting widespread
Grape selection + tries for best wines and sweet wines
Winemaking
Reds
Whites
Classification
Varieties fermented separately
Maturation in VAT or in oak barriques
Lo priced -> VAT + Merlot dominated
Hi priced -> new oak
Dry in stainless VAT to preserve fruit
Sweet in oak fermentation
1855 Médoc classification
1955 St Emilion system of Grand Cru
1959 Graves Grand cru list
Burgundy / Beaujolais
Climate
Moderate continental: severe winters + warm summers; med rainfall
Chablis: cool continental
Soils
Burgundy: kimmeridgian clay + limestone in Chablis; limestone+marl in Cote D’Or
Beaujolais: granite
Key grapes
Chardonnay
Pinot Noir
Gamay
Grapegrowing North -> hi density; Guyot. Best sites on east and south-east facing
South -> Free standing vines; Gobelet training. Best sites on hillside
Winemaking
Key wines
Classification
Burgundy reds -> Sensitive use of oak for Pinot Noir
Burgundy whites
-> stainless steel in Chablis;
-> barrel fermentation and new oak ageing in Macon + Cote De Beaune
Beaujolais -> Carbonic maceration; some oak ageing in large VATs
1) Chablis (basic, 1er cru, Grand cru)
2) Cotes de Nuits
(mainly reds)
Cotes de Nuits
Famous villages -> Vosne Romanée, Vougeot, Gevrey Chambertin, Nuits St Georges
Bourgogne Haute Cotes de Nuit
3) Cotes de Beaune
Cotes De Beaune
Famous villages -> Volnay, Montrachet-Puligny, Chassagne-Montrachet, Meursault,
Beaune, Aloxe-Corton (Reds+whites)
Bourgogne Haute Cotes de Beaune
4) Cote Chalonnaise: Givry, Rully, Montagny, Mercurey
5) Maconnais: Macon, Macon Superieur, Macon villages, Pouilly Fuissé
6) Beaujolais: basic, villages, 10 crus: Saint Amour, Chénas, Juliénas, Brouilly, Cotes de
Brouilly, Morgon, Fleurie, Chiroubles, Moulin a vent)
Regional
Commune
1er cru
Grand cru
must have Bourgogne in title
single communes allowed AC
village + vineyard name. Better vineyards
vineyard name only, highest level for vineyards
Alsace
Climate
Cool continental: severe winters + warm, dry summers; long dry autumns; lo rainfall
Influence of the Vosges which protect from rain+winds
Soils
Various including volcanic
Best sites in Haut Rhin facing East/south-east
Key grapes
Gewurtzraminer
Riesling
Pinot Gris
Muscat
Pinot Blanc
Pinot Noir
Sylvaner
Grapegrowing Slopes -> low training + orientation to catch sun. Double Guyot
Plain -> Hi training to avoid spring frost
Winemaking
Stainless steel VATs or very old oak casks to preserve fruit character
Rare MLF
Classification
Alsace
Alsace Grand Cru the best 51 vineyard sites. Label includes the name.
VT -> 14% Riesling+Muscat
15% Gewurtz/Pinot Gris
SGN -> 16% Riesling + Muscat
18.2% Gewurtz/Pinot Gris
Edelzwicker + Gentil -> blend
Loire
Climate
Continental (east) to maritime (west)
Vintage variation
Soils
Varied incl. Tuffeau for Vouvray and Chinon
Key grapes
Nantais -> Melon blanc
Anjou-Saumur -> Chenin Blanc, Cabernet Franc, Grolleau
Touraine -> Chenin Blanc, Cabernet Franc
Central -> Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir
Wine making
Reds  Traditional fermentation with some use of oak for Cab Franc. Cabornic maceration
for lighter styles
Whites  stainless VAT fermentation with slightly higher temperature vs. new world wine
Sur lie: ageing on the lees for 3 months -> slight fizz
Key wines:
Nantais: Muscadet, Muscadet de Sevre et Maine sur Lie
Anjou-Saumur: Coteaux du Lyon, Savennieres, Rosé d’Anjou
Touraine: Touraine, Vouvray, Chinon, Bourgueil
Central: Sancerre, Menetou-Salon, Pouilly Fumé
IGP: Val de Loire
Rhone
Climate
North: moderate to warm continental
South: warm Mediterranean
Weather
Mistral effect
Soils
North: granite
South: stony soils in Chateauneuf du Pape
Key grapes
Northern Rhone:
Southern Rhone:
Syrah, Viognier, Roussanne+Marsanne
Grenache, Syrah, Mourvedre, Cinsault, Grenache Blanc, Clairette
Grapegrowing North: Steep slopes along Rhone. Use of skates to protect from wind
South: flatter land, low bush vines to maximise heat+protection from wind
Winemaking
Light wines: carbonic maceration (south)
Traditional fermentation + large old oak vessel maturation
Key wines
North: Cote Rotie, St Joseph, Condrieu, Hermitage, Crozes Hermitage, Cornas (100% Syrah
cru)
South: Cotes du Rhone, 7 Crus: Chateauneuf du Pape, Beaumes de Venise, Vinsobres,
Vacqueyras, Gigondas, Lirac, Tavel (rosé only)
South
Climate
Hot Mediterranean
Soils
Varied. Best on limestone
Key grapes
Provence: Mourvedre, Carignan, Cinsault, Rolle clairette
Languedoc Roussillon: Grenache, Syrah, Malbec, Mourvedre, Cinsault, Grenache Blanc,
Clairette, Viognier (for IGP)
Grapegrowing Hi yields for IGP.
Weather
Drought issue + winds.
Mistral + Tramontane winds
Bush training in Languedoc Roussillon
Winemaking
Wide range. Carbonic maceration, extractive techniques
Key wines
Provence: Bandol, Cotes de Provence
Languedoc Roussillon: Pays d’Oc IGP, Fitou, Corbieres, Faugeres, Banyuls, Cotes du
Roussillon, Cotes du Roussillon villages
Germany
Climate
Cool/moderate continental
Humidity in autumn
Weather
Spring frosts / Summer rains
Soils
Varied. Best stony soils to reflect light and capture heat
Key grapes
Riesling, Muller-Thurgau, Grauburgunder (P.Blc) , Spatburgunder (P.Noir), Dornfelder,
WeiBburgunder (P. Blanc), Silvaner
Grapegrowing Slopes Use of skates + south facing with proximity to river = best. Hand work
Plain wire training and more mechanised
Winemaking
Little interference with wine to preserve fruit: use of large oak vessel
Stop the fermentation by must chilling or addition of Susserserve for sweeter wines or
botrytised
Key wines
Mosel: Riesling (Bernkastel)
[light body, hi acidity, med sweet]
Nahe: Riesling
[hi acidity, ripe fruit]
Rheingau: Riesling (Rudesheim , Geisenheim and Joahnnesbirg) [med to full body ripe peach]
Rheinhessen: Muller-Thurgau, Riesling (Nierstein), Silvaner
Pfalz: Riesling, Grauburgunder
Baden/Franken: Dornfelder, Spatburgunder
Wine laws
PDO -> Pradikatswein (Kabinett, Spatlese, Auslese, Beerenauslese, Eiswein, Trockenbeerenauslese)
PGI -> Land wein
Other: Deutscher wein
Regional divisions: Anbaugebiete, Bereich, Grosslage, Einzellage
VDP: Grosses Gewachs, Erste Lage
Others: trocken, halbtrocken, classic (varietal+single vineyard+vintage+min12%abv), Selection
(premium classic), Erstes Gewachs (Rheinghau only)
Austria
Climate
Moderate continental
Weather
Hi diurnal range in many places. Long ripening season+ humidity for botrytis devt in some
regions (Neusiedlersee)
Key grapes
Gruner Veltliner, Riesling, Blaufrankisch, Zweigelt
Grapegrowing Steep south facing slopes. Flat low lying for Botrytis
Winemaking
Whites -> focus on purity of fruit
Reds -> oak widely used for premium wines
Key wines
Niederosterreich: Wachau, Weinviertel
Burgenland: Neusiedlersee, Neusiedlersee-Hugelland
Wine laws
[Gruner Veltliner ~ Burgundy whites +Riesling ]
[Blaufrankisch + botrytised Welschriesling]
PDO: Qualitatswein (Kabinett), Pradikatswein (Spatlese, Auslese, BA, Strohwein, Eiswein Ausbruch, TBA)
PGI: Landwein Other: Wein
Wachau labels: Steinfeder (lightest), Federspiel (med body), Smaragd (full body+complex)
Hungary
Climate
Moderate continental
Weather
Tokaji: long autumn with morning mists
Grapes
Furmint, Harslevelu, Sarga Muscotaly (muscat blanc a petits grains)
Kefrankos, Kadarka
Grapegrowing Tokaji: harvest by hand with selection btw healthy, aszu and Szamorodni
Winemaking
Tokaji: maceration of aszu berries in dry wine for 36 hours. 2 year ageing.
Key wines
Tokaji: dry, Szamorodni; Aszu, Eszencia
Labelling
Puttonyos 3 to 6 for level of sweetness
Greece
Key wines
Naoussa (Red – Xinomavro)
Nemea (Red – Agiorgitiko)
Santorini (White – Assytirko)
Italy
Climate
Mediterranean – cooler in the North
Weather
Latitude and altitude.
Soils
Volcanic, alluvial and marine.
Key grapes
Black: Nebbiolo, Sangiovese, Corvina, Montepulciano, Primitivo, Nero d’Avola, Aglianico, Barbera
White: Garganega, Cortese, Trebbiano, Pinot Grigio, Friuli, Malvasia, Verdicchio, Chardonnay
Lack of rainfall can be an issue
Hail threat in Piemonte
Grapegrowing Mainly hillside locations. Hi trained pergola less widespread. Yields reduced for improved
ripeness and better quality
Winemaking
Traditional –> long maturation in Slovaninan oak botte.
Now -> use of temperature control fermentation and new oak for reds
Passito wines from dried grapes in lodges
Key wines
Piemonte
Alto Adige –
Trentino
Friuli
Veneto
Tuscany
Marche
Umbria
Lazio
Abruzzo
Campania
Puglia
Basilicata
Sicily
Barolo****
Barbaresco ****
Langhe **
Dolcetto**
Dogliani**
Barbera d’Asti**
Gavi**
Roero**
Alto Adige**
Trentino*
Nebbiolo
Friuli Grave**
Collio***
Valpolicella**
Valpolicella Amarone****
Valpolicella Recioto****
Bardolino*
Soave*
Chianti (Ruffina, Colli Senesi)**
Chianti Classico***
Brunello di Montalcino***
Vino Nobile di Montepulciano****
Morellino di Scansano**
San Carmignano**
Vernaccia di San Gimignano**
Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi/di Matelica**
Orvieto**
Frascati* (W)
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo**
Trebbiano d’Abruzzo*
Taurasi*** (R)
Salice Salentino**
Copertino**
Aglianico del Vulture***
Sicilia IGT
Refosco, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon
Tocai Friulano, Pinot Gris
Corvina, Molinara, Rondinella
Dolcetto
Barbera
Cortese
Arneis
Gewurtzraminer, Riesling
Pinot Grigio
Garganega
Sangiovese
Vernaccia
Verdicchio
Trebbiano, Grechetto, Malvasia
Malvasia, Trebbiano
Montepulciano
Trebbiano
Aglianico
Negroamara, Malvasia Nera
Aglianico
Nero d’Avola, Syrah, Cab Sauviginon, etc.
Spain
Climate
Maritime in NW (Rias Baixas, Duero, Rueda, Rioja)
Hot continental in Centre (La Mancha, Valdepenas)
Warm-Hot Mediterranean (Catalunya, Yecla, Jumilla)
Weather
North and Atlantic coast (including Rioja) affected by varying vintage conditions
Centre+Mediterranean_ little vintage changes
Soils
Mostly limestone/chalk excl. Far NW – granite and southeast (sand). Llicorella in Priorat.
Key grapes
Black: Tempranillo, Monastrell, Garnacha, Cab Sauvignon, Merlot
White: Viura, Verdejo, Albarino, Airen, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc
Grapegrowing Biggest vineyard area in the world.
Stresses of heat and water reduces yields
Low bush trained vines with gobelet system to manage hot arid conditions
Pergola systems in Rias Baixas to protect against humidity
Winemaking
Traditional -> long maturation in American oak barricas (oxidative ageing) for both reds and
whites
Now -> reds with longer maceration + shorter maturation in new French oak
Whites with stainless steel fermentation and unoaked to preserve fruit aromas
Key regions
Upper Ebro
Red RIOJA**to****+
Tempranillo, Graciano, Garnacha, Mazuelo
Crianza – 24mths with 12 mths oak
Reserva – 36mths with 12mths in oak
Gran Reserva – 60mths with 24mths in oak
White RIOJA**to****
Viura, Malvasia, Garnacha Blanca
Crianza – 18mths with 0mths oak
Reserva – 18mths with 6mths oak
Gran Reserva – 48mths with 12mths oak
NAVARRA red *to***
Catalonia
Duero Valley
Northwest
Levante
Castilla-La
Mancha
PRIORAT ****+
CATALUNYA DO**
CAVA**
Rueda**
Ribera del Duero****
(same ageing as Rioja)
Toro**
Rias Baixas**
Mencio***
Yecla
Jumilla
La Mancha White*
Valdepenas*
Garnacha, Tempranillo, Cabernet Sauvignon,
Merlot
Grenache Carinena, Cabernet Sauvignon, others
Tempranillo
Macabeo, Parelleda, Xarel-lo
Verdejo
Tempranillo
Tempranillo
Albarino
Mencio
Monastrell
Monastrell
Airen
Tempranillo
Portugal
Climate
Maritime: near coast
Hot continental: inland
Weather
Rain near coast
Key grapes
Black: Trincadeira, Touriga nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz
White: Alvarinho, Loureiro, Arinto, Traiadura
Grape growing Mixed planting with many local varieties. Predominance of smallholders.
Winemaking
Traditional fermentation with use of wood
Modern stainless steel vats + temp control + new oak
Wine laws
PDO: DOP + DOC
PGI: IGP or VR
Other: Vinho
Reserva: distinct DOC wine with abv+0.5%
Garrafeira: DOC/IGP reds with minimum 30mths ageing with 12mths in bottles min
DOC/IGP rosé/whites with minimum 12mths ageing with 6mths in bottle
Key regions
North
Central
Southern
Portugal
Vinho Verde**
Douro***
Dao**
Bairrada*
IGP Lisboa** [W]
Alentejo DOC** [R]
Loureiro, Arinto, Trajadura, Alvarinho
Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz
Baga, Touriga Nacional, Castelao, Camarate
Arinto, Fernao Pires
Aragones, Trincadeira, Castelao
USA
Climate
California: moderate-warm Mediterranean. Coastal regions cooled by Pacific. Hot and dry in
Central Valley
Oregon
Washington: moderate maritime (west of Cascade mountains)
arid, extreme continental (east fo CM)
New York: cool to moderate martime
Key grapes
Black: Cabernet Sauvignon, Zinfandel, Merlot, Pinot Noir
White: Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Viognier
Grapegrowing Irrigation due to lack of rain
Spring frosts in Napa
Access to all modern techniques
Long hang times for Zinfandel+Cab Sauvignon -> hi sugar ripeness
Winemaking
Modern wineries and methods of production widespread
Big and small businesses
US wine laws
AVA geographical area only with:
95% of fruit from stated vintage
85% of fruit from AVA
75% of fruit if varietal (excl. Oregon 90% and Washington 85%)
Key US regions
California
Oregon
Washington
NY state
Napa Valley / Napa, Rutherford, Oakville****
Napa Valley / Los Carneros***
Sonoma / Russian River Valley***
Sonoma / Dry creek valley***
Sonoma / Alexander valley***
Central Coast / Monterey county***
Central Coast / Santa Barbara***
Central Valley / Lodi***
Central Valley / White Zinfandel*
N+S Oregon***
Washington***
NY State
Finger Lakes AVA
Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot + Fumé blanc (Sblc)
Pinot Noir+Chardonnay
Pinot Noir + Chardonnay
Old Zinfandel
Cabernet Sauvignon
Pinot Noir / Chardonnay
Pinot Noir
Zinfandel
White Zinfandel
Pinot Noir
Chardonnay // Cab Sauvignon, Merlot
Chardonnay, Riesling
Chardonnay ~Chablis
Canada
Ontario(Niagara Peninsul) and British Columbia
Viticulture only due to Niagara escarpment (water nearby+air flows)
Icewine****+ from Riesling and Vidal
Chile
Climate
Warm Mediterranean with cooler/wetter south. Humboldt current cools coast down.
Weather
Little vintage variation
Key grapes
Black: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Carmenere, Syrah, Pinot Noir
White: Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay
Grapegrowing Irrigation necessary in most areas
Phylloxera free country
Plantings developing
Winemaking
Investment for more widespread modern techniques
Key regions
Aconcagua
Casablanca**
San Antonio**
Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir
Sauvignon Blanc
[above Santiago; morning from Andes and Pacific ocean afternoon
winds]
Central valley
[warm flat well
supplied with
water/ V4M]
Aconcagua**
[warmest area in Chile]
Maipo
Rapel / Cachapoal zone [warm; no ocean breezes]
Rapel/ Colchagua zone [larger, more varied]
Carmenere, Syrah
Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot
Carmenere, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah
Cabernet Sauvignon
Argentina
Climate
Continental with cooling effect from altitude + hi diurnal range
Weather
Summer hail: key issue
Key grapes
Black: Malbec, Bonarda, Cabernet Sauvignon
White: Torrontes, Chardonnay
Grapegrowing Hail nets //
Irrigation (drip /flood)
Organic viticulture thanks to dry conditions.
Winemaking
Investment for more widespread modern techniques. Oak barriques for premium wines.
Key regions
Salta province
Mendoza province
[Andes on west; Mampas
plain on the right; altitude
key; irrigation from snowmelt Andes]
Other regions
Cafayate**
[highest in world up 3111m]
Uco Valley
[highest up to 1450m; Tupungato: top quality]
Lujan de Cuyo
[up to 1100m hi; old Malbec vines]
Maipu
[up to 760m hi; cool climate]
San Juan, Neuquen, Rio Negro provinces
Torrontes
[fruity, floral with medium body, acidity]
Torrontes, Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon,
Merlot
Old Malbec
Pinot Noir, Torrontes, Malbec, Merlot +
Sparkling
South Africa
Climate
Warm-hot Mediterranean Very arid inland.
Martime on coast with Benguela current cooling effect
Soils
Stellenbosch – sandstone+limestone
Key grapes
Black: Pinot Noir, Pinotage, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah
White: Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc
Grapegrowing Viruses key issue. Increased plantings of red varieties
Winemaking
Co-operatives important. Investment to modernise since end of apartheid.
Key wines
Western Cape
Coastal
Breede river valley
Others
Multi-regional blends
Stellenbosch* to ****
[cooling effect from False bay + nearby mountains]
Paarl**
Constantia**, Durbanville **
Generic coastal* to ***
Robertson**
Walker bay District***
Elgin
Elim
Cabernet Sauvignon
Shiraz
Sauvignon Blanc
Chenin Blanc, Pinotage
Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay
Chardonnay+Pinot Noir
Sauvignon Blanc
Sauvignon Blanc
Australia
Climate
Warm-Hot Mediterranean Altitude for cooler areas
Maritime in Margaret River (western Australia)
Weather
Little vintage variation // Drought : issue
Soils
Coonawarra – terra rossa . Otherwise varied
Key grapes
Black: Shiraz, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Grenache, Mataro
White: Riesling, Chardonnay, Sémillon, Sauvignon Blanc, Colombard, Verdelho
Grapegrowing Irrigation. Hi yields but quality maintained via hi tech. Most phylloxera free (excl Victoria)
Winemaking
Modern winemaking techniques
Wine laws
Label integrity programme
85% of fruit from region/sub-region; 85% of fruit from varieties and vintage stated
Key wines
Western Australia
Margaret River
South Australia
Eden valley**
Clare valley***
Adelaide Hills***
Barossa Valley*/****
McLaren Vale*/****
Coonawarra***
Riverina*
Hunter valley
Murray-Darling *
Yarra valley
Rutherglen
Limestone coast
New South wales
Victoria
Cabernet Sauvignon (Bdx style)
Chardonnay
Riesling (lime citrus; slightly off dry)
Riesling (lime citrus; dry)
PinotNoir,Chardonnay (citrus+stone)
Shiraz (full bodied, dark ripe fruit)
Shiraz (soft ripe tannins)
Cabernet Sauvignon (mint, eucalyptus)
Shiraz-Cabernet
Semillon+Shiraz
Shiraz-Cabernet
Pinot Noir, Chardonnay
Muscat
New Zealand
Climate
Maritime. North: warmer but more humidity.
South: cooler with more hours of sunshine
Weather
Rain but some protection from central mountain ranges.
Soils
Varied.
Key grapes
Black: Pinot Noir, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah
White: Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, Riesling
Hi diurnal range
Marlborough – stony soils
Grapegrowing Canopy management + trellising of vines experts
Winemaking
Key wines
Modern wineries with use of stainless steel and temperature control
NORTH ISLAND
SOUTH ISLAND
Auckland
[warm/wettest]
Gisborne**
Hawke’s Bay***
Martinborough***
Marlborough**
Canterbury
Nelson
Central Otago***
Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot
Chardonnay
Chardonnay
Gewurtzraminer
Cabernet Sauvignon/Merlot (Bdx styles), Syrah
Pinot Noir
Sauvignon Blanc
Pinot Noir
Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, Riesling
Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay
Pinot Noir
Sparkling wines
4 production methods:
1. Traditional
2. Tank
3. Transfer
4. Asti
1) Traditional method
8 steps:
1) Primary fermentation: cuvée + taille fermented separately, steel VATs, Juice clarified by sedimentation
2) Blending: of hi acidity wine+med alcohol tatrate stabilisation as well
3) Secondary fermentation (bottle): liqueur de tirage (yeasts, fining agents, sugar)+wine @ 11C horizontally => +alcohol+bubbles
4) Maturation in bottle (Yeast autolysis): gives toasty, biscuit aromas
5) Remuage/Riddling: bottle inclined to let sediment slide to below crown cap (remueurs/gyropallettes)
6) Disgorgement: bottle neck frozen, crown cap and yeast depot removed
7) Dosage: addition of liqueur d’expedition (wine+cane sugar for balance & sweetness)
8) Dressing: cork
Rosé champagne: mix of white + red or rosé base wine before second fermentation
Key factors affecting quality:
 Hand harvesting to avoid damage+colour
 No destemming, no crushing and just very gentle pressing. 160kg for 100l of Champagne
 Blending is key so availability is as well
 Length of time spent on the lees
 Sweetness adjusted by dosage
2) Other methods
A. Transfer:
2nd fermentation in bottle but wine then decanted in tank for clarification and re-bottled. New world
2nd fermentation in sealed tank. Less autolytic flavours suitable for aromatic wines (Riesling, Muscat)
B. Tank:
C. Asti:
Only 1 fermentation in sealed tank. After abv @ 6% CO2 trapped in for bubbles. @ 7%abv must chill, filtered and bottled
D. Carbonation CO2 injected in still wine. Cheap
3) Champagne
Climate
Soils
Cool continental
Chalk
Key grapes
Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Pinot Meunier
Grapegrowing Frost annual threat -> Taille Chablis for Chardonnay. Cordon de Royat for Pinots.
Hand harvesting mandatory and necessary
Ageing
Non-vintage: 15 mths
Vintage: 36mths
Styles
NV / Vintage / Cuvée Prestige
Blanc de Blanc: 100% Chardonnay
Blanc de Noirs: Pinot Noir+Meunier
Rosé
4) Other Sparkling wines
Climate
Cool climate most suitable
Key grapes
Loire: Chenin Blanc
Cava: Xarel-lo, Parellada, Macabeo
Prosecco: Glera
Asti: Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains
Crémant de Limoux: Mauzac
New World: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Shiraz
Ageing
Cava, Crémant: 9 mths
Asti: no ageing
(Saumur/Touraine)
(Penedes in Catalunya)
(Veneto)
(Piemonte)
(Southwest)
(Aus: Yarra Valley, Tasmania, Adelaide
Calif: Los Carneros, Anderson Valley
NZ: Gisborne, Hawke’s Bay, Marlborough
SA: Cap Classique tradi method)
Fortified wines
Sherry
Port
Douro valley + Villa Nova de Gaia
Douro – hot continental
Villa – warm maritime
schist
Touriga Franca (colour, structure, perfume), Touriga Nacional
(body) Tinta Roriz (for finesse)
Madeira
Portuguese island
Hot, humid, subtropical
Widely spaced vines, use of pits to enhance water retention, hand
harvest
After fermentation
Fino from 11% to 15% // Oloroso from 11% to 17%
Steep terraced vineyards (patamares), hand harvesting
Beneficio system for yields
During fermentation
Autovinification for quick colour+tannin extraction
Fortification when wine with 77% abv grape spirit in VATs
Steep terraced slopes
Maturation
Ageing in 600l butts. Solera system for fractional blending
Fino+Manzanilla: Biological maturation (butts part filled for flor to
develop) for 3-4 years
Amontillado+Oloroso +Palo Cortado: oxidative ageing (no flor but
young wines regularly) for up to 30 years
Amontillado = fino fortified to 17% and put in Amontillado solera system
Maturation in Vila Nova de Gaia in traditional wood cask (only
seasoned oak or vats)
Few months to 40 years
Key styles
1) DRY
Fino**: lemon colour almonds, tangy, drink young, 15%abv
Manzanilla**: same as Fino but from Sanlucar de Barrameda
Amontillado***: amber yeast+oxidative aromas
Oloroso:
Palo Cortado****: failed fino aged in oloroso solera system
2) NATURALLY SWEET
PX/Muscat***
3) BLENDED SHERRIES
Pale cream**: Fino+RCGM
Medium**: Amontallido+PX or Muscat
Cream**: Oloroso+PX/Muscat
Also for sweetened Amontallido or Oloroso
VOS/VORS: avg age 30years. Vintage sherries.
1) RUBY
Ruby port*: 2-3 years, full body, deep colour, sweet & fruity, no
decanting
Reserve Ruby Port**:up to 5 years, richer fruit, no decanting
LBV Port***: 4-6 years, richer more complex, must state vintage,
bottle matured need decanting.
2) TAWNY
Tawny Port**: 2-3years paler and browner, Baixo Corgo region,
potentially aged in hot Doura
Reserve Tawny Port**: at least 7 years in wood, very complex
Age Indicated Tawny***: 10,20,30,40 avg age, complex and
concentrated, no decanting
Colheita****: local Port, min 8 years in wood, single vintage
3) Vintage port/Single Quinta
4) White ports: Golden colour, low acidity, honey +nuts, off dry, 23 years old with some wood ageing
Hot maturation in:
Canteiros: first heated by the
sun in cask and then aged for
min 3 years
Estufas: min 3mths in Estufa
containers at 45-50C. Ageing
for 2 years minimum
Finest**: 3 years (Tinta Negra
only)
Reserve**: 5 years old
Special Reserve***: 10 years
old
Extra reserve****: 15 years
old
Vintage****+
Main regions
Climate
Jerez – South-west of Spain
Hot Mediterranean
Soil
Key grapes
Albariza(chalk)
Palomino,
Pedro Ximenez, Moscatel
Grapegrowing
Fortification
Sercial, Verdelho, Bual, Tinta
Negra, Malmsey
During fermentation
Addition of grape spirit 96%
abv max 5 days after
fermentation started
VDN
Various
Muscat Blanc a
Petits Grains,
Grenache
During
fermentation by
addition of 95%
abv grape spirit
Rutherglen –
Muscat
Muscat
Beaumes de
Venise - Muscat
Banyuls Grenache
Spirits
Base material
any agricultural crop that contains fermentable sugar
Fermentation
length of ferment and yeast used can have an impact on style of spirit
Distillation
separation of different elements of an alcoholic liquid by taking advanting of the
different boiling points (water 100C, alcohol 78.3C) in order to concentrate the
alcohol and certain flavours
Grapes -> wine (low abv wine) -> distillation -> maturation
2 distillations in pot still
Grape brandy only from Cognac area
Key areas: Grande champagne, Petite champagne, Borderies, Fins bois, bois ordinaires
Key grapes: Ugni Blanc, Colombard, Folle Blanche
Distillation: use of tetes and seconds, lees.
Maturation: French oak. New then old. Min 2 years
Styles:
*** or VS – 2years age of youngest spirit
VSOP – 4 years
Xo/Hors d’Age/Napoleon – 6 years
Fine champagne: minimum 50% Grande Champagne + Petite ch.
Brandy
Cognac
Armagnac
1 distillation only in Armagnac or double in Cognac style pot still
Grapes: Ugni Blanc, Baco 22A
Maturation: mainly French oak . New then old
Styles:
*** or VS
1-3 y. old
VSOP
4-9 y.old
Napoleon
6-9 y.old
Hors d’Age/XO
10-19 y.old
Age indicated
must state on label
Vintage
Min 10 y.old
Brandy de Jerez
Airen based brandy aged in Solera.
Grapes grown and distilled in La Mancha. Matured in Jerez
Pommace/Brandy
Marc – France Grappa in Italy
Whisky
Made from mix of cereal grains that must include barley in 6 steps:
1. Insoluble starch made into soluble starch (germination or intense heat)
2. Starch dissolved in hot waterand converted to sugar by enzymes in barley
3. Fermentation
4. Distillation
5. Maturation
6. Blending and finishing
Scotch whisky
Distilled in Scotland and matured for a min 3 years
Key influences on style:
a. Size and type of pot still
b. Use of peat during kilning process
c. Length of maturation + type of wood (ex-Bourbon/European oak/Sherry oak)
Scotch Whisky Types:
Malt Whisky: only from malted barley + distilled in still pots
Grain whisky: malted barley & others + continuous still + never peated + American oak
Single whisky: blends from 1 distillery only. Single Malt or Single Grain
Blended whisky: blends from several distilleries. Blended Malt or Blended Grain or
Blended
Regions: lowlands, highlands, Islay, speyside
Irish Whiskey
Distilled and matured in Ireland
Key influences: umalted barley, triple distillation, size and type of still
Bourbon
Can be made anywhere in the USA.
Min 51% of grains used must be corn (maize), max strength of distillate 80%abv
Matured in new, charred oak casks for vanilla, coconut and spice flavours+colour in
non-air conditioned warehouses for accelerated ageing+quick colour extraction
Tennesse Whisky
Same as Bourbon excl. Lincoln County Process (passing through maple wood
charcoal before maturation)
Rum
Mainly Caribbean
Method: molasses or cane sugar juice -> fermentation -> distillation (still/continuous) ->
maturation (oak)
Key influences: molasses vs. cane sugar juice; short or long fermentation; type and size of still
used; unaged or aged; blending; use of caramel
Styles: White
Column for light intensity
Pot for aromatic
Golden
Pot/column. Caramel use
Dark rum
blends of rums from different distilleries unless premium addition
of caramel
Tequila is a type of Mezcal only produced in certain area of Mexico
51% of fermentable sugars from blue agave distillate.
Method:
Agave pina cooked to convert starch to sugar -> pina crushed to liberate juice ->
fermentation -> distillation -> maturation
Key style influencers: roasted/steamed pina, lo rectification of distillate, maturation
Style: Blanco
Unaged
Joven/Oro
unaged+caramel+additives to soften flavour
Reposado
aged min 2 mths max 12mths in wood
Anejo
aged in oak for 1 year
Muy anejo
aged in oak for 3 years min
Tequila and Mezcal
Gin
Method:
Highly rectified neutral spirit -> redistilled in pot still with botanicals (basket, maceration,
added flavour –> no maturation
Key influences: 1) quality of base spirit 2) method of adding flavours, mix of botanicals
Styles: London Gin (Juniper must dominate), Distilled gin (London Gin+flavours added after
distillation), Cold compounded (essential oils/artificial flavourings)
Vodka
Base: grain, molasses, potato
Distillation in continuous still to 96%abv (EU) or 95% abv (US)
Post-distillation: filtration, glycerol added for mouthfeel, falvour, unaged
Standard, Premium, Super premium no legal weight
Liqueurs
blend of distilled alcohol with flavours, sugar, water, colourings
Flavouring via maceration, infusion, percolation, distillation, steam distillation, artificial
flavours added
Blending, sweetening and colouring after flavouring