Motivation in Organizations
Chapter 7: 205-222
Organizational Behavior 261
Gabrielle Durepos
Outline

Towards an understanding of motivation

Intrinsic versus Extrinsic motivation

Early theories of motivation



Hedonism

Taylor’s Scientific Management and Motivation

Mayo and the Hawthorn Studies
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
Conclusions
Towards an Understanding of Motivation


Work motivation is understood as:

An individual’s desire to direct and sustain energy in performing a task

Most described as an internal desire “to move”
Individual motivation is related to an individual’s characteristics


There are many theories of motivation


i.e. self-efficacy, locus of control, ability
There is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ theory of motivation
OB theories of motivation draw on psychology literature

Psychological literature defines motivation as:

An internal process that acts in governing / guiding choices and maintaining
behavior or voluntary activity over time
Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation

Refers to an influence to the motivation level from external sources

Traditionally viewed as negative


“oh… you are only doing that so you can get something out of it…”

Limited effectiveness, short term duration

Has been shown to negatively affect intrinsic motivation

Examples – praise, salary, status, bonus
Intrinsic Motivation

Refers to an influence to the motivation level from internal sources

Traditionally viewed as positive


“I am doing this cause I want to do it…”
Examples – excitement about a work challenge, pride in making a
difference, personal development & growth that comes from learning a
new task
Early Theories of Motivation: Hedonism

Refers to the belief that we actively seek out pleasure and try to avoid pain

Hedonism assumes that humans have “choice”

Assumes humans are rational in their thought process

Became known as the “carrot” and “stick” approach


http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=motivation+and+leadership&emb=0&aq=f#q=mo
tivation%20and%20rewards%20in%20organisation&emb=0
Most theories of motivation are based on the concept of hedonism
Early Theories of Motivation:
Taylor’s Scientific Management and Motivation

Taylor is concerned with inefficiency at work due to:

Attitude of workers, methods of work & system of management control
 One way he redressed this was by introducing a system of motivation

Taylor assumes the worker as:

Lazy

Concerned only with financial rewards



Having a drive to work hard ONLY if rewarded financially, i.e. a piece
rate system
This theory is based on extrinsic motivation
Later studies (human relations school) show that money is not the
sole motivator at work
Early Theories of Motivation:
Mayo & the Hawthorn Studies

Mayo & The Human Relations School:





Believed that money is NOT the sole motivator for hard work
Humans are motivated by the social relationships they have with
other humans at work
Work is a key place where humans socialize
The study of human relationships at work is still prominent
today
This theory is based on extrinsic motivation
Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Contemporary theories of motivation are more sophisticated


They account for many factors in the study of motivation & complexity of
human behavior
Have been classified as:

Content Theories (Needs Theories)





All people strive to fulfill certain needs
Look at the “content” of those needs – what are the needs that people are
seeking to fulfill?
Are they safety needs, self esteem needs, self actualization needs?
Looks at the “what”
Process Theories




Refer to the actual process by which individuals are motivated
What mental processes do people use to inform what they will do? How are
people motivated at work?
Do they compare themselves with others to gauge their work efforts? Do they feel
that the effort they “put in” will mirror what they “get out”?
Looks at the “how”
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs






All humans have needs which they are
motivated to fulfill
Focus on psychological wellness
Human needs exist in a hierarchically
structured form
Lower level needs must be met before higher
level needs can be met
Those at the top (growth needs) are
intrinsically motivated. Those at the bottom
(basic needs) are extrinsically motivated
As lower level needs are satisfied, they no
longer primarily drive behavior & higher needs
become motivating
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:
Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Seen as too rigid

Individual needs not always clustered around these categories

Satisfying one level of needs does not always lead to the next level
of motivation described


Little empirical research supporting the theory


Some individuals may satisfy their needs in a different order
Difficult to test empirically
Doesn’t explain how to motivate people

Specifically in low paying jobs beyond the lower level needs
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:
Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory

This is a “needs theory” based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Alderfer outlines three areas of needs



Existence (akin to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs)

Relatedness (akin to Maslow’s social needs)

Growth (akin to Maslow’s self-esteem and self-actualization needs)
The three levels of needs are:

Not mutually exclusive

Always present
Progression from one level to the next:



Individuals move freely between various types of needs; so existence needs to not have to
be met prior to relatedness needs
More suited to explain complexity of human life than a linear model
Criticism

Research has not validated Alderfer’s ERG theory
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y


Borrows heavily from Maslow in its emphasis on understanding
human needs
McGregor believes that there are two theories of employeemanagement:


Theory X – Managers view employees as:

Lazy, only work hard if monitored closely

Akin to Maslow’s lower level needs

Extrinsically motivated
Theory Y – Managers view employees as:

Wanting to work hard, can be autonomous, valued strategic resources

Akin to Maslow’s upper level needs

Intrinsically motivated

Theory Y is sometimes difficult to support

Due to difficult financial times
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory

Theory of needs that divides needs into two distinct categories:

Motivators




Hygiene





Have an effect on level of motivation
Are intrinsic to the individual
Examples: the challenge of work provided, the importance of one’s
contributions, achievement of personal growth
Do not have an effect on level of motivation
If not present, these have an effect on work dissatisfaction
Are extrinsic to the individual
Examples: work environment, characteristics of the supervisor, salary
Research on this theory has mixed results

Some researchers support it
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories:
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory



Develops a “needs theory” where needs are

Learned from society – people develop needs through socialization

Needs can be taught

Are not inherent – people are not born with certain needs
McClelland notes that there are three areas of needs 

Need for Power

Need for Achievement

Need for Affiliation
Research has shown that:



“need for achievement” can be a good predictor of job performance when coupled
with a supportive work environment
Managers with a high need for power and high discipline make the best motivators
Criticism - can a “need for achievement” be learned!?
Conclusions

Work motivation is understood as:


The individual’s desire to direct and sustain energy towards performing
a task
Most describe an internal desire “to move”

Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic

There are many theories of motivation


There is not one best theory of motivation

Some theories are better suited for certain situations
Human behavior is very complex

Can not assume that applying one theory of motivation will enable us
to fully understand the process of motivation