Memory, Thinking, and Language
• Cognitive Level of Analysis (IB)
• The products of our biological machinery
can be seen in our cognitive system,
which includes our cognitions, emotions,
and behaviors
• General Learning Outcomes (IB)
• Outline principles that define the
cognitive level of analysis
• Examples: mental representations guide
behavior, mental processes can be
scientifically investigated
• Explain how principles that define the
cognitive level of analysis may be
demonstrated in research
• Cognitive Processes (IB)
• Evaluate schema theory with reference to
research studies
• Evaluate models or theories of cognitive
processes (perception can be included in this as
well)
• Explain how biological factors can affect
cognitive processes
• Discuss how social or cultural factors affect
cognitive processes
• Cognition and Emotion (IB)
• To what extent do cognitive and biological
factors interact in emotion
• Evaluate different theories of how emotion can
affect cognitive processes
• Memory- A system that encodes,
stores and retrieves information.
• The storage and retrieval of what has
been learned or experienced.
•While we are learning
more about memory
every day, those in the
field of psychology are
still unsure exactly
what parts of the brain
are involved and
where it is all stored.
• Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
• According to the information-processing
model, the human brain takes essentially
meaningless information and turns it into
meaningful patterns.
• It does this through three steps:
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
• Encoding
• Encoding- the modification of
information to fit the preferred format for
the memory system.
– In most cases, encoding is automatic and
happens without our awareness. Other
encoding, however, like these notes, require
extra encoding effort called elaboration to
make the memory useful.
– Elaboration involves connecting a new
concept with existing information.
 When we are exposed to stimuli and encode
information, we do it in three ways:
1. Semantic Encoding
•encoding of meaning
•including meaning of words
2. Acoustic Encoding
•encoding of sound
•especially sound of words
3. Visual Encoding
•encoding of picture images
Processing a word by its meaning
(semantic encoding) produces better
recognition of it lat a later time.
• Storage
• Storage- the retention of encoding material
over time.
– In terms of storing material, we have three
stages of memory
–Sensory Memory
–Working Memory (short-term memory)
–Long-term Memory
• Synaptic Changes and Storage
• One physical change in the brain during
memory storage is in the synapses.
• Memories begin as impulses whizzing through
the brain circuits, leaving a semi-permanent
trace.
• The more a memory is utilized, the more
potential strength that neuron has, called longterm potentiation.
• Long-term potentiation- A biological process,
involving physical changes that strengthen the
synapses in groups of nerve cells, which is
believed to be the neural basis for learning and
remembering associations
• Strengthening LTP
• Research suggests that the best way to
remember things is to study them and then
sleep!
• Once LTP has occurred, even passing an
electrical current through the brain will not
erase well stored memories.
– More recent memories will be wiped out
• People who have a concussion and cannot
remember what happened just before or
after the injury have not had a chance to
“consolidate” their memories to the longterm
• Retrieval
• Retrieval- The locating and recovering of
information from memory.
• It takes only a split second to access a properly
encoded memory.
• As marvelous as the human memory system is,
it sometimes makes errors, distorts information
or fails us completely.
• Eidetic Imagery (photographic memory)
• Eidetic imagery is an especially clear and
persistent form of memory that is quite rare.
• Eidetic imagery can recall a memory in minute
detail and portray the most interesting and
meaningful parts accurately.
• These images can last as short as a brief
moment, or as long as days.
• Eidetic imagery tends to be more common in
children, and seems to decline as a person’s
language abilities increase.
• Eidetikers report that their vivid imagery can
clutter their minds and interfere with other
thoughts.
• Three Stages of Memory
• We encode information and store it in one of
three types of memory, depending on what we
need the information for.
• Our memory works like an assembly line, and
before information can make it to our long-term
memory, it must first pass through sensory
memory and working memory.
Sensory input
Attention to important
or novel information
Encoding
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-term
memory
Encoding
Long-term
memory
Retrieving
• Sensory Memory
• Sensory memory is the shortest of the three
stages of memory and generally holds sights,
sounds, smells, textures and other sensory
information for a fraction of a second.
• It’s the job of sensory memory to hold the
barrage of incoming sensation long enough for
your brain to scan it and decide which stream of
information needs attention.
• George Sperling suggested that sensory
memory holds a large amount of information,
far more than ever reaches consciousness.
• Sensory memories last just long enough to
dissolve into the next one, giving us the
impression of a constant flow.
K
Z
R
Q
B
T
S
G
N
• Sperling’s Test
• George Sperling flashed a
group of letters for 1/20 of a
second. People could recall
only about half of the letters
• When he signaled to recall a
particular row immediately
after the letters disappeared
with a specific tone, they
could do so with near-perfect
accuracy.
• Thus, Sperling found that the
storage capacity of sensory
memory can be 12 or more
items even though only 3 or 4
actually enter consciousness.
• Not all sensory memory consists of images,
each sensory receptor has its own sensory
register.
• Also, sensory images have no meaning
associated with them, that is the job of the next
stage, working memory.
• Working Memory
• Often referred to as short-term memory. It is
the place where we sort and encode
information before transferring it to long-term
memory, or forgetting it.
• Generally, it holds information for about 20
seconds, far longer than sensory memory.
• Most research suggest that we can hold seven
pieces of information in our working memory,
though it varies slightly.
• Finding your Short-term memory capacity.
• You will be presented with letters that will
appear on the screen for about 3 seconds.
Write down as many as you can remember after
they disappear.
• Z:\Short-Term Memory Test AP.ppt
• Z:\Mr. Short-Term Memory on Yahoo! Video.flv
• Z:\My Videos\Finding Nemo - Short Term
Memory Loss.mp4
•
•
•
•
•
•
UM
TZLD
KXCEJO
AVCYISEH
LBFQRPMAUX
ZQECTBUMONRV
• As we have seen working memory is
subject to two limitations: limited
capacity and short duration.
• We do have coping mechanisms,
however:
• Chunking
• Rehearsal
• Chunking
• A chunk is any memory pattern or
meaningful unit of memory.
• By creating these chunks, a process called
chunking, we can fit more information
into the seven available slots of working
memory.
– Example: 5036574100 vs. 503-6574100
– What are some other examples of
chunking??
• Rehearsal
• Another memory technique is called
maintenance rehearsal. This is a process where
information is repeated to keep it from fading
while in working memory.
– This process does not involve active
elaboration. (assigning meaning to the
information)
• Levels of Processing
• In working memory,
information can be
elaborated on
(elaborative rehearsal)
or connected with long
term memories.
• Levels-of-Processing
theory says that
information that is
more thoroughly
connected to
meaningful items in
long term memory is
easier to remember.
Washington D.C.
• Long-Term Memory
• As far as anyone knows, there is no limit to the
duration or capacity of long term memory.
• Long term memory is essentially all of the
knowledge of yourself and the world around
you. Unless an injury or illness occurs, this
memory is limitless.
Structure and Function of LTM
Long Term Memory
Declarative Memory
(Explicitly Memory)
Procedural Memory
(Implicit Memory)
(knowing what)
(knowing how)
Semantic Memory:
-language
-Facts
-General Knowledge
Episodic Memory
-Events
-Personal Experiences
Includes:
-Motor skills
-Operant Conditioning
-Classical Conditioning
• Procedural Memory (implicit)- the part of long
term memory where we store memories of how
things are done.
• “how to” skills such as riding a bike, tying
shoes, playing a musical instrument.
• Declarative Memory (explicit)- the part of long
term memory where we store specific
information such as facts and events.
• Requires more conscious mental effort than
Procedural Memory
• Example: Driving directions to a specific
location.
• Evidence of Declarative Memory can be seen
when people roll their eyes or make facial
gestures while searching for specific memories.
• Declarative memory has two divisions:
– Episodic Memory- This is the portion of
memory that stores personal events or
“episodes.”
• Storage of things like time and place.
• (recent vacation, car accident, ending
relationship)
– Semantic Memory- This portion of
memory stores general knowledge,
facts and language meaning.
• This is specifically where all the
information you “know” is stored.
• Like an encyclopedia or database.
• Two parts of the brain that
are involved in memory are
the hippocampus and the
amygdala.
• Most long-term memories
make an immediate stop in
the hippocampus on their
way to their final destination
in long-term storage.
• In a process called
consolidation, information in
the working memory is
gradually changed over to
long term memories.
• The amygdala seems to play
a role in strengthening
memories that have strong
emotional connections.
• Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia
• Anterograde Amnesia- The inability to form
memories from new material.
• The inability to transfer new concepts and
experiences from short-term storage to longterm memory.
• The Tragic Case of H.M.
• Removal of his hippocampus and amygdala in
order to stop seizures
• He has never been able to recognize the people
who have taken care of him for the past 50
years.
• The 9/11 attacks, the moon landings, the
computer revolution have left no trace in his
mind
• He is always shocked to see an aging face in the
mirror
• H.M. is a man caught in the present moment,
which fades away without being captured by
memory
• Clive Wearing
•
Z:\My Videos\Man without a memory - Clive Wearing [BBC - Time_
Daytime].mp4
• Retrograde Amnesia- The inability to remember
information previously stored in memory.
• As memories form, neurotransmitters
collect at the synapses, (before absolute
threshold is crossed). These are called
memory traces.
• A sharp blow to the head, or electric shock
can prevent these traces from
consolidating, making it hard to recall that
information.
• Flashbulb Memories
• Out of all of our memories, a few are
exceptionally clear and vivid. We call
these flashbulb memories.
– These tend to be memories of highly
emotional events. Typically people
remember exactly where they were
when the event happened, what they
were doing and the emotions they
felt.
–JFK’s Assassination
–9/11
• Can you think of any other examples
from your own life?
• Retrieval
• When dealing with long term memory retrieval, there
are two types of memory:
• Implicit memory- How to skills; muscle memory—
throwing a ball
• Explicit memory- Facts and events
• General rule: a memory is implicit if it can affect
behavior or mental processes without becoming fully
conscious. Explicit memories always involve
consciousness.
• But what about studying??? What are the best
methods??? What will help us store and more easily
retrieve information from our classes???
•
•
•
•
•
Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 1 of 5_ _Beliefs That Make You Fail... Or
Succeed_.mp4
Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 2 of 5_ _What Students Should Know About How
People Learn_.mp4
Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 3 of 5_ _Cognitive Principles for Optimizing
Learning_.mp4
Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 4 of 5_ _Putting Principles for Learning into
Practice_.mp4
Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 5 of 5_ _I Blew the Exam_ Now What__.mp4
• Retrieval Cues
• Retrieval cues are the search terms we use to
activate memory—think of a Google search. The
more specific you are, the better the results will
be.
– Some memories are easily remembered,
while others are much harder to bring up. For
example, if you draw a blank on a test, it may
be a result of the wording on the test not
being the same as the wording you used
while studying.
• Recall and Recognition
• Memories can be cued in two ways:
– Recall- a retrieval method in which one must
reproduce previously presented material.
– Ex. Essay test; police sketch of a suspect
– Recognition- a retrieval method in which one must
identify information that is provided, which has
previously been presented.
– Ex. Multiple choice test; police line-up
• I will show you an old school photo of a
celebrity and ask you to identify who it is with
no hints.
– This is testing your recall – I am asking you to recall
all of the celebrities you’ve ever seen that could
possibly fit your impression of the picture. You’ll find
that this is probably pretty tough.
• Next, I will offer you a list of possible
celebrities to choose from that might belong to
that photo (like a multiple choice test).
– This is testing your recognition – by asking you to
choose the answer from a list of possibilities, you will
probably find that when you have the opportunity to
recognize the individual in question, it is easier to
come up with a match.
• Ready? 
Recall
• Who is
this?
Recognition
•
•
•
•
A. Brad Pitt
B. Gordon Ramsay
C. Ryan Seacrest
D. Mike “The Situation”
Sorentino
Recall
• Who is this sweet-looking girl?
Recognition
•
•
•
•
A. Madonna
B. Katy Perry
C. Jenna Elfman
D. Jennifer Aniston
Recall
• Who is
this fine
young
man?
Recognition
•
•
•
•
A. Eminem
B. David Schwimmer
C. Johnny Knoxville
D. Taylor Lautner
Recall
• Who is this
gorgeous gal?
Recognition
•
•
•
•
A. Jennifer Lopez
B. Eva Longoria
C. Fergie
D. Nicole "Snooki" Polizzi
Recall
• Who is this
lovely lady?
Recognition
•
•
•
•
A. Lisa Rinna
B. Julia Roberts
C. Kim Kardashian
D. Megan Fox
So which do you think is
easier? Recall or
Recognition?
Why?
• Other Factors Affecting Retrieval
• Encoding specificity principal- the more closely the
retrieval clues match the way the information was
encoded, the better the information will be
remembered.
• Taking an exam in the classroom where you
learned the information vs. in the Gym or Manor
• Mood-congruent memory- a theory which says we tend
to selectively remember memories that match (are
congruent with) our current mood.
• Has an affect on how people are treated for medical
conditions.
• Doctors assess what to do with you based on your
complaints and how much you complain
• Depressed people often receive different treatment
than those who are upbeat when both suffer from the
same problem.
•
•
•
•
•
Selective Attention
“tune in” and “tune out”
Cocktail Party Syndrome
we evaluate the importance of information
There is a limit to what our brain can process at
any given time
• It needs to be selective in what it chooses to
focus on
• Z:\The Awareness Test.mp4
• Memory Construction
• We often construct our memories as we encode
them, and we may also alter our memories as
we withdraw them
– We infer our past from stored information
and what we assume
• By filtering information and filling in missing
pieces, our schemas (understanding of specific
settings) direct our memory construction
• Misinformation
• As memory fades with time following an event,
the injection of misinformation becomes easier.
• Misinformation Effect- the distortion of memory
by suggestion or misinformation
•
Z:\Eye_Witness_Mem.wmv.mp4
Misinformation Effect
Depiction of actual accident
 Eyewitnesses
reconstruct
memories when
questioned
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction
• Schema Theory
• A cognitive schema is a mental representation
of knowledge stored in the brain
• It’s a network of knowledge, beliefs, and
expectations about particular aspects of the
world
• (Blueprints or plans for knowing)
• Z:\Schema Theory Example.mp4
• Schema processing is mostly automatic
– Includes Bottom-up processing (input from
the sensory system)
– Also includes Top-down processing
(information from stored in memory, used to
interpret incoming information)
• Bartlett (1932)
• Conducted one of the most famous memory
studies, “War of the Ghosts”
• He asked participants (British) to hear a story
and reproduce it after a short time, and then
repeatedly over a period of months or years
• The story was an unfamiliar legend, “The War
of the Ghosts”
• Participants remembered the main idea of the
story, but changed unfamiliar elements to make
sense of the story by using terms more familiar
to their own cultural expectations
• Bartlett concluded that memories are
“reconstructions” and not copies of the actual
experience
• Bartlett’s study is criticized by some because it
was performed in a laboratory and thus, lacks
ecological validity
• In addition, participants did not receive
standardized instructions
• Di Maggio (1997)
• Suggests that schemas are:
• 1. Representations of knowledge (stereotypes,
social roles)
• 2. Mechanisms that simplify cognition
(cognitive shortcuts)
• He argued that schematic cognition is shaped
and biased by culture (culturally based
stereotypes)
• DiMaggio believed that gender schemas are
examples of cognitive schemas shaped by
sociocultural ideas about what is appropriate
for men and women (norms)
Society’s beliefs
about the traits of
males and
females
Gender
Schema
Influences
processing of social
information
Influences self-esteem
(Only behavior or
attitudes consistent
with the gender
schema are acceptable
• Possible Ways in Which Schemas Affect Memory
• 1. People tend to remember the meaning (gist)
of something, not the actual wording
• 2. people use stored knowledge to make sense
of incoming information
– If information is incomplete or unclear, they fill in
the gaps using their schemas
– This is reconstructive memory and it often results in
distortion
• 3. People tend to ignore information that is not
in line with their schemas
– This often leads to a bias in information processing
(stereotyping)
• 4. People tend to focus on information that is in
line with their schemas (confirmation bias)
• Repressed Memories
• During the 1990s, the idea of repressing
painful memories became a big topic.
– While some psychoanalysts still support the
idea of repressed memories, most
psychologists agree that events that are
traumatic are typically etched on the mind as
vivid, persistent, haunting memories.
– Z:\My Videos\Child abuse_ false memories
part one (of two).mp4
– Z:\My Videos\Child abuse_ false memories
part two (of two).mp4
• Improving Memory
• Key is making it more meaningful.
How???
• Repetition (Maintenance Rehearsal)
not as effective
• Mnemonics- techniques for
improving memory, especially by
making connections between new
material and information already in
long-term memory
• Acronym- word composed of the first letters of
a series of words
• KISS- Keep It Simple Stupid
• Acrostic- verse or saying where the first or last
letter of each word stands for something else
• EGBDF- Every Good Boy Does Fine (music
notes)
• Popular sayings and rhymes
• “Fall back” and “Spring forward”
• Z:\The House Bunny (Remember people's
names).mp4
• Method of Loci- mnemonic technique that
involves associating items on a list with a
sequence of familiar physical locations
• Example: remembering a grocery list…
• Can of tuna on your bed, shampoo spilled on
your desk, box of eggs open on your chair
• Other ways to improve memory:
• Pay attention
• Practice, practice, practice
• External memory aids (notes, to do lists,
placing objects in specific places)
• Mentally rehearse what you intend to do
• Appropriate study environment
• Control stress
• Healthy diet and exercise
• Forgetting
• As you know, not all the information you
learn will stick in your brain. According to
Daniel Schacter, this is the result of one
of the “seven sins of memory:”
–Transience
–Absent-mindedness
–Blocking
–Misattribution
–Suggestibility
–Bias
–Persistence
• 1. Transience- the impermanence of long-term
memories- based on the idea that memories
gradually fade in strength over time-also
known as “decay theory.”
• Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
For most memories, there is a sharp decline in
memory, followed by declining rate of loss
• 2. Absent-mindedness- forgetting
caused by lapses in attention.
• Ex. Forgetting where you parked;
losing your keys
• 3. Blocking- when a memory cannot be
retrieved because of interference.
– Proactive Interference- When an old memory
disrupts the learning and remembering of a
new memory.
–Ex. Trying to put the dishes away at a
new house
–Ex. Calling new girlfriend by an exgirlfriend’s name
– Retroactive Memory- When a new memory
blocks the retrieval of an old memory.
–Ex. Driving an automatic after driving a
manual
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Milk
Cheese
Butter
Eggs
Flour
Apples
Grapes
Shampoo
Beef
Salmon
Turkey
Cereal
Cookies
Mustard
Beans
Jam
bread
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Milk
Cheese
Butter
Eggs
Flour
Apples
Grapes
Shampoo
Beef
Salmon
Turkey
Cereal
Cookies
Mustard
Beans
Jam
bread
• The serial position effect is a form of
interference related to the sequence in
which material is presented.
• Generally items in the middle are
remembered less.
– Primacy- relative ease of remembering
the first information in a series.
– Recency- Strong memories of the most
recent information in a series
–Info in the middle is exposed to
both retroactive and proactive
interference
• 4. Misattribution- Memory faults that occur
when memories are retrieved, but are
associated with the wrong time, place or
person.
• Example: Psychologist Donald Thompson was
accused of rape. His alibi was airtight as he
was giving a TV interview that the victim had
been watching just prior to the assault.
• Misattribution can cause people to mistakenly
believe that other people’s ideas are their own.
• This occurs when a person hears an idea and
keeps it in memory, while forgetting its source.
• Sometimes, people even remember things that
they did not experience at all.
• 5. Suggestibility- The process of
memory distortion as the result of
deliberate or inadvertent
suggestion.
»Eyewitness accounts are a
large part of our legal
system. Unfortunately they
can be incredibly faulty.
»With the misinformation
effect, memories can be
embellished or even
created by cues and
suggestions.
• 6. Bias- The influence of personal beliefs,
attitudes and experiences on memory.
– Expectancy Bias- A memory tendency
to distort recalled events to fit one’s
expectations.
– Self-consistency Bias- A commonly
held idea that we are more consistent
in our attitudes and beliefs, over time,
than we actually are.
• 7. Persistence- A memory problem where
unwanted memories cannot be put out of our
mind.
• Depressed people cannot stop thinking
about how bad their life is and how
unhappy they are. It can create a selffulfilling problem.
– Psychologists think that emotions strengthen
the physical changes in the synapses that
hold our memories, thus highly emotional
memories can be harder to put out of mind.
• Forgetting Isn’t All That Bad
• According to Schacter, the “seven sins” are
actually a normal part of human memory, and
are the results of adaptive features in our
memories.
• According to Schacter, each of the “sins” is for a
reason:
• Transience- to prevent memory overload
• Blocking- to focus on task at hand
• Absent-mindedness- ability to shift attention
• Misattribution/bias/suggestibility- to focus on
meaning and not detail
• Persistence- to remember especially emotional
memories
• Problem Solving
• When we are faced with a problem, we
have a few options for figuring out a
solution.
 Algorithms- Problem-solving procedures or
formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if
correctly applied.
 They are designed to solve particular kinds of
problems for which you have all the necessary
information.
 Algorithms can be used to balance checkbooks,
figure gas mileage, and calculate grade point
averages.
 Algorithms cannot solve problems that involve
subjective values or have too many unknowns.
 Examples:
 Will you be happier with a red car or a white
car?
 Which is the best airline to take to Denver?
 Heuristics- Cognitive strategies or “rules
of thumb” used as shortcuts to solve
complex mental tasks. Unlike algorithms,
heuristics do not guarantee a correct
solution.
 Examples:
 When a computer isn’t working, there are
several things that you can check before
trying to get help (troubleshooting)
 It’s the same with other technical
problems.
 “Don’t keep bananas in the refrigerator.”
 “If it’s not working, see if it’s plugged in.”
 We create many heuristics as we go through life
 Three Useful Heuristic Strategies
 1. Working Backward
 With a maze in a book, you start from the end
and work backwards.
 This strategy can eliminate many of the false
starts and dead ends that we would otherwise
stumble on through trial and error.
 Very helpful for problems in which the goal or
end-state is clearly specified
 2. Searching for Analogies
 If a new problem is similar to a previous
one that you have faced, then you may be
able to employ a strategy that you
learned previously.
 Example:
 If you are an experienced cold weather
driver, you would use this strategy when
trying to decide if you should put snow
chains on your tires.
 “Are the roads like they were the last
time I put chains on?”
 The trick is to recognize the similarity between
the new problem and the old one.
 3. Breaking a Big Problem Into Smaller
Problems
 Like breaking up the task of writing a term
paper into manageable steps.
 Select a topic, researching the topic, creating
an outline, writing the first draft, revising the
paper.
 Tackling big problems in this way makes them
more manageable.
 This is the strategy that allowed the Wright
brothers to develop the first airplane.
 How would
you arrange
six matches
to form four
equilateral
triangles?
 Solution to
the
matchstick
problem
Three Jugs Problem
 Using jugs A,
B, and C, with
the capacities
shown, how
would you
measure out
the volumes
indicated?
 Solution:
 a) All seven problems
can be solved by the
equation shown in (a):
B - A - 2C = desired
volume.
 b) But simpler
solutions exist for
problems 6 and 7,
such as A - C for
problem 6.
 Problems With Heuristics
 One problem with heuristic are mental
sets.
 When faced with problems, we have a
tendency to approach it in a familiar
way.
 Especially when it’s in a way that has
been successful in the past but may
or may not be helpful in solving a new
problem
 Mental set- the tendency to respond
to a new problem in the manner used
for previous problems.
• Another problem with relying on
heuristics is called functional fixedness, a
sort of mental set issue.
• Functional Fixedness- The inability to
perceive a new use for an object
associated with a different purpose.
 Using these
materials,
how would
you mount
the candle on
a bulletin
board?
 Solving this
problem requires
recognizing that a
box need not
always serve as a
container
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Foot
Cheese
Chair
Slow
Party
Hard
Green
Trick
Paper
finger
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Light
Hand
Stone
Dog
Jack
Man
Floor
Car
Bar
bee
• Judging and Decision Making
• Along with mental sets, bias can make
heuristics a faulty decision making tool.
• Confirmation bias- Ignoring or finding fault
with information that doesn’t fit with your
opinions
• Hindsight bias- Tendency to second guess a
decision after the event has happened.
• Z:\RealPlayer Downloads\Captain Hindsight.flv
• Representative bias- the presumption that
once people are categorized, they share all the
features of other members in that category
• (assuming that blondes are dumb, band people
are nerds, etc.)
• Availability bias- Estimating the likelihood of
events based on their availability in memory
• If instances come readily to mind we presume
such events are common
• People who watch the news or shows about
violent crime think that crime rates are actually
higher than they really are.
• This is because they have violent images readily
available in memory.
• Z:\My Videos\Cognitive Bias VideoSong.mp4