Assessing Learning Disabilities
in Adults
ORBIDA Conference
February 22, 2008
Ken Kosko
Education Evaluation Center
The Teaching Research Institute
Western Oregon University
SLD
Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA)
1985
Definition:
A specific learning disability is a disorder in one or
more of the central nervous system processes
involved in perceiving, understanding, and/or using
concepts through verbal (spoken or written)
language or nonverbal means. This disorder
manifests itself with a deficit in one or more of the
following areas: attention, reasoning, processing,
memory, communication, reading, writing, spelling,
calculation, coordination, social competence, and
emotional maturity. (Rehabilitation Services
Administration. (1985, January 21). Program policy
directive. Washington, DC: U.S. Office of Special
Education and Rehabilitation Services.)
SLD
DEFINITION-RSA

Central Nervous System
Processes
1.
Perceiving
1.
Understanding
Spoken or Written Language
Manifestations:

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
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Attention
Reasoning
Memory
Communicating
Academics (reading, writing, math)
Coordination
Social Competence
Emotional Maturity
Major Components of a Learning
Disabilities Definition
Learning Disabilities:
1.
is a general term for a heterogeneous group of disorders
2.
are manifested by significant difficulties in listening, speaking,
reading, writing, or math;
3.
are part of the person make-up (i.e., they will not go away);
4.
are presumed to be a dysfunction of the central nervous
system;
5.
may be discovered across the life span;
6.
may RESULT in problems with behavior, social perceptions, and
social interactions (but these problems are NOT the disability);
7.
are NOT the result of other disabilities such as lost of sight or
hearing, lack of intelligence, or lack of schooling.
OREGON DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Oregon Administrative Rules 9/19/2007
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES
A.
Achievement Grades 1-12
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Basic reading skills
Reading fluency skills
Reading comprehension
Mathematics calculation
Mathematics problems-solving
Written expression
Oral expression
Listening comprehension
OREGON DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Oregon Administrative Rules 9/19/2007
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES, Continued
B.
Other, if needed:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cognition
Fine motor
Perceptual motor
Communication
Social or Emotional
Perception or Memory
Common Challenges of Successful
Adults with LD

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Almost all experienced significant difficulty learning
in school
Many never did learn to read, write, spell, or
compute particularly well
Social skills were either a strength or an area of
need
Dealing with LD is a daily task
Felt vulnerable because of differences in learning
Self-esteem tended to deteriorate when LD went
undiagnosed
(Gerber & Reiff, 1994)
Consequences of LD Beyond School
Failure


Poor peer relationships
Poor self-efficacy (ability to produce effects or
intended results)

Poor post-school adjustments

Juvenile delinquency

Limited occupational status (under employment)
Mental Health Issues

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Anxiety
Depression
Oppositional Defiant
Substance Abuse
Alcohol
Drugs
Everyday Manifestations

Feeling constantly behind

Fear of filling out forms



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Extreme stress or fear associated with any
isolated measure of ability
Isolation resulting from fear of being
misunderstood
Extreme stress over deadlines
Feeling inadequate because of difficulty doing
tasks others find easy
Reading

Slow reader (estimated range up to four times as
long to read a page as others)

Reading out of sequence (they went to see a
movie=they to see a movie went)

Mistaking one word for another (for=from, to=of)

Tracking difficulty: skipping over words or lines

Difficulty reading multi-syllable words (aluminum)

Difficulty with sound symbols relations

Lack of vocabulary understanding & reading
comprehension
Spelling




Reversals common: d=b, friend=friend, (also
number reversal: 0137=0317)
Frequently dropping, adding or reversing letters
and word parts: know=now, bad, dog=dab dog
Difficulty mixing up words that sound the same;
there=their, through=threw, where=wear,
well=will, write=right
Forgetting how to spell commonly used words
Writing

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Excessive time required to organize papers and thoughts
Difficulty conceptualizing a paper’s overall topic and
formulating a thesis on the paper as a whole
Tendency to laboriously work out specific parts of the paper
instead of focusing on the paper as a whole
Letters reversed
Freezing up when trying to write
Spelling errors
Illegible handwriting; cursive script difficult
Words and letters out of sequence in sentences
Difficult taking notes in class
Completely omitting words or phrases
Writing things that make absolutely no coherent sense
Testing


Seldom able to complete exams in class or
national exams
Difficulty with multiple choice questions; difficulty
filling in the bubbles on forms

Misinterprets directions or questions on exams

Extreme test anxiety
Concentration

Focusing requires extraordinary effort

Easily distracted by noise and movement
Memory





Difficulty recalling familiar things like one’s phone
number, address, names of friends
Not remembering what was said or what you were
talking about
Not remembering what the teacher/instructor said
and trying to take notes
Frequently misplacing, losing or forgetting things
Not remembering what you saw or read, (writing
down information from the chalk board or
overhead/power point)
Speech

Difficulty pronouncing multisyllabic or uncommon
words

Difficulty reading aloud

Stuttering or hesitancy in speech

Difficulty communicating ideas clearly
Orientation

Difficulty in distinguishing left and right

Directions, map reading, and navigating difficulty

Feeling lost in a familiar setting; easily disoriented
Ranges of LD
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 17-30
MILD


average to above average intelligence
adequate psychological adjustments and
vocational/employability skills

high academic achievement

limited processing and language skills
Ranges of LD, cont.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 17-30
MODERATE

average to above average intelligence

some cognitive and language deficits

one or more academic disabilities

some psychological adjustment problems

difficulty with vocational/employment skills
Ranges of LD, cont.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 17-30
SEVERE


display below average intelligence
significant cognitive processing and language
deficits

low academic achievement

lack of psychological adjustment

lack of vocational/employment skills
Why Assess?

Determine eligibility

Determine strengths, abilities, and deficits

Determine appropriate instructional setting

Determine job match

Determine level of self-determination skills

Determine necessary accommodations, supports,
and services
Primary Area Assessed Through
Functional Assessment in Disciplines
Related to Special Education
Function Area
Constructs Measured
Behavioral/
Psychosocial
Family Relations; personality;
interpersonal relationships;
behavioral surpluses and deficits
Communication
Auditory and visual reception; oral
and graphic expression
Cognitive
Intelligence; attention, impulsivity;
memory; problem solving; auditory,
visual, and spatial perception
Physical
Gross mobility; fine motor skills;
strength and endurance
Primary Area Assessed Through
Functional Assessment in Disciplines
Related to Special Education
Function Area
Constructs Measured
Daily Living
Self-care; home maintenance;
community awareness and use
Vocational
Aptitudes; interest; academic
skills; job seeking skills; job
maintenance skills
Environmental
Environmental demands; available
support structures and practices
The functional areas and constructs measured presented are not
exhaustive.
(Nelson, Roberts, Bullis, Albers & Ohland, 1999)
DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR ADULT LEARNING
DISABILITY DETERMINATION
There are several commonly accepted criteria that evaluators rely on when considering
determination of whether or not an individual has a Learning Disability. Following are what
appears to be the most commonly used criteria, keeping in mind that meeting only one
of the following two criteria should not be used as the sole determinant of LD.
1.
A significant discrepancy between overall cognitive ability and achievement in
reading, math and/or writing as indicated by:
a) DSM-IV Edition-TR-Usually defined as a discrepancy of more than two standard
deviations between achievement and IQ. A smaller discrepancy is sometimes
used, (between one and two deviations), “especially in cases where an
individual’s performance on an IQ test has been compromised by an associated
disorder in cognitive processing, a co morbid mental disorder or general medical
condition, or the individual’s ethnic or cultural background”;
b) A discrepancy of one and a half to two standard deviations;
c) Use of the regression formula;
d) A combination of discrepancies and professional judgment;
AND
2.
The ability to process information is impaired in some way that is directly contributing
to underachievement and is impacting the individual’s ability to learn or retain information
in school, work and/or daily living activities.
DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR ADULT LEARNING
DISABILITY DETERMINATION, cont
Other Considerations

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The underachievement cannot be primarily due to factors other than a
processing deficit (e.g., lack of schooling, mental health issues, drugs
and alcohol, hearing impairment, visual acuity problems);
With adults, a history of learning problems during their school careers is
usually noted i.e., elementary, middle, high school. May have dropped
out of school;
A history of learning problems in the family (e.g., parent/s, siblings,
children);
Uneven development in cognitive and/or achievement areas. Full Scale
Cognitive scores are normally within the average range or better,
however, adults IQ’s who have had a history of school difficulties (may
be drop outs) can be somewhat lower and in the low average range.

Determination of eligibility should not be made based only on one
subtest.

Screening for possible social/emotional issues (e.g., depression,
anxiety) and ADHD, which may be part of the LD assessment.
DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR ADULT LEARNING
DISABILITY DETERMINATION, cont.
Test Scores:
Care must be taken when analyzing cognitive, achievement and
processing tests. A full scale IQ score in the Borderline range (70-79)
does not necessarily mean an individual has Borderline intellectual
functioning. When examining the subtest, full scale and Index scores
there may be areas well within the average to above average range with
significantly low subtest scores related to LD that make the client look
Borderline functioning. A client with a Borderline Performance score and
low to average Verbal score may appear to be borderline functioning if
one relies only on the Full scale scores without taking into consideration
variation in scores. A number of studies on low to borderline IQ are
proving that individuals with low to borderline IQ may also have
learning disabilities. Good diagnosticians don’t rely solely on the
numbers. ( www.seakingwdc.org/ld/Formal Test.htm)
(Adapted from Washington State Learning Disabilities Project, Summary
Report, 1998)
Characteristics of Diagnostic
Testing

Is individually administered and scored;

Can take from several hours to several days for testing
and several more days for interpretation of results;

Can cost anywhere from $600 to $1,500, depending on
the extent of testing required for a diagnosis;



Must be administered only by a qualified professional
who is licensed to administer psycho-educational test
batteries;
Provides in-depth assessment of an individual’s skill
areas; and
As a result of diagnostic testing, individual knows for
certain whether he/she has a learning disability,
including information on how the specific LD affects
performance.
Information Processing and Related
Disabilities
Input
Auditory
Visual
Tactile
Olfactory
Gustatory
Process
Thinking
*Abstract *Concrete
Memory
*Auditory *Visual
*Long Term
*Short Term
Sequencing
Organization
Attention
Output
Talking
Reading
Writing
Motor
*Fine *Gross
Fluency/Speed
Accuracy
Four Stages of Information Processing
and Related Disabilities
1.
Input


2.
Integration



3.
Sequencing Disability
Abstraction Disability
Organization Disability
Memory


4.
Visual Perception Disability
Auditory Perception Disability
Short-term
Long-term
Output


Language Disabilities: Spontaneous and Demand
Motor Disabilities: Gross and Fine Muscle
Coordination
Types of Assessment
Instruments
Norm Referenced

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test-III

Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery

(Cognitive & Tests of Achievement)

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test

Nelson Denny Reading Test

Scholastic Abilities Test for Adults

Detroit Test of Learning Aptitude
Types of Assessment
Instruments
Rating Scales

Conners’ Adult ADHD Rating ScalesObserver-Report

Conners’ Adult ADHD Rating Scales-Self
Report

Brown Attention-Deficit Disorder

Behavior Assessment System for
Children, Second Edition, Self-Report
College (18-25), Self-Report Adolescent
(12-21)
Types of Assessment
Instruments
Self-Report
Interview
Observation
Learning Disability Evaluation
Report
(see handout)
Definition of Self-Determination
The attitudes and abilities required
to act as the primary causal
agent in one’s life and make
choices and decisions regarding
one’s action free from undue external
influence or interference
[Source: Wehmeyer, M.L. (1997). Self-directed Learning and Self Determination. In M. Agran (Ed.),
Student-directed Learning: A Handbook of Self-Management. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.]
Accommodations
An accommodation:
is any change needed to help the employee learn the skill required to
perform the job.
It may mean:

Using different kinds of learning materials;

Using special equipment, such as a computer or a calculator;

Having a special tutor or work “buddy” to help on the job;

Using auditory aids and services.
An accommodation:


does not include making changes in rules to make it easier for the
person with LD to perform the work than for other employees; and
should not create an “undue hardship” for the employer. It is not
necessary to provide the most expensive accommodation, just one
that will help the employee do what needs to be done.
Work Skills
*What skills employers want -versus - What does the job
require

The three R’s (reading, writing, and arithmetic).

Organizational effectiveness/leadership (the ability to get
things done and to lead).

Self-esteem/goal setting-motivation/personal and career
development (feeling good about what you are doing and
where you are going).

Interpersonal skills/negotiation/teamwork (the ability to
successfully work with co-workers).

Problem solving/creative thinking (the ability to overcome
obstacles encountered by the worksite).

Listening and oral communication (the ability to interact
effectively with co-workers).

Learning to learn (the willingness to learn new tasks/skills on
the job).
*Carnevale, Gainer, and Meltzer (1988)
TOOLS
* Environmental School Assessment
Measure - E-SAM
* Environmental Job Assessment
Measure - E-JAM
*from: PRO-ED, Functional Assessment In Transition and Rehabilitation
For Adolescents And Adults With Learning Disorders, 1999.
Environmental Settings and
Demands for Clients

Demands of the job

Demands of the school

Demands of the training site

Demands of the classroom

Demands of DHS
Secretary Commission on Achieving
Necessary Skill (SCANS report)

Physical demands

Working conditions

Educational demands

General work behavior

Social interaction
Common Strengths of Successful
Adults with LD

Able to cope and compensate for LD

Determined to achieve

Willing to work hard

Found ways to learn that led to success

Recognized and accepted LD-“goodness of fit” in
jobs/tasks assigned to them

Used technology

Recognized need for support and found/had it
(Gerber & Reiff, 1994)
What is Success?
Quotes from Successful Adults with LD

Achieving a goal

Establishing a realistic goal and then achieving it

Overcoming overwhelming odds

Setting goals and attaining them

Being happy in whatever you do

Feeling that you have accomplished what you set
out to do
(Gerber & Reiff, 1994
Assessment Instruments for Transition,
Career Planning, Jobs
The Harrington-O’Shea Career Decision-Making System
American Guidance Service
CAREER CLUSTERS
Crafts
Scientific
The Arts
Manual
Skilled Crafts
Technical
Math-Science
Medical-Dental
Math-Science
Medical-Dental
Literary
Arts
Music
Entertainment
Assessment Instruments for Transition,
Career Planning, Jobs
The Harrington-O’Shea Career Decision-Making System
American Guidance Service
CAREER CLUSTERS
Social
Business
Office
Operations
Customer Service
Personal Service
Social Service
Education
Management
Legal
Clerical
Data Analysis
Assessment Instruments for Transition,
Career Planning, Jobs
The Harrington-O’Shea Career Decision-Making System
American Guidance Service
Work Values
Outdoor Work
Good Salary
Prestige
Physical Activity
Independence
Variety
Risk
Job Security
Leadership
Work with Hands
High Achievement
Creativity
Assessment Instruments for Transition,
Career Planning, Jobs
The COPSystem
Edit/Educational & Industrial Service,
San Diego, CA 92176
CAREER CLUSTERS
1. Science Professional
2. Science Skilled
3. Technology Professional
4. Technology Skilled
5. Consumer Economics
6. Outdoor
7. Business Professional
8. Business Skilled
9. Clerical
10. Clerical
11. Arts Professional
12. Arts Skilled
13. Service Professional
14. Service Skilled
Assessment Instruments for Transition,
Career Planning, Jobs
Enderle-Severson Transition Rating Scale (ESTR-J)
(Transition assessment for adolescents with mild disabilities)
Practical Press, PO Box 455
Moorhead, MN 5661-0455
ESTR-J PROFILE
Jobs and Job Training
Recreation and Leisure
Home Living
Community Participation
Postsecondary Training & Learning Opportunities
Total Performance Score
Assessment Instruments for Transition,
Career Planning, Jobs
The Arc’s Self-Determination Scale
The Arc of the United States
500 E. Border St. Suite 300
Arlington TX 76010
SCALE PROFILE
Autonomy
Self-Regulation
Psychological Empowerment
Self-Realization