THE THREE Appeals:
FUNDAMENTALS OF PERSUADING AN AUDIENCE
What every writer NEEDS TO
KNOW TO ABOUT ARGUING WELL
HISTORY:
the wisdom of the ancients
Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher,
developed the theory of how arguments
are constructed that is still used today.
Aristotle was a student of Plato and
teacher of Alexander the Great.
He said that the goal of persuasion is to…
1.
2.
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Convince an audience that your point
is valid
Or that your point is more valid than
another’s
Persuasion: introduction
Persuasion is not about showing that others’
arguments are stupid or wrong but rather that
your argument is stronger.
Check out this introductory video
“Persuasive Appeals: Ethos, Pathos, Logos”
http://teachertube.com/
DEFINITION: rhetoric
• RHETORIC (n) - the art of speaking or
writing effectively (Webster's Definition).
• According to Aristotle, rhetoric is "the
ability, in each particular case, to see the
available means of persuasion."
• Aristotle described three main forms of
rhetoric: LOGOS, PATHOS, and ETHOS.
DEFINITION: logos
Appeal to the mind; used to make
readers think; use of reason
Comes from Greek word meaning
“divine words”—the words of
God. Literally means “logic.”
1.
2.
Used to create rational
explanations that make sense
Used to provide specific,
demonstrable evidence that is
either factual or probable
1. An argument that
makes sense
a syllogism will determine truth and fact
Major premise: All books from that store are new.
Minor premise: These books are from that store.
Conclusion: Therefore, these books are new.
an enthymeme will show probability and implication
Major premise: People who lie cannot be trusted
Minor premise: This man lied to me.
Conclusion: This man is not to be trusted.
Here, the conclusion may not necessarily be true—one lie does not always
make a person completely untrustworthy.
2. Logical evidence
facts, case studies, statistics,
experiments, analogies, anecdotes,
illustrations, examples, testimony,
definitions, quotations, citations,
authorities/experts, informed opinions,
common beliefs, ideas & feelings
EXAMPLES OF LOGOS
Which kind of logos is used in each example?
• Pesticides contain deadly particles that
destroy the nervous system, as reported by
the EPA and various studies conducted by
researchers.
• Pesticides are sprayed around the school
and community, filling the air that the kids
breath with dangerous, harmful chemicals.
Analyzing logos
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER:
• Where does the writer use reasons that
make sense?
• Is the writer’s thesis reasonable and worth
considering?
• What conclusions or answers does the
writer provide to questions and problems?
• Is the writer’s supporting evidence clear,
specific, and convincing?
• Does the writer use accurate evidence?
• Does the writer provide sources/citations?
Practice: brainstorming logos
Idea: Students should be allowed to
use cell phones during school hours.
list specific evidence to support idea
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DEFINITIONS: pathos
Appeal to emotion; used to move
readers, hopefully into action
Comes from Greek words
meaning “suffering,” “pitiable,”
“sad”; pathos can be humor too
Used to excite, arouse, and/or
interest an audience
A powerful appeal that must be
used appropriately
1. Using pathos RESPONSIBLY
Emotions are powerful and can be very convincing. However, emotion
can also cloud people’s judgment and overthrow logic.
appeals to emotion must have
relevance
appeals to emotion must be appropriate
appeals to emotion must be
justifiable
appeals to emotion must be made honestly
2. Using pathos IRRESPONSIBLY
Emotions are dangerous and used in ways that are unfair
and divert the attention of the audience inappropriately.
appeals to emotion can manipulate
appeals to emotion can overthrow logic
therefore, use pathos with care and caution
Pathetic evidence
vivid descriptions, loaded language,
connotative meanings, examples, stories,
narrative, emotional word choices, figurative
language (metaphors & similes), references to
common morals, beliefs, and/or ideas
Commonly targeted
Emotions
affection, anger, contempt, delight, disgust,
despair, embarrassment, envy, excitement,
fear, guilt, hope, horror, humiliation, humor,
jealously, joy, love, loyalty, passion, pity,
pride, joy, remorse, ridicule, sadness, shame,
shock, shyness, sorrow, vengeance
EXAMPLES OF pathos
Responsible or irresponsible use?
• Obama knows a lot about Muslims because
he secretly is one, making him the most
dangerous man in America.
• Knowing the warning signs of cancer could
save you from suffering the loss of someone
you love, like I did.
Analyzing pathos
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER:
• Does the writer use vivid description,
examples, personal stories, or shocking
facts to get a response from readers?
• What emotions do you think the writer is
trying to rouse: sorrow, fear, guild, hope…?
• Is pathos used appropriately and relevant?
• Does the writer seem sincere, fake…?
• How does the writer’s appeal to emotion
reinforce his or her appeal to reason?
Practice: brainstorming pathos
Idea: Being an international student
is challenging.
list evidence to support idea AND
the emotion it would appeal to.
Who is that? She must
be thinking very, very
hard about pathos….
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DEFINITION: ethos
Appeal of ethics; refers to the
writer’s credibility and character
Comes from Greek word meaning
“image”—the writer’s image
Indicates writer’s reliability,
competence, and ethics
Used to gain or build readers’ trust
& confidence in the writer
The wriTer’s CharaCTer
depends of reputation
personal history/past
what people know and say about him/her
often but not always based in reality
references to the past & present
involvements, affiliations, advocacy,
accomplishments, successes, examples of helping others,
and positive highlights of past actions
The wriTer’s CreDiBiLiTY
expertise/authority & how these are portrayed
confidence, reasons why others respect & admire; interest in topic
education, experience, positions held,
publications, research/studies, awards,
respect for readers: accuracy & complete explanations,
common ground with readers: morals, values, beliefs,
appropriate use of logos and pathos, recognizes counterarguments
logically organized, reader-friendly & error-free writing
Ethical evidence
Ethos is presented through references to writer’s reliability &
competence as well as the writer’s language use & style:
audience-appropriate language, vocabulary, tone
references to education, experience, accomplishments
complete & accurate explanations
sound use of logos; appropriate use of pathos
morals, values, beliefs held in common with audience
knowledge of subject; fairness & recognition of opposition
organized, articulate argument
Attributes of ethos
Examples of the “image” a writer may present in an argument:
compassion, courage, credibility,
decency, dedication, dignity,
enthusiasm, goodwill, honesty, honor,
idealism, intelligence, kindness, morality, nobility,
patriotism, resolve, respect, responsibility,
sincerity, strength, trustworthiness, valor, vigor,
wisdom, friendliness, concern,
indifference, apathy, arrogance, conceit
Humor as pathos
Using laughter to touch
readers’ hearts, make them
think, inspire respect for the
writer by delighting &
surprising readers, employ
ridicule & irony to highlight
truth
Using humor can be difficult
& risky
EXAMPLES OF ethos
What do these passages convey about the writer?
• Good decisions cannot be made when knowledge is
ignored and understanding is incomplete. We must realize
that educating young Americans about the Muslim world is
the only intelligent option we have.
• For 18 years, I have worked at the state prison where about
95% of inmates are minorities. This has clearly proven to
me that minorities are a negative element of America’s
population and society.
Analyzing ethos
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER:
• What does/doesn’t make you think the writer is
trustworthy, fair, and credible?
• What authority does the writer have on the subject?
What experience does he/she have with the subject?
• What is the writer’s tone (attitude) toward the
subject and audience?
• What morals, values, and beliefs does the writer
seem to share with the audience?
• How does the writer’s character reinforce his or her
appeals to reason and to emotion?
• Has the writer organized and edited the argument
well? Does he/she explain what is necessary?
Practice: brainstorming ethos
Idea: Studying in another language is
very challenging.
what could you (the writer) include
to give readers a sense of your
character and credibility?
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OTHER APPEALS
These are noteworthy appeals that may be used along with one or more main
appeals, depending on how they are used.
Kairos
Nomos
Mythos
DEFINITION: kairos
Appeal of timeliness; emphasizes
significance of moments in time
Used to convey urgency of a
problem & use the past to predict
future consequences
Argument Development:
problem, solution, justification
Specific considerations:
Significance of problem,
effectiveness of solution,
counterproposals
DEFINITION: mythos
Appeal to tradition; emphasizes
whether violating tradition is
appropriate or inappropriate
Used to appeal to readers’ culture
Types of Evidence:
proverbs, beliefs, figures,
symbols, practices
DEFINITION: nomos
Appeal of culture; emphasizes
shared cultural beliefs & practices
Used to allow the writer to
“identify with” readers by
emphasizing what the have in
common and their similarities
Used to convince an audience to
come to the same conclusion as the
writer
Practice: kairos, mythos, nomos
Idea: The people of my country must accept that
globalization makes change is necessary.
brainstorm one supporting example of each appeal.
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appeals are never used
aLone…
Arguments always use all 3 main appeals,
though not they are rarely used evenly
The writer may rely heavily on one appeal,
but an argument needs all 3 to be effective
Appeals often overlap; some sentences, sections, or elements
demonstrate more than one appeal, even all 3
Kairos, mythos, or nomos may also be used with a main appeal