Gender & Peace Operations Prepared by Janet M Eaton POSI, June 11, 2003 Outline of Presentation • Introduction • Gender and Culture • Gender and Politics • Gender and Militarism • Trends in the New World (Dis) Order • Gender and Armed Conflict • History of Gender Issues and International Law – • Why Women in Peace Support Operations? • Gender in the New World (Dis) Order – Witness Iraq Introduction Gender must be recognized as a vital component of plans and programs to avoid, mitigate and resolve conflict situations, and to build sustainable peace. To do an effective job, everyone involved in PSOs, NGOs, governments, militaries, police and humanitarian agencies must understand the gender dimension of conflict. http://www.genderandpeacekeeping.org/menu-e.asp Introduction • Training for Gender responsive Peace Operations is part of a growing movement to deal with gender issues related to peace and security. • There is an increasing realization that when the work of Peace Support Operations is analyzed from a gender perspective , many of the problems associated with traditional methods of operation come into focus. • It is widely acknowledged that no intervention is neutral. Therefore it is desirable to ensure that the interventions of the international community do not compromise the human rights of women, men and children and that they succeed in protecting http://www.genderandpeacekeeping.org/ Introduction This presentation focuses on gender issues affecting women and girls from the perspective of the vulnerabilities of women in militaristic environments, and strengths that women bring to the peace process both as peace keepers and civilians. Gender Sex - identifies biological characteristics Gender • Describes the social behaviours and roles societies assigned to men & women because of their sex e.g. • Child bearing sex related • Childrearing is gender related Source: Vickers, Jill. Reinventing Political Science. A Feminist Perspective. Halifax: Fernwood. 2000. . Photo Credit RAWA Gender Gender is a wide term, originating in the assumption of socially constructed femininities and masculinities. It also entails a society’s social power relations. . Source: Olsson & Trygg. 2001. Women International peacekeeping. Introduction p. 3 Gender refers to the socially constructed roles and responsibilities of women and men. It includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviours of both men and women (femininity and masculinity) These roles and expectrations are learned , changeable over time and variable within and between cultures. Source: CIDA Gender Equality and Peacebuilding: An Operational Framework p.2 Gender & Culture Perspectives 1. Gender is about the social roles and relations between men and women I.e who does what work and how decisions made. 2. Gender varies over time and across cultures . 3. Gender is multi-dimensional, influencing economic, political, and social interactions and needs. 4. Understanding gender also involves understanding power and how it is used and shared 5. Gender includes assumptions, expectations, and obligations about men and women 6. Gender is institutionalized and enacted at the level of the family, community, and the State Source Gender & Peacekeeping Course, DFAIT http://www.genderandpeacekeeping.org/instructor-e.asp Gender & Culture • Our cultural background, experiences and education influences our assumptions, expectations, understanding, and belief systems, in other words our ‘world view’. • One researcher, Dr. Paul Ray, who studied value . systems, categorized them as traditional, modern and post modern or culturally creative. These three value systems closely parallel different world views. • World views are predictors of cultural expectations, power relationships, gender role expectations among other things • Peace support operations take place in many cultural contexts, in a post-modern world where world views are changing and merging and a return to stability and security must be consistent with the cultural realities. It is important to have an appropriate awareness of these cultural differences and to understand the gender dimensions of culture and world views. • Source: Dr. Paul Ray and Sherri Anderson. 2001. The Cultural Creative [ See also slides at end of presentation for more on this subject Gender & Culture Perspectives • . Our own world view and cultural framework influences the way we perceive the world. We might call this our lens. • It is important to see the situation through the a culturally appropriate lens and to be sensitive to the differences • This is especially true when it comes to gender. Gender - as Politics & Power Political scientists agree that . politics is about power ! Politics flows through all social relationships it is the cement that holds relationships together – it is the friction that tears them apart ! Source: Janine Bodie [Ed] Critical Concepts –An Introduction to Politics. 2001 Gender - as Politics & Power Patriarchy One form of power relationship that is used in gender analysis is patriarchy ! • A state of social development characterized by the supremacy of the father in the clan or family • Male-dominated and generally hierarchical social structures including the church, military, corporations Source: Vickers, Jill. Reinventing Political Science. A Feminist Perspective. Halifax: Fernwood. 2000. Global Dimensions of Patriarchy Patriarchy is not simply a phenomenon restricted to male dominance in the family but as an organizing principle of the entire global system. - Prof. Asoka Bandarage Source: Bandarage, Asoka. 1997. Women, Population and Global Crisis, A Political Economic Analysis. London Zed Books. Political Power Relationships Power Type Power Over Patriarchy Men over Women Racism Anthropomorphism White over Colour Ethnic hatreds Man over Nature Corporatism Corporate over Citizen Capitalism Capital over workers Colonialism North over South Militarism Military over people Gendered ‘isms’ All of the ism’s listed on the previous slide have gender discriminatory dimensions as well ! • Racism – Mary Robinson, former Dir. UNCHR • Anthropomorphism – Prof. Asoka Bandarage • Global capitalism i.e. Corporate Globalization – Feminization of Poverty -widely used concept • Neo-colonialism - Dr. Vandana Shiva • Militarism - WILPF, UNIFEM, Which means that women and girls may face greater abuse of human rights in situations where these forms of power exist. Militarism Militarism is traditionally viewed as: military spirit, pursuit of military ideas; domination by the military in the formulation of policies, ideals, etc especially on a political level; a policy of maintaining a strong military organization in aggressive preparedness for war.' Source : Collins English Dictionary. 1996. 2nd Edition Militarism Militarism as a process has both material and ideological manifestations. These vary in different cultures but there are some common elements. The material forms of militarism which are evident around the world include wars and direct military interventions, destabilization of other countries through proxy armies, foreign-sponsored coups, foreign and colonial occupation, military rule and abuse of human rights. Its institutional manifestations include the armed forces and government t budgets which devote a disproportionate amount of money to the military. Militarization is the "gradual encroachment of the military institution into the civilian arena," including, military contracts or the state relying on the military to solve its unemployment problems. Militarism Militarism encompasses much more than just the armed forces of a state and their activities. It is an ideology of power affecting governments with different political objectives and it’s influence can become part of a social process which penetrates all areas of a society… Militarism involves a willingness on the part of states to realize their policies through deliberate and organized use of physical force. … War is not a continuous state of humanity, nor is it something which creates itself or "just happens." It is a direct result of militarism, and should be seen in that light. Source: Burke , Colleen. 2000. Women and Militarism. Women's International League for Peace & Freedom [WILPF]. 2000. Militarism The ideological manifestations of militarism include a dissemination of military values, symbols and language among the civilian population which promotes acceptance of hierarchies, nationalism which defines the "other" as enemy, violence as a legitimate means of resolving conflicts, and strict division of proper masculine and feminine roles. Source: Burke , Colleen. 2000. Women and Militarism. Women's International League for Peace & Freedom [WILPF]. 2000. Global Impacts –of Globalization and Militarism End of Century Trends of the New World (Dis) order are discouraging for they indicate that fear, increasing violence, instability, and complex emergencies are on the rise, all of which contribute to the need for greater understanding of the gender differences in regard to economic globalization, war, impacts of war and the realities of maintaining, building and keeping peace in the world . * Let us quickly scan some of those realities. * End of Century Trends “AT the DAWN OF the NEW MILLENIUM We are caught in a relentless spiral of violence and selfdestruction - a planet desperately out of balance” Source: Asoka Bandarage. 1997. Women, Population & Global Crisis: A Political Economic Analysis. Globalization & MilitarismOverall Impacts • In sharp contrast to the peaceful New World Order envisioned at the end of the Cold War - the world is now experiencing an intensification of 'complex emergencies' combining armed conflicts with collapse of economic, political, and social institutions, environmental destruction, poverty , displacement and massive slaughter. Source : Bandarage Ibid Globalization - Is it good ? • Global Communication • Increased knowledge transfer • Technology and innovation spreading • Global Village • Increased prosperity for some • Evolution of Higher Order Value systems - Cultural Creative • Growth of the Global Democracy Movement/ Global Justice Movement/ Global Peace Movement and alternatives to economic and militaristic violence. Globalization –Is it bad ? • Growing Global economic disparity & inequity within nation states & across North /South divide. • Increasing Global Insecurity –terrorism, disease, natural disasters threaten survival • Environmental Destruction threatens survival • War & Armed Conflict Rising –threaten survival • Diminishment of arms control, growth in arms trade, WMD, etc threaten survival • Increase in refugees, un-natural disasters • Increase in human rights violations • Increase in women’s human rights violations Globalization’s Impact –IMF • Privatizes services - requiring fees for service in many cases • Massive cuts to public sector- health, education, social services • Claw backs in protective legislation • Cuts in environment always first to go • Cuts food subsidies - favours agribusiness • Encourages export crops - vegetables, flowers-orchids etc., agribusiness, fish farming etc Environmental Destruction • Global Water Crisis [Wars of future] • Overfishing [10% remaining] • Deforestation • Desertification –grasslands , rangelands retreat • Topsoil erosion • Depletion ozone layer • Accumulation greenhouse gases • Loss of biodiversity –species extinction • Acid rain, Air, Land, Water Pollution • Radiation - DU, electromagnetic etc Source : Lester Brown. 2000. Eco-Economy Environmental Destruction •Consider that the impacts are due to two major human activities • Economic development exacerbated by neoliberal economic policies • Militarism and War Displaced Peoples • Number of displaced persons in the world increasing at alarming as consequence of globalization and militarism: • Economic globalization [fossil fuel economy] is exacerbating global warming creating storms, rising sea levels displacing millions • Economic globalization is displacing millions through ‘big dam ‘ projects-mega projects corporate model Globalization’s Impact -WB Big Dams -A Roy “Big dams are monuments to political corruption and power. They are technologically obsolete, ecologically dangerous and economically unviable. They are most devastating. Like a silent war''. -- Arundhati Roy Displaced Peoples • Economic globalization is displacing millions from rural area through SAPS- structural adjustment programs which favour urbanization and take away means of subsistence survival • Militarism - war, armed conflict is displacing millions • Arms trade is mitigating against democracy in many third world countries and destabilizing the world leading to mass migrations Hunger & Disease • Millions of people are dying of hunger disease, and war . UN reports show that • 1.6 billion people are faring worse than at the beginning of the 1980s. and that • Over 820 million people are undernourished • The vast majority, 790 million of them live in the Developing World. • Positive developments - Brazil’s special program Zero Hunger ! War and Armed Conflict Rising • The National Defense Council Foundation reports an increase in military coups and an erosion in democratic advances • The number of nations in conflict in 2001 was 65 - nearly twice the level at the end of the Cold War. • The survey predicts even more turmoil ahead • One of reasons cited is the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. • Unending War on Terror plunges us into even more unstable times and more human rights abuses Human Rights Abuses Rising • Human Rights Watch reported in 2001 that the past year had seen a deterioration in the rights of the victims of torturing governments, repressive regimes and murderous opposition groups. • Since 9/11 and the resulting crack down on terrorists there has been an unprecedented repression of human rights around the world including the developed world. • Sidetracking of UN has also jeopardized many of the treaties women have relied on to enforce and engender human rights. Source: Human Rights Watch Report 2001 http://www.hrw.org/wr2k1/ Abuse of Women’s Rights • Throughout UN B+5 Conference the impacts of globalization, militarism and rising fundamentalism were constantly cited for their devastating impacts on women's economic well being , health, and human rights. . Abuse of Women’s Human Rights • In particular military sexual violence against women has been condemned by individual governments and the United Nations as the most widely reviled abuse of women's human rights at the end of the century. Trends Impact Peace Operations • These trends all of which have their own gender dimensions can further exacerbate peace operations making it even more imperative to consider gender and cultural differences. Gender and Armed Conflict The next section of the power point examines root causes of sexual military violence, the history of War and Rape , the earlier United Nations Response, the historic importance of the women’s movement and the particular importance of UN actions in the last decade of the century in addressing not only women and violence but women in the peace process War & Rape -Hidden Atrocities • Rape and sexual violence in armed conflict recognized by sociologists, third world political economic analyses and feminists as Systemic, Historical & Patriarchal Construct. • Feminist scholars, researchers and authors describe stark accounts of rape & sexual atrocities throughout history and the patriarchal origins and context of war. War & Sexual violence • Mass rape •Sexual slavery & enforced prostitution (comfort women Japan, East Timor, Rwanda) • Custodial Violence e.g. women held in prisons • Forced Pregnancy • Domestic Violence increases during war and armed conflict Source : Gender & PK Training Course DFAIT -Gender & the Conflict Phase http://www.genderandpeacekeeping.org War & Sexual Violence -Why ? • Spoils of War -to which soldiers are entitled • Means of troop mollification especially in regard to sexual slavery • To destroy enemy male, community pride • Punishment of women - politically active • Inflicting terror on population at large • Part of genocidal strategy Source: Women 2000. Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict UN Response War & Sexual Violence- History • WW II -Historical records silent • Sexual Violence perpetrated by all sides of conflict • Sexual violence long accepted as reality of armed conflict • No strong women’s movement to exert pressure for redress • Only in recent years has the reality come to the fore with revelations of sexual slavery of thousands of Asian comfort women and the media’s attention to Moslem women in rape camps in Bosnia in early 90’s. Source: Women 2000. Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict UN Response UN Response to Sexual Violence • 1969 One of 1st refs to women & armed conflict within UN system with Commission on Status of Women ECOSOC asked UNGA to adopt Declaration on topic • 1974 UNGA adopted Declaration on Protection of Women & children in Emergency and Armed Conflict • 1980’s ECOSOC series of resolutions on Palestinian women and children in occupied Arab territories, in Namibia, but no mention of sexual violence• 1985- Conference Nairobi-adopted blueprint for year 2000 with reference to vulnerability of women in armed conflict including threat of physical abuse. UN Response to Sexual Violence 1990s • With the sexual atrocities in Bosnia and Herzegovina references began to appear throughout UN related to sexual violence during armed conflict • Security Council Resolution 798 Dec 18, 1992 • Security Co. est’d Commission of Experts (Yugoslav Comm) to investigate abuses of Int Humanitarian Law. Listed sexual assault as one of priority areas. • 1993 - Sec Co. created an hoc war crimes tribunal (Yugoslav tribunal) -gov statue refers to rape as crime UN Response -1990s • • • • • • • • 1993 Vienna Conference on Human Rights 1993 Vienna Tribunal on Women’s Human Rights [Landmark] 1993 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 1993 Article 38 1993 UNGA adopted Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women 1994 CHR appoints Special Rapporteur on violence against women, Radhika Coomaraswamy 1994 Ms Linda Chavez appointed Special Rapporteur on Question of Systemic Rape and Sexual slavery, and Slavery -like Practices During Wartime 1994 Nov War Crimes Tribunal - Rwanda 1995 4th World Conference on Women Beijing & Women & Armed Conflict Tribunal UN Beijing Platform for Action The Platform for Action, adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing in 1995, identified the effects of armed conflict on women as one of 12 critical areas of concern requiring action by governments and the international community, and stressed the need to promote the equal participation of women in conflict resolution at decision-making levels 2000 UN Beijing + 5 Conference Throughout UN B+5 Conference the impacts of globalization, militarism and rising fundamentalism were constantly cited for their devastating impacts on women's economic well being , health, and human rights. . Turning Point -1990’s United Nations Response • Despite limitations, there is now substantial evidence that the national community has changed regarding sexual assault during armed conflict. • Over the course of half a century, the issue of women and armed conflict has developed within the UN framework from a limited concern with situation of women as mothers and care-givers to a recognition that sexual violence vs women and girls is a violation of international human rights and humanitarian law that must be addressed. References to UN Gender in Conflict and Peace Process • For References to the general history and United Nations history of Gender in conflict situations and peace keeping process see Handout on References. International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law • International Human Rights Laws and Humanitarian Laws are the framework for all PSOs • Understanding these laws and how they relate to diverse situations helps in planning and responding effectively in conflict situations. • Gender based violence and human rights violations, as we have noted, are weapons of war and to combat them we must understand their basis. International Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law • International Human Rights and Int. Humanitarian Laws are two separate but complementary parts of public international law. • Int Humanitarian Law seeks to protect people in time of war who are not taking part in the hostilities and it seeks to limit the hostilities • The Main Instruments of Humanitarian Law aka the “Law of armed conflict” are the four Geneva Conventions and their 2 added protocols • Virtually every country is a party to the convention of 1949. International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law International Human Rights 1. Universal Declaration 2. Int Covenant on Civil & Political Rights 3. Int Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights = International Bill of Human Rights [IBHR] Subsequent Conventions complement and extend the IBHR Some meant to protect all people from abuses Others meant to protect specific groups Gender International Law, Human rights • Universal Declaration of Human rights • Convention on the Elimination of the Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) • Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women • ICRC Code of Conduct for Combatants • UN Codes of Conduct for Peacekeepers • Amnesty Int. Program for Implementing Human rights in PKO • Protection of Women in Armed Conflict Source: Gender & Peacekeeping Training Course DFAIT Importance of International Women’s Movement • A strong and mobilized feminist movement has emerged that is exerting pressure and demanding redress for atrocities specifically directed at women and girls. Women’s NGO’s have been instrumental in insisting that steps be taken to address crimes of sexual violence • and more recently to address women in the peace process. Why Women in the Peace Process? Documentation of women’s emerging role in the peace process is showing why women have an important role to play in peace operations as the following slides demonstrate. Gender Dimensions of Peacekeeping and Peace Building UNIFEM 5 Major Aspects of Gender Dimensions of PK and PB [1] Understanding the impact of armed conflict on women & girls [2] Improving protection and assistance for women [3] Supporting women's participation in peace processes [4] Bringing a gender perspective to inter-governmental peace and security initiatives [5] Gender Justice in post-conflict peace building Source: UNIFEM Peace and Security 5 part framework http://www.unifem.undp.org/gov_pax.htm Women & Peace Process Landmark actions Year 2000 • March, 2000 Security Council Statement 6816 on IWD acknowledging that peace is inextricably linked to equality between men and women • May 31, 2000 Windhoek Declaration and Namibian Plan of Action on Mainstreaming Gender • June, 2000 UN Beijing + 5 Conference -SG Chair. Major focus on Women and Armed Conflict with emphasis on women, peace and security as well Women & Peace Process Landmark actions Year 2000 • August 23, 2000 Release of Brahimi Report ( disappointing re gender dimension) • September, 2000, DPO/DAW/ Angela King's Office Report "Mainstreaming A Gender perspective in Multidimensional PKO • October 24, 2000 Security Council Discussion on Women, Peace and Security • October 31, 2000 Security Council Resolution Discussion on Women, Peace and Security Women at the Peace Table: Making a Difference-UNIFEM • South Africa - shaping constitutional guarantees of equality & Guatemala-Women’s rights, human rights in peace agreement ensures women’s demands are incorporated • Women have unique communications skills which benefit negotiation and peace making • Many women in peace process show strong sense of responsibility and accountability • Their participation has changed entrenched attitudes and perceptions about women’s leadership and decisoin-making capabilities important first step •Source: UNIFEM http://www.unifem.org/ Resources/Book Women at the Peace Table Making a Difference Women in the Peace Process When it comes to the involvement of women I must say that it took several years of robust debate, resistance and determination by women themselves, before they were included in the peace process. Oppressor and oppressed had to sit and look each other in the eye and move beyond anger, fears, bitterness, frustration. We had to do this in order to negotiate on behalf of the people of South Africa. Baleka Mbete, Deputy Speaker of the South African Parliament, address to the 19 negotiating parties of the Burundi Peace Process, Arusha, 23 June 2000 Women in the Peace Process In Mali and Liberia, women rallied together to call for disarmament. They stood at armed deposition stations across their countries, taking away the deadly kalashnikovs and M-16s from the men and boys engaged in the conflict. NGO Statement read out at the ARRIA FORMULA Meeting of the UNSC October 23rd 2000. Women in the Peace Process • In the Philippines , women run peace zones around villages protecting their children. • In Bosnia women from across ethnic lines are working in parliament to rebuild their communities. • In Burundi the women's coalition is struggling to bring the voices of those most affected by war to the peace talks UN Security Council Debate on Women, Peace & Security But women, who know the price of conflict so well, are also often better equipped than men to prevent or resolve it. For generations, women have served as peace educators, both in their families and in their societies. They have proven instrumental in building bridges rather than walls. They have been crucial in preserving social order when communities have collapsed. . -- Kofi Annan, SG United Nations UN Security Council Debate on Women, Peace & Security Referring to the findings of the recent DPKO/DAW study "Mainstreaming a gender perspective in multidimensional peace operations", Angela King said women's participation in missions had the effect of • Encouraging local women to become involved in the peace process. • Women found to be less hierarchical in dealing with local communities, •Women more likely to confide in women peacekeepers about rape and other sexual violence. UN Security Council Debate Women, Peace & Security • Women’s insistence that peaceful means be found to air grievances and attain a durable peace has been a constant underlying strength of the Bougainville peace process. • Women’s groups in the Solomon Islands have played a key role in bringing the parties together and maintaining the momentum that culminated in the recent settlement agreed in Australia at Townsville. -- New Zealand statement also on behalf of countries of the Pacific Island Forum UN Security Council Debate Women, Peace & Security The efforts and accomplishments of women staff members in multidimensional UN peace operations as UNTAES, UNTAET and especially UNMIK are absolutely precious, because they were instrumental in both conceiving and implementing creative approaches to gender inclusion policies within the host environment and gender mainstreaming within the peace operation. As always, the support of the respective SRSGs and the UNHQ figured prominently in their prospects for success or failure. Source: --- Jelena Grcic Polic, Croatia, Why Women Peacekeepers ? Louise Olsson reports in International Peacekeeping Women 2001: 1. 2. 3. In local societies where women & their dependents are in majority, useful to have large number of women in PK capacities Female Peacekeepers also mitigate security procedures such as body searches of women More balanced number of Peacekeepers would also tend to balance sexual harassment and violence against local women, a growing problem throughout the 1990s. Gender & Peace Operations – The Conflict Phase The following all have all have gendered aspects I Consequences – • Targeting of civilians, and strategic facilities • Economic, cultural social impacts • Environmental destruction II Displacements • Forced Evictions • Refugees • Internally displaced peoples III Sexual Violence – Earlier slides War and Rape Gender & Peace Operations – The Way Forward A gender perspective helps us to: • Discern processes and structures that perpetuate disadvantage- political, economic, cultural • Identify processes and structures that exhibit potential –capabilities, coping mechanisms, organizations , new skills • Design interventions & understand their implications • Understand issues in conflict situations that are gender related. • Source: Gender & Peacekeeping Course, DFAIT http://www.genderandpeacekeeping.org/instructor-e.asp Gender in Peace Operations • We can see the many reasons why we must be sensitive to the gender differences during and after conflict and • We can see clearly why we need to involve women in the peace process Gender in Peace Operations • Remember that there are many different lenses for viewing the world- and gender is a crucial one to assume: • Culturally – different views of gender • Politically – different gender perspectives • Economically –different gender perspectives • And Different World views will affect each category listed above. Gender in Peace Operations • The following slide shows how value systems and cultural backgrounds differ and could be expected to shape our understanding and acceptance of political ideologies, government policy perspectives, war and peace, and gender perspectives. World Views & Values Value System Political ideology War/Peace Perspective Cultural Creative Transformational/ Green Pacifism /Peace/ Global Mind Shift Moderns Liberal Defencism/ Multilateralism Traditionals Conservative Militarism/ nationalism Sources: Value systems Dr. Paul Ray and Dr. Sherrie Anderson. 2000. Ken Wilber. 2002 / Martin Caaedel 1989/ Eaton 1996 [See Reference Handout] References • Gender & Peacekeeping Course, DFAIT http://www.genderandpeacekeeping.org/instructor-e.asp • Vickers, Jill. Reinventing Political Science. A Feminist Perspective. Halifax: Fernwood. 2000. • Louise Olsson & Torunn L. Trygg. 2001. Women International Peacekeeping. Introduction London: Frank Casss • CIDA Gender Equality and Peacebuilding: An Operational Framework http://www.acdicida.gc.ca/cida_ind.nsf/0/38e406811791e81485256990004f1c1e?Ope nDocument • Janine Brodie [Ed] Critical Concepts –An Introduction to Politics. 2001 • Bandarage, Asoka. 1997. Women, Population and Global Crisis, A Political Economic Analysis. London Zed Books. References • Colleen. Burke. 2000. Women and Militarism. Women's International League for Peace & Freedom [WILPF]. 2000. http://www.wilpf.int.ch/~wilpf/publications/wommil.htm • Arundhati Roy. The greater Common Good. http://www.ahmedabad.com/news/july/23arundhati.htm • Human Rights Watch Report 2001 http://www.hrw.org/wr2k1/ • Women 2000. Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict UN Response • United Nations. Division for the Advancement of Women and the Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Women2000. Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: United Nations Response. Published to promote the goals of the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action April 1998. http://srch.un.org:80 • UNIFEM http://www.unifem.org/ Resources/Book Women at the Peace Table Making a Difference References • Martin Caedel. 1989. Thinking About War and Peace.An Intelligent and Informative Sorting Out of Recent thoughts about War. Oxford: Oxford University press. • Fukuyama, Francis. 1993. The End of History and the Last Man Avon Books SBN: 0380720027 • Dr. Paul Ray and Dr. Sherrie Anderson. 2000. The Cultural Creative: How 50 Million People are Changing the World http://www.culturalcreatives.org/bigpicture.html • Allen Hammond, World Resources Insitute, Sant Fe Institute. Which World- 2050 Project paths to the future. • Eaton, Janet M. 1996. Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts as Broad Context for the Transition to Health Care • http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/CommunitySupport/NCC/SCDEFJE.h tml Gender & Peace Operations Prepared by Janet M Eaton POSI, June 11, 2003