INSTRUCTING
FUNDAMENTALS FOR THE
INSTRUCTOR PILOT
Presented by
Graduate Branch, Academics Division,
110th Aviation Brigade
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AVIATION PIONEERS
IGOR SIKORSKY
ORVILLE AND WILBUR
WRIGHT
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TRIAL AND ERROR
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TRIAL AND ERROR
Learning through trial and error is:
Inefficient.
Time consuming.
Suicidal - in an aviation environment.
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TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE
ACTION: Define elements associated with
fundamentals of instruction.
CONDITION: In a classroom environment with
the Aviation Instructors Handbook.
STANDARD: Correctly identify the elements of the
Fundamentals of Instruction by receiving a "GO" on a
criterion referenced test. The student evaluation
plan for this course is available in the Visitor
Folder.
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TERMINAL LEARNING OBJECTIVE
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS: None.
RISK ASSESSMENT LEVEL: Low.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS:
None.
EVALUATION: 50 min, 40 question,
2 Scorable Units.
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ELO A
ACTION: Select elements involved in human
behavior.
CONDITION: In a classroom environment.
STANDARD: IAW the Aviation instructor
handbook.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 1
Human Behavior
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Definitions of Human Behavior
There are many definitions of human
behavior.
In the scientific world, human behavior is seen
as a product of factors that cause people to
act in predictable ways.
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Definitions of Human Behavior
The person who has never spoken in public may be
unable to fulfill the obligation.
Another person knowing the job requires public
speaking will take a class and learn how to cope
with it.
(The Army’s Aviation IPC/MOI Courses)
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 2
Human Needs and Motivation
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Human Needs and Motivation
Human needs are things all humans require for
normal growth and development.
There have been and are many psychologist
that study human needs, motivation, and
personalities.
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Human Needs and Motivation
One such psychologist was Abraham Maslow.
Maslow is known for his Hierarchy of human needs.
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Human Needs and Motivation
Humans needs are satisfied in order of
importance.
Once a need is satisfied, humans work to
satisfy the next level of needs and this is an
ongoing behavior.
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Human Needs and Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Physiological needs are biological. They
consist of the need for air, food, water, and
maintenance of the human body.
Security- All humans need to feel safe. As
Aviation Instructors, we always stress safety
during our flight training.
Belonging- People seek to overcome
feelings of loneliness and alienation.
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Human Needs and Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Esteem- Esteem is feeling good about one’s
self. It comes in two ways, internal and
external. Internal is how you feel about
yourself and external relates to one’s
reputation, status, recognition, appreciation
and respect from others.
This may the main reason why a student is
interested in aviation.
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Human Needs and Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Cognitive and Aesthetic- Cognitive is the need
to know and aesthetic is the emotional need.
If a person understands what is going on they
can control the situation or at least make
informed choices.
( These two were added in later years)
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Human Needs and Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Self-Actualization- Is described as a person’s
need to be and do what which the person was
born to do.
This was paraphrased in an old Army slogan.
“BE ALL YOU CAN BE”
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 3
Defense Mechanisms
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Defense Mechanisms
When humans experience a danger or threat,
the “fight or flight” response kicks in.
Defense mechanism soften feeling of failure,
alleviate feelings of guilt, help an individual
cope with reality, and protect one’s selfimage.
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Defense Mechanisms
Repression
This a defense mechanism whereby a person
places uncomfortable thoughts into
inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind.
Things a person is unable to cope with now
are pushed away, to dealt with at another
time, or hopefully never because they faded
away on their own accord.
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Defense Mechanisms
Denial
Denial is refusal to accept external reality
because it is to threatening. It is the refusal to
acknowledge what has, or will happen.
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Defense Mechanisms
Compensation
Compensation is a process of psychologically
counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by
emphasizing strength in others areas.
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Defense Mechanisms
Projection
An individual places his or her own
unacceptable impulses onto someone else.
A person relegates the blame for personal
shortcoming, mistakes, and transgressions to
others.
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Defense Mechanisms
Rationalization
A subconscious technique for justifying action
that otherwise would be unacceptable.
When true rationalization takes place, the
individual sincerely believes in the plausible
and acceptable excuses which seem real and
justifiable.
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Defense Mechanisms
Reaction Formation
A person fakes a belief opposite to the true
belief because the true belief causes anxiety.
The person will say one thing but do the
opposite.
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Defense Mechanisms
Fantasy
This occurs when a student engages in
daydreams about how things should, be
rather than doing anything about how things
are.
It becomes easier to daydream about the
career than to achieve the certification.
When carried to the extremes, the worlds of
fantasy and reality become one in the same.
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Defense Mechanisms
Displacement
This is an unconscious shift of emotion, affect,
or desire from the original object to a more
acceptable, less threatening substitute.
Physical symptoms such as a change in
personality, anger outbursts, depression, or a
general lack of interest may point to a
problem.
Drug and alcohol abuse may become
apparent.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 4
Students Emotional Reactions
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Students Emotional Reactions
It is not necessary for a flight instructor to be
a certified psychologist, but it is helpful to
learn how to analyze student behavior before
and during each flight lesson.
This ability helps a flight instructor develop
and use appropriate techniques for
instruction.
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Students Emotional Reactions
Anxiety
Anxiety is probably the most significant
psychological factor affecting flight
instruction.
Anxiety is a feeling of worry, nervousness, or
unease, often about something that is going
to happen, typically something with an
uncertain outcome.
This fear may be real or imagined.
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Students Emotional Reactions
Anxiety
An effective technique is to treat fears, as a
normal reaction.
Student anxiety can be minimized throughout
training by emphasizing the benefits and
pleasurable experience, rather than by
continuously citing the unhappy
consequences.
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Students Emotional Reactions
Norman Reaction to Stress
Normal individuals begin to respond rapidly
and exactly, within the limits of their
experience and training.
Many response are automatic.
This highlights the need for proper training in
emergency procedures.
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Students Emotional Reactions
Abnormal Reaction to Stress
Reactions to stress my produce abnormal
responses.
Their responses may be random or illogical, or
they may do more than is called for by the
situation.
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Students Emotional Reactions
Abnormal Reaction to Stress
Certain student reactions are indicative of
abnormal reactions.
Inappropriate reactions such as extreme overcooperation, painstaking self control,
inappropriate laughter or singing and very
rapid changes in emotions.
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Students Emotional Reactions
Abnormal Reaction to Stress
Marked changes in mood on different lessons,
such as excellent morale followed by deep
depression.
Severe anger directed toward the flight
instructor, service personal, and others.
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Students Emotional Reactions
Flight Instructor Actions to Abnormal Students
A flight instructor who believes a student is
suffering from a serious psychological
abnormality has the responsibility to refrain
from instructing that student, and insure that
person does not continue flight training .
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Students Emotional Reactions
Flight Instructor Actions to Abnormal Students
Arrangement should be made for another
instructor, who is not acquainted with the
student to conduct an flight evaluation.
After the evaluation the two instructors
should confer to determine if further actions
are justified.
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Students Emotional Reactions
Flight Instructor Actions to Abnormal Students
If after consultation with the unbiased
instructor, the instructor believes that the
student may have serious psychological
deficiency, endorsements and
recommendations should be withheld.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 5
Teaching the Adult Student
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Teaching the Adult student
While aviation instructors teach students of all
ages, the average aviation student is 30 years
old. (FAA)
Research reveals certain traits that need to be
recognized when teaching adult students.
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Teaching the Adult student
A few of these are:
1. Learning is a means to an end, not the end itself.
2. Have a accumulated a foundation of life
experiences and knowledge to draw from.
3. Goal orientated.
4. Increase or maintain a sense of self-esteem is a
strong motivator.
5. Want to solve problems and apply new
knowledge immediately.
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Teaching the Adult student
Instructors should:
1. Provide a training syllabus that is organized
with clearly defined course objectives.
2. Help students integrate new ideas with what
they already know.
3. Refrain from “spoon-feeding” the student.
4. Create opportunities for mutual planning.
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QUESTIONS ?
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ELO B
ACTION: Select elements involved the
learning process.
CONDITION: In a classroom environment.
STANDARD: IAW the Aviation instructor
handbook.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 1
Definition of learning
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Definition of learning
A change in behavior of the learner as a result
of experience.
The process by which experience brings about
a relatively permanent change in behavior.
The change in behavior that results from
experience and practice.
Gaining knowledge or skills, or developing a
behavior, through study, instructions or
experience.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 2
How do people learn
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How people learn
Perceptions
Initially all learning comes from perceptions
which are directed to the brain by one or
more of the five senses.
Learning occurs most rapidly when
information is received through more than
one sense.
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THE FIVE SENSES
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How people learn
Perceptions
Perceptions involves more than the reception
of stimuli from the five senses, it also involves
giving meaning to sensations. People base
their actions on the way they believe things
to be.
Perceptions may be influenced by many
factors.
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How People Learn
Perceptions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Physical Organism
Goals and Values
Self-Concept
Time and Opportunity
Element of Threat-(Narrows the perceptional field.)
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How do people learn
Insights
Insights involve the grouping of perceptions
into meaningful wholes.
Insight almost always occurs eventually,
whether or not instruction is provided.
Instruction will speeds the learning process by
teaching the relationships as they occur.
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How do people learn
Insights
As perceptions increase in number, they
provide more anchor points for retention.
Providing a secure and nonthreatening
environment helps the student acquire and
maintain a favorable self concept and are key
steps in fostering the devolvement of insight.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 3
Laws of Learning
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Laws of Learning
E.L. Thorndike
Founder of Laws of Learning
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Laws of Learning
Readiness
The basic needs of the learner must be
satisfied before he or she is ready or capable
of learning. The instructor can do little to
motivate the learner if these needs have not
been met.
Instructors can take two steps to keep their
students in a state of readiness to learn.
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Laws of Learning
Readiness
First, instructors should communicate a clear
set of learning objectives to the student.
Second, instructors should introduce topics in
a logical order and leave students with a need
to learn the next topic.
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Laws of Learning
Effect
All learning involves the formation of
connections and the connections
strengthened or weakened according to the
law of effect.
Learning is strengthened when accomplished
by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and
weakened when associated with an
unpleasant feeling.
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Laws of Learning
Exercise
Connections are strengthened with practice
and weakened when practice is discontinued.
The learner needs to practice what has been
learned in order to understand and remember
the learning.
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Laws of Learning
Primacy
The state of being first, often creates a strong,
almost unshakable, impression and underlines
the reason an instructor must teach correctly
the first time and the student must learn
correctly the first time.
The first experience should be positive,
functional, and lay the foundation for all that
is to follow.
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Laws of Learning
Intensity
An immediate, exciting,
or dramatic learning
connection to real
situations teaches much
more than a routine or
boring experience.
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Laws of Learning
Recency
Things most recently learned are best
remembered. Conversely, the further a learner
is removed in time from the new fact or
understanding, the more difficult it is to
remember.
The instructor repeats, restates, or
reemphasizes important matters at the end of
the lesson to make sure that the student
remembers them.
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Laws of Learning
REEPIR
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 4
Domains of Learning
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Domains of Learning
Cognitive
Systems
Preflight
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Domains of Learning
Cognitive
Cognitive domain include remembering
specific facts and concepts that help develop
intellectual abilities and skills. (knowledge)
There are four practical learning levels.
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Domains of Learning
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Domains of Learning
ROTE
The lowest level of
learning is the ability
to repeat something
that one has been
taught without
understanding or
being able to apply
what has been
learned.
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Domains of Learning
Understanding
At this point, the student has developed an
understanding of the procedure for turning
the aircraft in flight.
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Domains of Learning
Application
When the student
understands the procedure
for entering a turn, has had
turns demonstrated, and
has practiced turn entries
until consistency has been
achieved.
Developed the skill to apply what has been learned
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Domains of Learning
Correlation
The correlation level of learning, which should be
the objective of aviation instruction, is that level at
which the student becomes able to associate an
element which has been learned with other
segments or blocks of learning.
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Domains of Learning
Affective
Concerned with:
Feelings
Values
Enthusiasms
Motivations
VALUES
ENTHUSIASMS
MOTIVATIONS
ATTITUDES
Attitudes
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Domains of Learning
Affective
It provides framework for teaching in five
levels:
Awareness
Response
Value
Organizing
Integration
Motivation and enthusiasm are important
components of any learning.
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Domains of Learning
Psychomotor
Physical Movement
Use of Motor-Skills
Development of skills
requires repetitive
practice, and
measured in terms of
speed, precision,
distance and
technique.
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Domains of Learning
Psychomotor
Instructional levels for aviation training
purposes include observation, imitation,
practice, and habit.
This domain is an important component of
instruction when aviation instructors prepare
students for the practical test.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 5
Characteristics of Learning
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Characteristics of Learning
The ability to learn is one of the most
outstanding human characteristics.
Knowledge of the general characteristics of
learning help an aviation instructor use them
in a learning situation.
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Characteristics of Learning
An individual’s background strongly influences
the way that person learns.
To be effective, the learning situation also
should be purposeful, based on experience,
multifaceted, and involve an active process.
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Characteristics of Learning
Purposeful
Each student sees the learning situation from
a different viewpoint.
Their individual needs and attitudes may
determine what they learn as much as what
the instructor is trying to get them to learn.
In the process of learning, the student’s goals
are of paramount significance.
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Characteristics of Learning
Experience
Learning is an individual process and the
instructor cannot do it for the student. The
student can learn only from personal
experiences; therefore, learning and
knowledge cannot exist apart from a person.
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Characteristics of Learning
Multifaceted
Learning process may include verbal,
conceptual, perceptual, emotional, and
problem-solving elements all taking place at
once.
While learning the subject at hand, students
may be learning other things as well.
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Characteristics of Learning
Active
The instructor cannot assume that students
remember something just because they were
present in the classroom, shop, or airplane
when the instructor taught it.
For students to learn, they need to react and
respond, perhaps outwardly, perhaps only
inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 6
Learning Styles
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Learning Styles
Learning styles are simply different
approaches or ways of learning based on the
fact that people absorb and process
information in different ways.
Learning style is an individual’s preference for
understanding experiences and changing
them into knowledge.
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Learning Styles
RIGHT/LEFT BRAIN
According to research on the human brain,
people have a preferred side of the brain to
use for understanding and storing
information.
Generally, the brain functions as a whole. The
right hemisphere may recognize a face, while
the left associates a name to go with the face.
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Learning Styles
RIGHT/LEFT BRAIN
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Look at the chart and say the COLOR not the word
YELLOW BLUE ORANGE
BLACK RED GREEN
PURPLE YELLOW RED
ORANGE GREEN BLACK
BLUE RED PURPLE
GREEN BLUE ORANGE
Left – Right conflict
Your right brain tries to say the color but your left brain
insists on reading the word.
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Learning Styles
Holistic/Serialist Theory
Based on information processing theory, left
brain learners or Serialist learners have an
analytic approach to learning.
Theselearners need well-defined, sequential
steps where the overall picture is developed
slowly, thoroughly, and logically. This is a
bottom-up strategy.
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Learning Styles
Holistic/Serialist Theory
Right brain or holistic learners favor the holist
strategy and prefer a big picture or global
perspective.
This type of learner seeks overall
comprehension; analogies help this learner.
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Learning Styles
Visual/Auditory/Kinesthetic
One of the most popular learning styles is
based on the three main sensory receptors:
vision, hearing, and touch. These are called
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles
(VAK).
Learners generally use all three styles to
receive information, but one of these three
ways of receiving information is dominant.
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Learning Styles
Visual/Auditory/Kinesthetic
They learn best if a major component of the
lesson is something they can see.
They like to take extensive notes. Statistically,
most people are visual learners.
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Learning Styles
Visual/Auditory/Kinesthetic
Auditory learners transfer knowledge through
listening and speaking. These learners need an
oral component to the lesson such as verbal
instructions.
Since auditory learners prefer to listen to
material, they are not good note takers.
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Learning Styles
Visual/Auditory/Kinesthetic
Kinesthetic learner’s process and store
information through physical experience such
as touching, manipulating, using, or doing.
They like to move around while trying to solve
a problem and learn best when the material
being taught involves hands-on practical
experiences.
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Learning Styles
Visual/Auditory/Kinesthetic
Demonstration-Performance method
combines all three and is use primarily for
aviation training by the Army.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 7
Acquiring Skill Knowledge
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Acquiring Skill Knowledge
Cognitive Stage
Cognitive learning has a basis in factual
knowledge.
Performing the skill at this stage typically
requires all the student’s attention.
Distractions introduced by an instructor often
cause performance to deteriorate or stop.
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Acquiring Skill Knowledge
Associate Stage
Practice is necessary in order for the student
to learn how to coordinate muscles with visual
and tactile senses.
As the storage of a skill via practice continues,
the student learns to associate individual
steps in performance with likely outcomes.
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Acquiring Skill Knowledge
Automatic Response Stage
Automaticity is one of the by-products of
practice. As procedures become automatic, less
attention is required to carry them out, so it is
possible to do other things simultaneously, or at
least do other things more comfortably. By this
stage, student performance of the skill is rapid
and smooth.
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Acquiring Skill Knowledge
Knowledge of Results
The instructor provides a helpful and often
critical function in making certain that the
students are aware of their progress.
It is perhaps as important for students to
know when they are right as when they are
wrong.
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Acquiring Skill Knowledge
Knowledge of Results
It is more difficult to unlearn a mistake, and
then learn the skill correctly, than to learn
correctly in the first place.
(PRIMACY)
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Acquiring Skill Knowledge
Learning Curves
Desired and Normal Curves
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Acquiring Skill Knowledge
DESIRED LEARNING CURVE
100 % PERFORMANCE
50
0
TRAINING PERIODS
1 THRU 8
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Acquiring Skill Knowledge
Learning Plateaus
Learning plateaus are a normal part of the
learning process and tend to be temporary,
but instructors and students should be
prepared for them.
In learning motor skills, a leveling off process,
or plateau, is normal and should be expected
after an initial period of rapid improvement.
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Learning Plateaus
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 8
Evaluation Versus Critique
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Evaluation Versus Critique
In the initial stages of skill acquisition,
practical suggestions are more valuable to the
student than a grade.
An instructor ensures a skill is practiced
correctly by monitoring the practice and
providing feedback about the skill
development.
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Evaluation Versus Critique
Providing compliments on aspects of the skill
that were performed correctly help keep the
evaluation positive.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 9
Motivation
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Motivation
Motivation is the reason one acts or behaves
in a certain way.
Being smart or coordinated seldom
guarantees success, but motivation routinely
propels students to the top.
An important part of an aviation instructor’s
job is to discover what motivates each
student.
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MOTIVATION is
Probably the dominant force governs the
student’s progress and ability to learn
and can be used by the instructor.
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Motivation
Learning comes through experience.
Motivation comes in many forms.
It may be Negative or Positive.
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Motivation
Negative
Negative motivation may engender fear.
Negative motivation in the form of reproofs or
threats should be avoided with all but the
most overconfident and impulsive students.
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Motivation
Positive
Positive motivation is provided by the promise
or achievement of rewards.
These rewards may be personal or social, they
may involve financial gain, satisfaction of the
self-concept, personal gain, or public
recognition.
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FINANCIAL GAINS
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FINANCIAL GAINS
PERSONAL
GAINS
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FINANCIAL GAINS
SOCIAL
PERSONAL
GAINS
PUBLIC
GAINS
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FINANCIAL GAIN
SOCIAL
PERSONAL
GAINS
PUBLIC
GAINS
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Motivation
Positive
Positive motivation is essential to true learning.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 10
Memory
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Memory
Sensory Register
Sensory memory is the part of the memory
system that receives initial stimuli from the
environment and processes them according to
the individual’s preconceived concept of what
is important.
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Memory
Sensory Register
The sensory memory processes stimuli from
the environment within seconds, discards
what is considered extraneous, and processes
what is determined by the individual to be
relevant.
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Memory
Sensory Register
This is a selective process where the sensory
register is set to recognize certain stimuli and
immediately transmit them to the short-term
memory, (STM) for action.
The process is called pre-coding.
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Memory
Sensory Register
Sensory memory is capable of retaining
information for only a very short period of
time and within seconds the relevant
information is passed to the STM.
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Memory
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Short-term memory is the part of the memory
system where information is stored for
roughly 30 seconds, after which it may rapidly
fade or be consolidated into long-term
memory.
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Memory
Short-Term Memory (STM)
A key limitation of STM is that it takes 5–10
seconds to properly code information and if
the coding process is interrupted, that
information is easily lost since it is stored for
only 30 seconds.
The goal of the STM is to put the information
to immediate use.
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Memory
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Long-term memory is relatively permanent
storage of unlimited information and it is
possible for memories in LTM to remain there
for a lifetime.
What is stored in LTM affects a person’s
perceptions of the world and affects what
information in the environment is noticed.
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Memory
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Information that passes from STM to LTM
typically has some significance attached to it.
The information was deemed important, and
it was transferred into LTM.
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Memory
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Memory
Memory also applies to psychomotor skills.
(Kinesthetic)
As a pilot, the ability to instinctively perform
certain maneuvers or tasks that require
manual dexterity and precision provides
obvious benefits as being able to fly, talk,
listen and scan all at the same time.
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Memory System
Forgetting
Memory
Forgetting
Forgetting refers to loss of a memory, typically
involves a failure in memory retrieval.
The information is not lost, it is somewhere in
the person’s LTM, but he or she is not able to
retrieve and remember it.
A few theories on why people forget are
retrieval failure, fading, interference, and
repression or suppression.
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Memory
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure
The inability to retrieve information, that tipof-the-tongue phenomenon when a person
knows the meaning of a word, or the answer
to a question, but cannot retrieve it.
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Memory
Forgetting
Fading
Fading theory of fading or decay suggests that
a person forgets information that is not used
for an extended period of time, that it fades
away or decays.
(USE IT OR LOSE IT)
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Memory
Forgetting
Interference
This theory suggests that people forget
something because a certain experience has
overshadowed it, or that the learning of
similar things has intervened.
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Memory
Forgetting
Repression or Suppression
A memory is pushed out of reach because the
individual does not want to remember the
feelings associated with it.
Repression is an unconscious form of
forgetting while suppression is a conscious
form.
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Memory
Retention of Learning
Teach thoroughly and with meaning. Material
thoroughly learned is highly resistant to
forgetting.
Meaningful learning builds patterns of
relationship in the student's consciousness.
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Memory
Retention of Learning
Use the five principles, which are generally
accepted as having a direct application to
remembering.
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Memory
Retention of Learning
1.
2.
3.
4.
Praise Stimulates Remembering.
Recall is Promoted by Association.
Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention.
Learning with All of Our Senses is Most
Effective.
5. Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall.
( PRASM )
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Memory
Retention of Learning
Retention during a typical academic lesson.
After the first 10-15 minutes, the rate of retention
drops significantly until the last 5-10 minutes when
the students wake up again.
Students passively listening- 5% over 24 Hrs.
Students actively engaged in the learning process
have a much higher retention.
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LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 11
Transfer of Learning
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Transfer of Learning
The development of any skill helps acquisition
(or the learning process) has three
characteristic stages: cognitive, associative,
and automaticity.
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Transfer of Learning
Transfer of learning is broadly defined as the
ability to apply knowledge or procedures
learned in one context to new contexts.
During a learning experience, things learned
previously usually aid the student, but
sometimes previous learning interferes with
the current learning task. Consider the
learning of two skills.
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Transfer of Learning
If the learning of skill A helps to learn skill B, positive
transfer occurs.
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Transfer of Learning
If learning skill A hinders the learning of skill B,
negative transfer occurs.
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TH-67 INST TRAINER
UH-60M
OH-58D
CH-47E
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TH-67 INST TRAINER
AH-64D FRONT SEAT
BACK SEAT
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Transfer of Learning
Suggestions will help in achieving positive
transfer of learning.
1. Plan for transfer as a primary objective.
2. Ensure that the students understand
what is learned can be applied to other
situations.
3. Maintain high-order of learning standards.
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Transfer of Learning
4. Provide meaningful learning experiences
that build student confidence.
5. Use instructional material that helps form
valid concepts. Use materials that make
relationships clear.
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Transfer of Learning
Habit formation
Primacy is one of the fundamental principles
of learning. Therefore, it is the instructor’s
responsibility to insist on correct techniques
and procedures from the beginning of training
to provide proper habit patterns.
It is much easier to foster proper habits from
the beginning of training than to correct faulty
ones later.
155
QUESTIONS?
156
ELO C
ACTION: Select elements involved effective
communications.
CONDITION: In a classroom environment.
STANDARD: IAW the Aviation instructor
handbook.
157
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 1
Effective Communications
158
Effective Communications
Three Basic Elements
SYMBOLS
– ORAL
– VISUAL
RECEIVER
SOURCE
FEEDBACK
159
Effective Communications
Effective communication is an essential
element of instruction.
An aviation instructor may possess a high level
of technical knowledge, but he or she needs
to develop the ability to communicate
effectively.
It is also a two-way process.
160
Effective Communications
Communication takes place when one person
transmits ideas or feelings to another person
or group of people.
The effectiveness of the communication is
measured by the similarity between the idea
transmitted and the idea received.
161
Effective Communications
Basic element
Source
The source in communication is the sender,
speaker, writer, encoder, transmitter, or
instructor.
The role of communicators is related to at
least three basic factors.
162
Effective Communications
Basic element
Source
First
The ability to select and use language is
essential for transmitting symbols.
Communication is dependent on the
receiver’s understanding of the symbols or
words being used.
163
Effective Communications
164
Effective Communications
Basic element
Source
Second
Communicators consciously or unconsciously
reveal attitudes.
These attitudes must be positive while
delivering the message.
The message is important and that the
receiver has a need to know the ideas
presented.
165
Effective Communications
Basic element
Source
Third
Communicators must to have the most
current and interesting information possible.
Uninteresting information runs the risk of
losing the receiver’s attention.
166
Effective Communications
Basic element
Symbols
Communication is achieved through symbols
that are simple oral and visual codes.
Words and gestures alone do not
communicate ideas.
They should be combined into units that
mean something to the student.
167
Effective Communications
Basic element
Receiver
The receiver is the listener, reader, student or
individuals to whom the message is directed.
When the receiver reacts with understanding
and changes his or her behavior according to
the intent of the source, effective
communication has taken place.
168
Effective Communications
Receiver
In order to understand the process of
communication, three characteristics of
receivers must be understood:
1. Their Abilities.
2. Their Attitude.
3. Their Experience.
169
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 2
Barriers to Effective
Communications
170
Barriers to Effective Communications
171
Barriers to Effective Communications
The lack of common experience between the
instructor and the student is probably the
greatest barrier to effective communications.
Additionally Confusion between the symbol
and the symbolized object.
172
CONFUSION
BETWEEN SYMBOL AND OBJECT
• Get your nose up.
• Break ground.
• Punch the clock.
• Chop the power.
• A hairy stop.
173
Barriers to Effective Communications
Over use of abstractions. These are word that are
general rather than specific. Abstractions should be
avoided in most cases.
174
EXAMPLES
Aircraft.
Chill out.
Play it by ear.
Hang loose.
Parrot on board.
Sigmets.
I’ve got it.
Squawk.
Brass monkey.
175
Barriers to Effective
Communications
Some barriers to effective communication can
be controlled by the instructor.
Some factors outside the control of the
instructor.
These factors include physiological,
environmental, and psychological
interference.
176
Barriers to Effective Communications
Interference
1. Physiological interference is any biological
problem that may inhibit symbol reception,
such as hearing loss, injury, or physical illness.
2. Environmental interference is caused by
external physical conditions. An example of
this is the noise level in many aircraft.
177
Barriers to Effective Communications
Interference
3. Psychological interference is how the
instructor and the student feel at the time the
communication process is occurring. Fear of
the situation or mistrust between the
instructor and student could severely inhibit
the flow of information.
178
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 3
Developing communication skills
179
Developing communication skills
Communication skills must be developed.
The experience of instructional
communication begins with role-playing
during the training to be an instructor,
continues during the actual instruction, and is
enhanced by additional training.
(RECITING MOI DURNING FLIGHT TRAINING)
180
Developing communication skills
It is essential for the flight instructor to
develop good ground instruction skills, as well
as flight instruction skills.
Likewise, the maintenance instructor must
develop skills in the classroom to prepare the
maintenance student for practical, hands-on
tasks.
( FI’S AND SI’S)
181
Developing communication skills
Listening
Instructors must know something about their
students in order to communicate effectively.
Instructors can use a number of techniques to
become better at listening.
It is important to realize that in order to
master the art of listening, an attitude of
wanting to listen must be developed.
182
Developing communication skills
Listening
1. Do not interrupt.
2. Do not judge.
3. Think before answering.
4. Be close enough to hear.
5. Watch nonverbal behavior.
183
Developing communication skills
Listening
6. Be aware of biases.
7. Look for underlying feelings.
8. Concentrate.
9. Avoid rehearsing answers while listening.
10. Do not insist on the last word.
184
Developing communication skills
(Student Listening)
Students also need to be reminded that
emotions play a large part in determining how
much information is retained.
One emotional area to concentrate on is
listening to understand rather than to prove
something wrong or deny it.
185
Developing communication skills
(Student Listening)
1. Guard against daydreaming.
2. Be emotionally calm.
3. Responsible for listening.
4. Listen to understand not refute
5. Be ready to listen.
6. Take notes.
7. Listen for main idea.
186
Developing communication skills
Questioning
Good questioning can determine how well the
student understands what is being taught.
It also shows the student that the instructor is
paying attention and is interested in the
student’s response.
An instructor should ask both open-ended
and focused questions.
187
Developing communication skills
Questioning
Focused questions allows the instructor to
concentrate on one thing.
Open ended questions are designated for
answers using the student own knowledge or
perceptions.
188
Developing communication skills
Confirm Understanding
Two ways of confirming that the student and
instructor understand things in the same way
are paraphrasing and perception check.
Paraphrasing -Shows what the student’s
statement meant to the instructor.
Perception- Stating what perceptions the
instructor has of the student’s behavior the
student can then clarify as necessary.
189
Developing communication skills
Instructional Enhancement
An instructor never stops learning.
If asked a question that exceeded your
knowledge, you should research the answer
and get back to the student.
DON’T TAP-DANCE
Additional knowledge and training would also
bolster the instructor’s confidence.
190
QUESTIONS ?
191
ELO D
ACTION: Select elements involved the
teaching process.
CONDITION: In a classroom environment.
STANDARD: IAW the Aviation instructor
handbook.
192
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 1
Teaching Process
193
Teaching Process
Teaching is to instruct or train someone or the
profession of someone who teaches.
To be a teacher implies one has completed
some type of formal training, has specialized
knowledge, has been certified or validated in
some way, and adheres to a set of standards
of performance.
(Army’s IPC/MOI)
194
Teaching Process
Research has revealed that effective
instructors possess four essential teaching
skills: people skills, subject matter expertise
skills, management skills, and assessment
skills.
195
Teaching Process
People skills are the ability to interact, talk,
understand, empathize, and connect with
people.
A subject matter expert (SME) is a person who
possesses a high level of expertise,
knowledge, or skill in a particular area.
196
Teaching Process
Management skills generally include the ability
to plan, organize, lead, and supervise.
Assessment of learning is a complex process
and it is important to be clear about the
purposes of the assessment.
The teaching process organizes the material. It
consists of four steps: Preparation,
Presentation, Application, and Assessment.
197
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 2
Teaching Step: Preparation
198
Teaching Step: Preparation
A determination of objectives and standards is
necessary before any important instruction
can be presented.
Performance-based objectives are essential in
defining exactly what needs to be done and
how it is done during each lesson.
Based objectives consist of three elements.
199
Teaching Step: Preparation
PERFORMANCE-BASED OBJECTIVES
A performance-based objective consists
of three parts:
Description of the Skill or Behavior.
Task.
Conditions.
Condition.
Criteria.
Standard.
200
201
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 3
Teaching Step: Presentation
202
Presentation
Instructor must properly organize the material.
Determination of objectives and standards.
Formulates a plan of action.
The traditional organization of a lesson plan is
introduction, development, and conclusion.
203
Presentation
Introduction
The introduction sets the stage for everything
to come.
The introduction is made up of three
elements: attention, motivation, and an
overview of what is to be covered.
204
Presentation
Introduction-Attention element
The attention element is to focus each
student’s attention on the lesson:
The instructor begins by
Telling a story
Showing a video clip
Asking a question
Telling a joke
205
Presentation
Development
Development is the main part of the lesson.
The instructor usually shows these primary
relationships by developing the main points in
one of the following ways:
Past to present
Simple to complex
Known to unknown
Most frequently used to least
206
Presentation
Delivery Methods
Ways to present instructional material:
Lecture
Discussion
Guided discussion
Problem based learning
207
Presentation
Delivery Methods
E-learning
Cooperative or Group
Demonstration-performance
Drill and practice
208
Presentation
Delivery Methods-Lecture
In the lecture method, the instructor delivers
his knowledge via lectures to students who
are more or less silent participants.
209
Presentation
Delivery Methods-Lecture
Lectures are used for:
Introduction of new subjects
Summarizing ideas
Showing relationships between theory and
practice
Reemphasizing main points.
Lectures combined with other teaching
methods may give added meaning and
direction.
210
Presentation
Delivery Methods
Guided Discussion
This training method employs instructorguided discussion with the instructor
maintaining control of the discussion.
The goal of guided discussions is to draw out
what the students know.
211
Presentation
Delivery Methods
Guided Discussion
Following is framework for successfully
conducting the guided discussion:
Introduction: Same as lecture
Discussion: Instructor leads off with a
question.
Conclusion: Closed by summarizing the
material covered.
212
Presentation
Delivery Methods
Demonstration-Performance
The demonstration-performance method is
based on the principle that people learn by
doing.
The demonstration-performance method is
divided into five phases: explanation,
demonstration, student performance,
instructor supervision, and evaluation.
213
Presentation
Delivery Methods
Demonstration-Performance Explanation Phase
Explanations must be clear, pertinent to the
objectives of the lesson to be presented.
Based on the known experience and
knowledge of the students.
Must convey to the students the precise
actions they are to perform as well as the end
result of these efforts.
214
Presentation
Delivery Methods
Demonstration-Performance : Demonstration
The instructor must show students the actions
necessary to perform the skill.
If, due to some unanticipated circumstances,
the demonstration does not closely conform
to the explanation, this deviation should be
immediately acknowledged and explained.
215
Presentation
Delivery Methods
Demonstration-Performance
Student Performance and Instructor Supervision
These two phases, which involve separate
actions, are performed concurrently.
The first the student’s performance of the
physical or mental skills.
The second activity is the instructor’s
supervision.
216
Presentation
Delivery Methods
Demonstration-Performance- Evaluation Phase
The instructor judges student performance.
The student displays whatever competence
has been attained.
The instructor discovers how well the skill has
been learned.
The instructor determines the effectiveness of
the instruction.
217
Presentation
Delivery Methods
Drill and Practice Method
The drill and practice method is a timehonored training delivery method.
It promotes learning through repetition
because those things most often repeated are
best remembered.
218
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 4
Application
219
Application
Application is student use of the instructor’s
presented material.
In most instructional situations, the
instructor’s explanation and demonstration
activities are alternated with student
performance efforts.
Periodic review and assessment by the
instructor is necessary to ensure that the
student has not acquired any bad habits.
220
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 5
Teaching step: Assessment
221
Assessment
Before the end of the instructional period, the
instructor should review what has been
covered during the lesson and require the
students to demonstrate how well the lesson
objectives have been met.
222
Assessment
Review and assessment are integral parts of
each classroom, and/or flight lesson.
The instructor’s assessment may be informal
and recorded for the instructor’s own use in
planning the next lesson for the students, or it
may be formal.
Or the assessment is formal and results
recorded to certify the student’s progress in
the course.
223
QUESTIONS ?
224
ELO E
ACTION: Select the element of the
assessment process.
CONDITION: In a classroom environment.
STANDARD: IAW the Aviation instructor
handbook.
225
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY
Assessment
226
Assessment
Assessment is an essential and continuous
(ongoing) component of the teaching and
learning processes.
An effective assessment provides critical
information to both the instructor and the
student.
Both instructor and student need to know
how well the student is progressing.
227
Assessment
A well-designed and effective assessment is a
very valuable tool for the instructor.
It highlights the performance that is incorrect
or inadequate.
It helps the instructor see where more
emphasis is needed.
228
Assessment
Characteristics
In order to provide direction and raise the
students’ level of performance, the
assessment must be factual and aligned with
the standards.
Some of the requirements for an effective
assessment are:
229
Assessment
Characteristics
230
Assessment
Characteristics
1. Objective The effective assessment is
focused on the student’s performance.
2. Flexible The instructor must evaluate the
entire performance of a student in the
context in which it is accomplished.
3. Acceptable The student must accept the
instructor in order to accept his or her
assessment willingly.
231
Assessment
Characteristics
4. Comprehensive A comprehensive assessment
is not necessarily a long one, nor must it treat
every aspect of the performance in detail.
5. Constructive An assessment is pointless
unless the student benefits from it.
6. Organized An assessment must be organized.
232
Assessment
Characteristics
7. Thoughtful An effective assessment reflects
the instructor’s thoughtfulness toward the
student’s need for self-esteem, recognition,
and approval.
8. Specific The instructor’s comments and
recommendations should be specific. Students
cannot act on recommendations unless they
know specifically what the recommendations
are.
233
Assessment
Characteristics
Traditional assessment generally refers to
written testing, such as multiple choice,
matching, true/false, fill in the blank, etc.
Written assessments must typically be
completed within a specific amount of time.
There is a single, correct response for each
item.
234
Assessment
Characteristics
One shortcoming is that traditional
assessment approaches are generally
instructor centered, and that they measure
performance against an existing standard.
Multiple choice, supply type, and other such
tests are useful in assessing the student’s
grasp of information, concepts, terms,
processes, and rules.
235
Assessment
Critiques & Oral Assessment
The word critique sometimes has a negative
connotation, and the instructor needs to avoid
using this method as an opportunity to be
overly critical of student performance.
An effective critique considers good as well as
bad performance, the individual parts,
relationships of the individual parts, and the
overall performance.
236
Assessment
Critiques & Oral Assessment
A critique may be oral, written, or both.
It should come immediately after a
student’s performance, while the details of
the performance are easy to recall.
There are several useful ways to conduct a
critique.
237
Assessment
Critiques & Oral Assessment
1.
2.
3.
4.
Instructor/Student
Student-Led Critique
Small Group Critique
Individual Student Critique by Another
Student
5. Self-Critique
6. Oral Assessment
238
Assessment
Effective Questions
Characteristic of Effective Questions
Apply to the subject of instruction.
Be brief and concise, but also clear and
definite.
Be adapted to the ability, experience, and
stage of training of the students.
239
Assessment
Effective Questions
Characteristic of Effective Questions
Center on only one idea (limited to who,
what, when, where, how, or why, not a
combination.
Present a challenge to the students.
240
Assessment
Effective Questions
Types of Questions to Avoid
Puzzle
Oversize
Toss-up
Bewilderment
Trick questions
Irrelevant questions
241
Assessment
Effective Questions
Answering student questions
Be sure that you clearly understand.
Display interest in the student’s question.
After responding, determine whether or
not the student is satisfied.
242
Assessment
Effective Questions
Answering student questions
Occasionally, a student asks a question that
the instructor cannot answer. In such cases,
the instructor should freely admit not knowing
the answer.
243
QUESTIONS ?
244
ELO F
ACTION: Select elements of the instructors
responsibilities.
CONDITION: In a classroom environment.
STANDARD: IAW the Aviation instructor
handbook.
245
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY
Instructor responsibilities
246
Instructor Responsibilities
The primary duty of an aviation instructor is to
teach.
The learning process can be made easier by:
1. Helping students learn (development of
students insights)
2. Providing adequate instruction
3. Demanding adequate standards of
performance
4. Emphasizing the positive.
247
Instructor Responsibilities
Helping Students Learn
Learning should be an enjoyable experience.
This does not mean the instructor must make it
easy for the student or sacrifice standards.
248
Instructor Responsibilities
Providing Adequate Instruction
The flight instructor should analyze the
student’s personality, thinking, and ability.
No two students are alike, and the same
methods of instruction cannot be equally
effective.
249
Instructor Responsibilities
Providing Adequate Instruction
Slow Learner
Assigned sub-goals
Separated into elements
250
Instructor Responsibilities
Providing Adequate Instruction
Fast Learner.
Students who are fast learners can also create
problems for the instructor.
Because they make few mistakes, they may assume
the correction of errors is unimportant.
251
Instructor Responsibilities
Providing Adequate Instruction
Such overconfidence (fast learner) may soon
result in faulty performance.
For such students, the instructor should
constantly raise the standard of performance
for each lesson, demanding greater effort.
252
Instructor Responsibilities
Frustrations
Minimizing student frustration during flight
training is a basic instructor responsibility.
Some basic rules are:
1. Motivate Students
2. Keep Students Informed
3. Approach Students as Individuals
4. Give Credit When Due
253
Instructor Responsibilities
Frustrations
5. Criticize Constructively
6. Be consistent
7. Admit errors
254
Instructor Responsibilities
Aviation instructors are on the front line of
efforts to improve the safety record of the
aviation industry.
Safety, one of the most fundamental
considerations in aviation training, is
paramount.
( SAFETY FIRST)
255
QUESTIONS?
256
ELO G
ACTION: Select the characteristics that
identify the flight instructor as a professional.
CONDITION: In a classroom environment.
STANDARD: IAW the Aviation instructor
handbook.
257
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY
Flight instructor as a professional
258
Flight instructor as a professional
Professionalism
The aviation instructor is the central figure in
aviation training and is responsible for all
phases of required training.
259
Flight instructor as a professional
Professionalism
Your students will expect from you an
extremely high standard of performance.
You must be fully qualified as a pilot and must
have a thorough knowledge of teaching
principles.
260
Flight instructor as a professional
Professionalism
The following items should be considered:
1. Sincerity
2. Acceptance of the Student
3. Personal Appearance and Habits
4. Demeanor
5. Proper Language
261
Flight instructor as a professional
Professionalism-Evaluation
Evaluation of demonstrated ability during
flight or maintenance instruction is based
upon established standards of performance.
These are suitably modified to apply to the
student’s experience and stage of
development as a pilot or mechanic.
262
Flight instructor as a professional
Professionalism
Keeping the student informed by evaluating
student demonstrations of ability, it is
important for the aviation instructor to keep
the student informed of progress.
263
QUESTIONS ?
264
ELO H
ACTION: Select the techniques of flight
instruction.
CONDITION: In a classroom environment.
STANDARD: IAW the Aviation instructor
handbook.
265
LEARNING STEP/ACTIVITY 1
Techniques of flight instruction
266
Techniques of flight instruction
Obstacles to Learning
Unfair Treatment Students, who believe that their
instruction is inadequate or that their efforts are not
conscientiously considered and evaluated, will not
learn well. Motivation will decline when the student
believes the instructor is making unreasonable
demands.
Impatience The impatient student fails to understand
the need for preliminary training.
Worry or Lack of Interest Students who are worried
or emotionally upset are not ready to learn.
267
Techniques of flight instruction
Obstacles to Learning
Physical Discomfort, Illness, Fatigue, and Dehydration
Dehydration and Heatstroke The first noticeable
effect of dehydration is fatigue, which in turn makes
top physical and mental performance difficult, if not
impossible.
Apathy Students quickly become apathetic when
they recognize that the instructor has made
inadequate preparation.
268
Techniques of flight instruction
Obstacles to Learning
Anxiety This frequently limits the student’s
perceptive ability and retards the
development of insights.
Providing this atmosphere for learning is one
of the first and most important tasks of the
instructor.
269
Techniques of flight instruction
Demonstration-Performance
Techniques of flight instruction
Demonstration-Performance
The Demonstration-Performance method
is divided into five phases:
Explanation
Demonstration
Student performance
Done Concurrently
Instructor supervision
Evaluation.
271
Techniques of flight instruction
Telling & Doing
Techniques of flight instruction
Demonstration-Performance Telling & Doing
The demonstration-performance method can
be applied to the telling-and-doing technique
of flight instruction in three steps. However,
the telling-and-doing technique includes
specific variations for flight instruction.
For this lesson we will consider the tellingand-doing technique in five steps.
Techniques of flight instruction
Demonstration-Performance Telling & Doing
The Five phases of Telling and Doing method:
Preparation
Instructor tells-Instructor does
Student tells-Instructor does
Student tells-Student does
Student does-Instructor evaluates
274
Teaching Techniques
275
QUESTIONS ?
276
FINALLY
THE END
277