ON THE VERGE OF EMPIRE:
AMERICAN MOTIVATIONS AT THE
TURN OF THE CENTURY
Motivations Overview
1.
Economic Expansion
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2.
Nationalism
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3.
New Markets
Raw Materials
Jingoism
Militarism
Competition
Social Darwinism
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Missionaries
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White Man’s Burden
The Imperial grab-bag, a free-for-all for all world powers.
Arguments For Expansion:
Economic
 Overproduction of Goods:
 American industrialization created more raw
materials and manufactured goods than could be
sold (supply exceeded demand)
 Mass consumption evident in chain stores, mail order,
and department stores
 Required new markets to sell goods
Labor
 Rise of Organized Labor:
 AFL and Knights of Labor
forced higher wages and
better working conditions
 Cost of business increased
 Labor unrest forced
businessmen to find other
labor sources
Other Economic Considerations
 Federal government
increased regulation of
business (anti-trust, most
notably)
 Overseas expansion was
sound economic policy
 Recent recessions: Panic
of 1893 indicated the
need for economic
regulation
Picture of the Panic of 1893 as it would
have affected the New York Stock
Exchange.
Ideological Arguments
 Manifest Destiny:
 Advocated by vocal
“Westward Ho” The angel of “progress
leading Americans westward. The West,
considered the Promised Land, brought
millions in search of cheap land.
expansionists: F.J. Turner,
Theodore Roosevelt, and Henry
Cabot Lodge
 The frontier was quickly
vanishing (due, in part, to
population boom, agricultural,
and industrial expansion)
 The frontier symbolized the
democratic ideal of freedom
and self reliance
 International expansion must
replace geographic barriers in
North America
History of Foreign Policy
The White Man’s Burden
 White Man’s Burden:
 Advocated by
missionaries like Josiah
Strong
 Derived from Rudyard
Kipling’s poem intended
to help the savages
 U.S. must spread
democracy, Christianity,
and civilization
throughout the world
 Brought a sense of
paternalism to colonialism
“The Cares of a Growing Family.” Paternalism, a
condescending approach taken by imperialist
countries to the natives, implied that the civilized
country should treat other countries like children.
Social Darwinism
 Derived from science,
eugenic, and pseudoscienctific (racial) theory
 All countries, in order to
survive, must compete
 The fittest (militarily,
culturally, and
economically) country
and the one which can
adapt, will prevail
Eugenics, the 19th century study of racial genetics
became the main justification for racial superiority.
This, and phrenology, the study of the bumps on a
human head, explained group and individual
psychology
Two Views of Social Darwinism
Ideology
American Nationalism
 Advocated in national elections
 America was destined to be the
The power of the American eagle is clearly
evident in its wingspan which covers the world.
Note, also, that the light from the sun
emanates from behind the bird. Incidentally,
the national bird was originally proscribed, by
Ben Franklin, to be the turkey.
most powerful protector of all
things good: money to spend,
food to eat, human rights,
culture, etc
 America must compete with rival
imperial powers: AustriaHungary, Germany, Britain,
France, and Russia (all the
powers involved in WWI)
 America has the responsibility to
share the right of selfdetermination, democracy, selfgovernment and human rights
Strategic Arguments for
Expansion
 Based on Admiral Alfred T.
Mahan’s Book, The Power
of the Seas
 Claimed a fully equipped
Mahan’s treatise on naval control and supremacy
set off the first arms race of the twentieth century.
The race to mobilize a steel navy and develop new
naval technology was first accomplished by the
Germans, then the British in Europe. The Germans
were the first to develop the submarine
modern navy would ensure
domestic tranquility,
economic control, and
world peace
 Becoming a superpower
depended on a modern
navy
Strategic Militarism
 Arms Race
 Control of the seas depended
on rapid buildup and
construction of a steel navy
 Control of the seas depended
on the rapid deployment of the
navy across oceans
 German superiority in
submarine technology resulted
in their control of the Atlantic
prior to the Great War
 Control of foreign ports
American shipbuilding was a slow process, with
shipyards primarily in the East Coast. It would often
take over 240 days to construct and fit a naval ship.
By World War II, Henry Kaiser cut the time it took to
22 days
 Including the Hawaiian port of
Pearl Harbor, the control of
islands provided fuel, strategic
protection, and a rest stop
In Short
 The imperialist agenda won out
 Character of agenda depended on presidency and
key leadership
 Arguments in favor of imperialism outweighed
arguments against imperialism
 All superpowers, throughout history, have
succeeded on a balanced imperialist policy
 All superpowers, throughout history, have failed if
their policy overextended their ability and resources
We have a foundation
NOW FOR THE STORY
Hawaii
 Hawaii becomes a US
protectorate in 1849 due
to economic interests
 American businessmen
invested in Hawaiian
plantations
 American govt. saw
Hawaii as a strategic local
 Hawaiians seen as inferior
Hawaii: A rebellion
 American farmers revolted against
Queen Liliuokalani
 American marines support rebellion
 Establish “Committee of Safety” to
“protect” the workers
 Queen sought to regain more control of
the islands
 Queen ousted and a new
constitution was drafted
 Grover Cleveland opposed
annexation but congress voted to
go ahead in 1898
Cuba
 Cuba, Spain’s last prized possession
 1868- 10 years of rebellion against the Spain
ends in failure
 US ignores pleas for help
 1895– Maximo Gomez and Jose Marti Gomez
lead another rebellion against Spain
Spain reacts
 1896 Reconcentration policy–
General Valeriano (Butcher) Wyler
 8 Days to move to fortified towns
 Disease, starvation, etc
 Shot if failed to obey
 Burning and destruction of Cuba’s
infrastructure by both rebels and
Spanish
Yellow Journalism
 William Randolph Hearst and
Joseph Pulitzer
 Yellow Journalism--
Publications exaggerate the
atrocities to gain American
Support for intervention.
 Hearst is said to have told his
photographer who was about to
return home from an uneventful
trip to Cuba, “Please remain.
You furnish the pictures and I’ll
furnish the war.”
Yellow Press
Yellow Journalism
 Nickname came from the
newly created colored
comics that left many of
the newspapers covered in
yellow ink
 Immediately pointed to
the Spanish as the
perpetrators of the
explosion even though
they had no motive or
evidence
 McKinley immediately
jumped on the
bandwagon
De Lome Letter
 Spanish ambassador to America sends letter
to Spanish friend in Cuba
 Cuban rebels intercept the letter and expose
the contents
 Hearst published it in his paper
 The letter states: “McKinley is weak and
catering to the rabble and, besides, a low
politician who desires to leave a door open to
himself and to stand well with the jingos of
his party."
Remember the Maine!!!
Spanish
Reaction
 Spanish, wanting nothing
to do with a war and
quickly removed the
accused officials from the
country
 Also offered Cubans
autonomy but this fell way
short of establishing Cuba
as independent.
US Reaction
 President McKinley
wanted an
investigation prior to
war
 Hearst’s paper incited
anger toward the
Spanish with definitive
accusations .
War!!!
 April 19th 1898, after McKinley’s request,
congress declared Cuba free and
independent, demanded Spanish leave and
gave the military permission to take action to
help liberate Cubans.
 “Any Means Necessary”
 Spanish declare war on US
McKinley Asks for Support
 McKinley gets $50 million
approval from congress
 Only 26000 troops
 Congress increased to 62000
and 125000 volunteers added
 Ill equipped with civil war
arms and supplies
 Wool uniforms, civil war
rifles, etc.
 Transporting
of troops was
difficult
Backfiring of Racism and Yellow
Journalism
 Most news had led Americans to believe that the
Cubans were civilized, well trained and intelligent
light-skinned people and the Spaniards as barbaric
dark-skinned savages
 Reality=Opposite (in the eyes of the soldiers)
 Racism prevented the American military from taking
advantage of what was truly a well trained Cuban
population. They Refused to fight along side because
of the racism brought about by Social Darwinists and
Racist Ideals in America.
Dewey’s Victory
 Late April- Dewey, while visiting Hong Kong, Gets word of
war and turns fleet toward Manila (Philippines)
 Paints Ships Grey (were white) and destroys all wood
cargo (notorious for splintering and killing sailors)
A Sailor on the Boston Wrote
 Just two hours after the beginning of the battle
we hauled out and, withdrawing a few miles,
the order was given for breakfast. I was
exhausted from the heat, loss of sleep, and lack
of proper food. I went up on deck. Below the
thermometer was at 116°, and the fresh air was
a great relief. From this vantage point, I could
see the destruction we had wrought.
Total American Casualties
Rough Riders
 Army lacked
organization
 Some groups outfitted
themselves
 Theodore Roosevelt
and Leonard Wood
gathered a group of
primarily cowboys, ivy
league gentleman,
native Americans,
prospectors, and some
Latin Americans and
began organizing while
in Tampa, Fl.
We drew recruits from Harvard, Yale,
Princeton, and many another college; from
clubs like the Somerset, of Boston, and
Knickerbocker, of New York
Rough Riders
Now or Never
 Environment was taking the biggest toll on the soldiers
Roosevelt- Armed with a pistol and a saber, ordered the charge up the hill.
The 9th and 10th Cavalry
 Several regiments of blacks showed
extreme bravery in battle.
 “If it had not been for the Negro cavalry, the Rough Riders
would have been exterminated”
 I am a Southerner by birth, and I never thought much of
the colored man. But…I never saw such fighting as those
Tenth Cavalry men did . They didn’t seem to know what
fear was.”
 Even pro-imperialist and supporter of social Darwinist
ideas Theodore Roosevelt stated that the black troops
were, “an excellent breed of Yankee.”
Kettle Hill and San Juan
Hill
1st stop—Kettle Hill was taken by the Rough
Riders
2nd stop--Roosevelt rode to the top of San
Juan Hill to find that it had already been
taken by the 10th African American
regiment.
Atop the High Ground
Spanish Naval Defeat
 Just as the Americans began loosing moral
ground, the Spanish fleet tried to retreat
from Santiago Harbor but were crushed by
the American Fleet.
Meanwhile, half-way around
the world…
 US, even though the
Filipinos had fought with
us against Spain, took
over the Philippines by
force
 Filipinos fought back but
were placed in
concentration camps just
like the Spanish used in
Cuba
 More casualties fighting in
the Philippines than
against Spain
Anti-Imperialist Leagues
 Andrew Carnegie, Mark Twain, Grover Cleveland,
Benjamine Harrison, Samual Gompers, Jane Addams,
William James
 Annexing without plan for statehood was
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unconstitutional
Occupation without consent violated Declaration of
Independence
Reforms at home needed attention
Too costly
Fighting Filipinos reflected American Hypocracy
Economic
 Federal government
didn’t have the money
 Would require private
contracts which would
further corrupt
government
 Too much labor unrest,
urban poverty,
agricultural depression,
and unemployment
required focus on
domestic spending
Uncle Sam, ever the symbol of American
virtue (and vice) is here seen as a nonchalant
guardian of the world. His posture is
unworried and his expression, unconcerned.
Ideological Arguments
 Imperialism
fundamentally opposed to
American ideals of selfgovernment, selfdetermination, and
democracy
 “Manifest Destiny” was an
excuse for greed and
gaining profit
 “White Man’s Burden” was
inherently patronizing and
racist
Politics
 The government had
failed to ensure the
right of democracy to
African-Americans,
Mexican-Americans,
most immigrant
groups, the poor, and
all women
A Comparative Look:
Arguments For Expansion
 Cheap resources and
new markets
 Manifest Destiny
 Social Darwinism
 Required ports
 Logical extension of
U.S.
A Summary
Arguments Against
Expansion
 Expensive
 Difficult to maintain
 Anti-Democratic
 Racist
 Patronizing
Reactions
 "I have been criticized a good deal about the
Philippines," McKinley said, "but I don't deserve it. The
truth is . . . they came to us as a gift from the gods."
 "Congratulations," Andrew Carnegie wrote to a
leading expansionist. "You seem to have about
finished your work of civilizing the Filipinos. It is
thought that about eight thousand of them have been
completely civilized and sent to heaven. I hope you
like it."
Treaty of Paris
 December 10th, 1898
 Spain reliquishes control of Cuba
 Spain cedes Puerto Rico, Guam, Marianas
and Philippines to the United States
exchange for 20 Million)
(in
American-Filipino War
Statistics
 15000 Filipino Soldiers Died Fighting
 4200 American died fighting
 Cost America 160 million (8X what we had paid for
the islands to begin with)
 Estimated 50,000 to 200,000 Filipinos died
indirectly (starvation, disease, fighting)
Cuba
 Cuba, “a protectorate”
 Interventions in political affairs
 Trade with Cuba increased
tenfold (27 to 300 million)
 Americas investment in Cuba
quadrupled
 Our political, economic and
military control of Cuba fueled
Cuban resentment for years to
come
Puerto Rico
 The Foraker Act (1900) – Made Puerto Rico a
territory but did not grant the inhabitants US
citizenship. The act gave America the
exclusive right to establish whatever
government they saw fit.
 Spain had allowed Puerto Ricans some independence
Public Opinion
Cuba and Puerto Rico are
Different
 American public did not protest the control
exerted over the islands in the west. Because
of the Monroe Doctrine (1823) Americans
believed that we had the right to protect our
interests in the Western Hemisphere and to
prevent the Europeans’ influence in the west
Interpret
China:
Background
 China took an isolative
stance upon arrival of
western powers
 Western powers found
ways of getting into
China– Opium and then
force
 Many in China responded
by trying harder to slam
the door shut
 Eventually western
powers gained access to
China
America’s Reaction
 Brittan, Russia, France,
Japan and Germany
were exerting their
influence in China
 America did not want
the Europeans to gain
complete control over
China
The Cracked Door
 John Hay asked the Europeans to
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open the doors to world trade
Europeans– We might consider it if
they (other euro countries)
consider
Hay acted as if they had given the
thumbs up.
When Chinese rebels laid siege to
Beijing, the US sent troops to help
end the “Boxer Rebellion”
We used our influence during this
event to gain a foothold in China.
We also made it seem, once again,
that we were the saviors or the
Chinese
US offers
China an
alternative
Japan:
If you can’t beat them…