The Spanish-American War
and the
Root Reforms
The problem in Cuba . . .
• Significant U.S. economic interests in Cuba.
• Revolution (off and on) in Cuba since 1868.
– Resumes in 1895
• U.S. interests want stability.
• 1896: General Valeriano Weyler sent to
suppress the rebellion.
– Weyler’s methods were brutal.
– Reconcentrado policy
The problem in Cuba . . .
the U.S. “war faction”
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Humanitarians
“Jingoists”
Elements of the Republican Party
Expansionists
. . . and the “Yellow Press”
Joseph Pulitzer
The New York World
William Randolph Hurst
The New York Journal
January 1898, USS Maine arrives in Havana
The slide toward war . . .
• McKinley was opposed to war.
• 9 FEB, Hurst publishes “DeLome Letter”
“. . . McKinley is weak and a bidder for the
admiration of the crowd besides being a
would-be politician who tries to leave a door
open behind himself while keeping on good
terms with the jingoes of his party”.
18 February 1898
USS Maine blows up.
The slide toward war . . .
• 25 February: Roosevelt instructs Navy to attack
Philippines in the event of war.
• 11 April: McKinley calls for intervention in Cuba.
– Approved 20 April
• 20 April: Teller Amendment Teller Amendment.
• 23April: Spain declares war on the U.S.
1 May 1898
Battle of Manila Bay
22-24 June
US troops land in Cuba
Hawaii annexed 7 July
Sanford Dole
American businessmen took over
Hawaii in 1893.
Queen Lili‘uokalani’
• 17 July: Santiago surrenders to General
William Shafter
• 12 August: Spain signs armistice
• 13 August: US troops capture Manila
Costs . . .
• $250,000,000
• 5,462 Americans dead
• 385 KIA
• 5,077 of disease
• 1,604 WIA
Results . . .
The Treaty of Paris, 1898
• Cuba would become independent
• Temporary American occupation
• Platt Amendment
• Spain would assume Cuban debt.
• U.S. acquires:
• Puerto Rico
• Guam
• Philippines (for $20 million)
The American Empire, 1898
The American Empire, 1898
Election of 1900
• Imperialism the major issue.
• McKinley wins. 295 to 155
• 6 September, 1901 McKinley shot.
“That damn cowboy’s President!”
The Filipino-American War
The Filipino-American War
1898-1902(?)
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Vicious and brutal (both sides).
Significant American war crimes.
Aguinaldo eventually captured.
Taft’s teachers.
Roosevelt declares war over 4 July 1902.
• Americans and Filipinos eventually develop
a close relationship.
Summary . . .
• Spanish-American War makes U.S. an
international power.
• America’s new role accepted by most
Americans.
• The Navy’s performance reinforced the
ideas of Mahan.
• The Army’s performance left much to be
desired.
China Relief Expedition
1900-1901
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Commander, BG Adna Chaffee
9th and 14th Infantry Regiments
Detachment, 6th Cavalry
Battery F, 5th Artillery
Battalion, U.S. Marines
China Relief Expedition
Multinational force,
19,000 troops.
Americans worked with:
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British
French
Italian
Russian
German
Austrian
Japanese
The “Root Reforms”
• Army’s performance in the war with Spain
had been poor.
– Outdated organization; Staff and Line
– Archiac equipment
– No real planning capability
• Elihu Root become Secretary of War, 1899.
– a corporate lawyer
The “Root Reforms”
• Elihu Root become Secretary of War, 1899.
– a corporate lawyer
The “Root Reforms”
• Weapons improvements:
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1903 Springfield replaces the Krag
Knife bayonet replaces rod bayonet
Smokeless powder replaces black powder
New 3 in. artillery field piece
Experimentation begun with machine guns
.45 M1911 Colt pistol replaces the .38 caliber
revolver
3-inch M1902 field gun
Colt
Lewis
Hotchkiss
Colt M1892
S&W .38 Special
1898
The “Root Reforms”
• The General Staff Bill
– Root reads Upton’s
Military Policy of the United States
– LTC William Carter helps convince him
– Congress passes the bill in 1903.
The General Staff
Chief of Staff
G-1
Administration
G-2
Intelligence
G-3
Operations
and Training
G-4
Logistics
Improved education . . .
• Army War College
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General Staff and service College
Service Schools:
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Artillery
Engineer
Submarine Defense (mines and torpedeos)
Cavalry and Field Artillery
Medical Corps
Signal Corps
Regulars vs. the Militia
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Militia Act of 1903, “Dick Act” reforms the militia
– “Organized Militia”
– Reserve Militia
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National Guard
Federal $$ made available to National Guard
Drills twice a month
Annual training
Regulars could be detailed to the Guard
President could proscribe length of Federal service
President could appoint all officers while in Federal
Service.
Higher Echelon Organization
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Largest peacetime organization = regiment.
1910, General Staff draws plans for divisional
organization.
• Provisional division formed in 1911.
• Average strength of the Army 1902-1911 = 75,000
• Average installation strength = 700
The Army continued its non-military functions.
• Provided governmental services in
American colonies.
• Projected American power in “operations
other than war.”
– “Little Wars”
• Built the Panama Canal
Then came Mexico . . .
and war in Europe.