Consolidation of Russian conservatism
• What is special about the 19th century in
Russia? It is a society so different from the
west but its effect is still felt in the failure of
Russia to adapt to modernity. The chaos in
Russia to day may be traced back to these
times.
Russian expansion
Nicholas I 1825-55
• His principles of government
– Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality
– Orthodoxy:
• The church the most important supporter of the
government.
• Only orthodox are reliable subjects
Autocracy
• Defender of the old paternalistic discipline
against the influence of rotten pagan France
• Horror of the decembrists revolt
• The Tsar is the father
• The third section of the Chancery was in
charge of state security
– Shadowed 2000 persons annually
Nationality
• Slavophils thought russian institutions
superior to institutions of the west.
• Extension of Russian influence over the
neighboring countries, Balkan countries,
countries to the south (Armenia),
Vladivostok founded in the east.
• Suppression of the Polish revolt 1831
Where are the forces of change?
• Literature and papers were heavily censored
– Alexander Pushkin - Gogol
• 1848 the Buturlin commission was established to
regulate the work of existing censors
• University education increased until after the 1848
revolution – To educate officials – byproduct –
some learned to think
• Enlightened bureaucrats had some interest in
reform
• Reform were only allowed if government acted
alone. – Tsar Nicholas afraid of change
Serfdom
• The primal social problem of Russia was
the institution of Serfdom
• Size of the serf population
• How was the serf/owner relationship
• If Nicholas admitted the ills of this system,
why didn’t he abolish it?
• What effect did serfdom have on the
development of society in Russia?
Russia lost the Crimean War 54-56
• Tsar Nicholas died during the war
• Russian strength proved to be an illusion
• Lack of communication hindered
mobilisation
• Industry unable to provide weapons
• The autocratic government was forced to
reform, otherwise Russia and Autarchy
would perish
Alexander II
• Why did Alexander instigate reform?
– Out of concern for his subjects?
– Because of Russias backwardness
– Because of rural unrest
• Reforms:
–
–
–
–
–
Emancipation
Zemstvos
Judical system
Educational reform
Military reform
Emancipation
• Emancipation of 40 million serfs 1861
– Peasant serfs received land but had to pay for it.
• The government compensated the landowners with
government bonds but the peasants paid redemption
to the state for 49 years
• The Mir, the peasant commune was responsible for
these payments.
• The landowner kept one third of the land, usually
the best? ?
• The mir could repartition land
Zemstvos
• Assemblies for local government that
replaced landlord government
• Elected assemblies but still dominated by
landlords.
• Responsible for administering
– Schools, public health, poor relief, roads.
• Alexander turned down suggestions for
national Zemstvo of Zemstvos
Judicial reforms
• The nobles lost their role as judges and a
new judicial system was introduced with:
–
–
–
–
Proceedings in public
Same laws applying to all classes
Jury system
Judges independent of government
• But still we have political courts, censorship and
strong police.
Military and educational reform
•
•
•
•
Conscription reduced from 25 years to 6
Universal military service by draw
Military service no longer punishment for crimes
Education liberalized, increased number of
university students and liberalization of
curriculum, 2000 women in univ. 1881
• Gymnasiums founded (history not allowed)
• Zemstvos allowed to open primary schools
Economic reform
• Railway building 700-14000 miles 1855 to
1881.
• Encouraged grain export with success
• Establishment of banks encouraged.
• Settlement limitation on Jews lifted,
– They can trade and work as artisans everywhere
in Russia
Finland - Polland
•
•
•
•
Calling of diet in 1863
Constitution in 1867
Finnish recognized as official language in 1872
Polland enjoyed some liberties but polish
nationalism and Tsarism could not be reconciled
• After the Polish revolt in 1863 liberal agrarian
reform in Polland but russification continued.
The radical opposition
• Alexanders II reforms raised hopes but he
was not ready to go further
– Typical dilemma of the reformer, you can not
satisfy both the liberals and the conservatives
– The intelligentsia: a critically thinking minority
• Blended the ideas of slavophiles and westernisers
• Wanted some kind of a unique Russian freedom
• Tended to be absolutists, wanted to find the “truth”
– No compromises – tended to be fanatical
Opposition taking form in the sixties
• Bakunin – anarchy of the simple peasant
• Herzen – Socialism based on the mir
• Chernyshevsky –
– What is to be done?
– Fundamental change necessary
– Democracy means individual freedom, selfgovernment and a federal system
Alexander and the intellig...
• The Zemstvos called for a central Zemstvo
– Alexander rejected the idea then
– The intelligentsia had no outlet for their ideas in
practical politics – had no influence
– Many of them would have supported the Tsar
– Now they became underground fanatics
– Attempts on Alexanders live 1866 and 1867
made him more reactionary
The opposition movement
• Populism (Narodnic)
– go into the countryside 1874 and 1876 to teach the
peasants but no contact
• Trial of the leaders gave great publicity
– Form Land and liberty 1877
• Vera Zasulich tried for the murder of general Trepov and
acquitted.
• Both trials showed the government incompetent
and impotent
• Public opinion changed in favor of radicals
Rise of terrorism
• The “Peoples Will” split out of Land and
Liberty”.
– Made repeated attempts on the Tsars life.
– When PW killed him in March 1881 Alexander
he had just given approval for a national
assembly.
– The new Tsar Alexander III was conservative
and under influence of Pobedonostsev like his
son Nicholas II.
Death of Alexander
• After assassination attempts Alexander
appointed Loris-Melikov minister of
interiror
– Some attempt to liberalize the government
– When Alexander was killed on 13th of March
1881 he had approved the calling of a national
assembly
– His son Alexander III recalled this measure
Alexander III
• Influenced by the conservative Pobedonostsev
– Autocracy agains democracy
– Orthodox against other sects
– Russian against other nationalities
• Attempted to reinstate the influnce of the nobility
and attack the Zemstvos
– Limited franchise – 21 000 to 7000 in St. Petersburg
– Raising tuition fees for universities
– Illiteracy rate 79 % 1897!!
• Pan-slavism becoming influential
Russification
• Russian 45% of the population of the empire in 1897 (total
pop. 125 mill.)
• Confiscation of church property in Poland
• University in Warsaw closed 1869
• Russian as an administrative language
• Similar attacks on Ukrainians, Tartars, Georgians.
• Alexander III also attacked nations that had been loyal to
the Tsar like the Finns, Baltics and Armenians.
• Alexander also limited rights of Jews and pogroms were
supported. Jews become socialists and Zionists
Foreign policy before Crimea
• Holy Alliance with Prussia and Austria 1815
– Peace, concorde and love
• Nicholas 1 the policeman of Europe to 1848
• Agreed to Belgian independence 1831
• Still nationalism and democracy is a threat
• Gained Caucasus and part of Armenia
• Winning Turkey in a war 1828 – establishing protectorate in Moldavia
and Wallachia and gaining free access through the straits
– The eastern question –Nicholas sought agreement between Russia,
Austria and Britain
– If Turkey crumbled the pieces should be divided in accord
1848
• Economic crisis in Russia
• Revolts in Europe
• Supressed the Hungarian revolt on demand from
Austria
• Suspicious towards the regime of Louis Napoleon
in France
• Napoleon demanded the keys to the temple of
Betlehem taken from tho Orthodox priests and
given to the catholics – Nicholas outraged!
Foreign Policy: The Crimean war.
• The Crimean war is a part of the “Eastern
question”.
• “The Eastern question” was the question: How are
the European powers going to respond to the
crumbling of the Turkish empire in Europe.
• Russia wanted to gain free access to the
Mediterrainian from the Black Sea.
– This included influence in the states along the
Black Sea Coast west of Russia.
Charge of the
light brigade
The war started 1854
• In 1853 Russia moved army to Moldavia and
Wallachia.
• Turkey attacked Russia but lost its fleet at Sinope
and to avoid the danger of russian domination:
– France and Britain attacked Sebastopol in the Crimea.
Piedmont took also part.
– Austria stayed neutral but threatened Russia
• Russia gave up in 1856. Russian influence in the
Balkan and the straits was reduced.
Crimean war
Effect of Crimean war
• Internationally
– Austria isolated from Russia and the west.
• Opening up for Italian unification
• France becomes dominant power
• Prussia gains prestige among German states
– Russia becomes isolated and the unification of
Germany becomes more likely.
• In Russia
– Reforms from above 1855-1874
Russian foreign policy after the
Crimean war
• From 1856-1870 Russia passive
– Bitterness towards Austria because Austria had not
supported Russia in the war
– Russian aim to revise the Black Sea clauses of the
treaty of Paris
– 1856-63 friendship with France the strongest power in
Europe
– Renounced this friendship after
• French adventures in Italy and
• the sympathy for the Polish revolt 1863 in France
Leaning towards Prussia
• Prussia offered aid against the Polish rebels
• Russia remained neutral during Prussian
wars of unification
• During the Franco-Prussian war 1870
Russia renounced the Black Sea clauses
• The other powers opposed this in principle
but notin action
Alignment with Germany 1870-90
• Bismarck alignes Prussia with Austria and Russia in the
Dreikeiserbund.
– A dubious friendship because of conflicting interest in the Balkans
• 1877-78 Russia declares war on Turkey after the brutal
Turkish suppression of the Bulgarian uprising
• Treaty of San Stefano (march 78) created a big Bulgaria
– However in
– The Congress of Berlin in June 1878 Bulgaria was reduced and so
also Russian influence in the Balkans
•
San Stefano and Berlin concress
The end of German friendship
• After the Congress in Berlin Germany became suspicious
of Bismarck
• The alliance lasted to 1890 when the new German emperor
Wilhelm II refused to renew the Reinsurance treaty with
Russia
Russia turns to France for alliance (entente 1894)
– After Crimean war Russia had limited scope for influence in
Europe and focused on expansion in Asia.
• Alaska sold 1867
• Foundation af Vladivostok 1861