KENDAL COLLEGE
INTERGRATED THERAPIES
VTCT LEVEL 3 BEAUTY THERAPY
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
Student name: Sardana Sanderson
Date handed in:18/01/2015
Amendments:
Tutor comments:
Signature:
Date completed:
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Knowledge requirements
Define the common directional terms
 Dorsal-located in the posterior (back) region of the body.
 Frontal- divides the body into front (anterior) portion and rear (posterior) section.
 Lateral-away from mid-line.
 Medial-towards the mid line
 Superior- situated above or towards the upper part
 Inferior-situated below or towards the lower part
 Proximal-nearest to the point of reference.
 Distal-furthest away from the point of reference.
Label the diagram identifying the common regions, planes and directional terms of the body:
superior
posterior
anterior
proximal
medial
distal
lateral
deep
superficial
midline
inferior
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CELLS AND TISSUES
Describe the main chemical elements found in the body
 Carbon: makes up 18.6% of the mass in the human body. It is found in every organic
molecule and is absorbed through the food we eat and the air we breathe. It leaves the
body as a waste product when it is exhaled as carbon dioxide.

Calcium: is an element in the body that makes up 75% of the total minerals. The heart
muscles, nerves and the processes of blood clotting all rely on calcium to functions normally
and efficiently. 99% of the calcium is focused in the bones and teeth and the rest in the
fluids and soft tissues.

Oxygen: makes up for 61-65% of the mass in the human body. It is the most important since
it produces heat and energy when brought together with fats, carbohydrates and proteins in
the body. The main supply comes from the air but is absorbed through food and water.
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
Hydrogen: allows the cells in the body to stay hydrated because it makes up two thirds of
water. The toxins and wastes are flushed out the body and the nutrients can be moved to
the cells that need them, the joints and fluid and non-stiff and the immune system can fight
off infections and bacteria’s because of hydrogen.

Nitrogen: is absorbed through digesting food this allows growth in the body. It is an
important element in the body particularly during pregnancy.
Describe the components of the cell and label a diagram identifying:
 Nucleus: is the largest organelle in the cytoplasm. It is the control centre of the cell and is
responsible for the cell’s functions and regulating the metabolic activities. The nucleus
controls the cell’s own growth, repair and reproduction. The nucleus contains all the
information to keep the cell functioning and to control all the cellular operations.

 Membrane: is a fine membrane that protects the cells and their contents. The membrane
controls the movements of molecules moving in and out of the cell. Oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, proteins are taken into the cell as necessary and cellular waste like carbon
dioxide is passed out through the membrane. As well as directing the exchange of nutrients
and waste materials, its function is to maintain the shape of the cell.

Cytoplasm: is a gel like substance contained by the cell membrane. The cytoplasm holds the
nucleus and the small cellular structures called organelles. Most cellular metabolism occurs
inside the cytoplasm of the cell.

Golgi body: is a collection of flattened sacs placed inside the cytoplasm. The Golgi body is
most likely to be located near the nucleus and attached to the endoplasmic tic reticulum.
The sacs store the proteins made in the endoplasmic reticulum that are later transported
out of the cell.

Mitochondria: are oval shaped organelles that lie in varying number of groups inside the
cytoplasm. The mitochondria are responsible for providing the cells with ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) a compound that stores the energy needed to power the cell activities.

Ribosomes: are small organelles made up of RNA and protein. The organelles are typically
fixed to the walls of the endoplasmic reticulum or float freely in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes
create proteins to use in the cell and other proteins to transport outside of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum: are a number of membranes continuous with the cell membrane. It
is a translucent transport system that supports the movement of materials. The system links
in the cell membrane with the nucleus membrane allowing movement of materials out of
the cell. It holds enzymes and participates in the production of proteins, carbohydrates and
lipids. It stores materials, carries substances inside the cell and detoxifies harmful agents.
The endoplasmic reticulum’s can look smooth but others may seem rough because of
ribosomes.
endoplasmic reticulum
plasma cell membrane
nucleus
plasma
golgi body
mitochondria
ribosome
lysosome
Label parts of the cell:
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Describe the properties of the cell:
 Nutrition: is created by the glucose provided from the cryohydrate metabolism and the
oxygen from the respiratory system. It is an important fuel to power the cell. The function of
the cell is to exchange the fluids, nutrients, chemicals and irons that are moved out by
passive processes like diffusion, osmosis, filtration and other processes like the active
transport.

Growth: cells have the ability to grow until they are mature and ready to produce. When a
cell grows it can repair itself by producing proteins.

Respiration: is an important process for every cell. Oxygen is required in metabolism and is
absorbed through the cells semi-permeable membrane and is used oxidise nutrient material
to produce heat and energy. Waste products are created as a result of cell respirations that
include carbon dioxide and water. These are moved out from the cell by the semipermeable membrane.

Excretion: takes place during metabolism when various substances are produced that are no
longer useful to the cell. The waste products are removed through the cells semi-permeable
membrane.

Irritability: is the function that allows the cell to respond to stimulus that may be a physical
chemical or thermal. For example, a muscle fibre contracts when stimulated by a nerve cell.
Describe tissue types:
 Epithelia: are the tissues that provide coverings and linings for a majority of the organs and
vessels.

Connective: tissues are the largest in number. They connect tissues and organs for
protection and support.

Nervous: tissues are made up of nerve cells named neurons that sense and send nerve
signals.
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
Muscle: is the elastic tissue that is able to contract. These tissues are located and attached
to the bones, in the wall of the heart, walls of the stomach, intestines, bladder, uterus and
the blood vessels.

Bone: tissues come in two main types the compact bone and spongy bone. Individual bones
in the body can be made up by these tissues.
Describe the different types of membranes:

Mucous: these membranes line the cavities and canals that are open to the exteriors parts
of the body like the digestive and respiratory tract.

Serous: membranes line the body cavities that are not open to the outside environment.
These include the heart and lungs which are shielded by these membranes.

Synovial: membranes line the moveable joint cavities in the body these are the shoulders,
hips and knees. A lubricating fluid is secreted into the joints to allow free movement.
Describe three common diseases/disorders of the skin:
Psoriasis – affects around 2% of Caucasians making it a widely common skin disorder. The reason
behind it is unknown but is believed to be inherited by a defect in the skin, which causes the
psoriasis. It is known to appear through infection, trauma and mental stress. It can be trigged at any
time but is commonly present between the ages 15 – 30, a person who has one or both parents with
the disorder are more likely to have the disorder themselves.
The areas of the body affected by the disorder are the elbows, knees and back. Most likely to be
sites with less underlying flesh. The signs are dull, red papules in round or oval shapes with well
defined margins and covered in slivery scales.
Eczema- a skin condition that a large number of people suffer from. It is caused by the skins
intolerance to a sensitizer causing a sequence of inflammatory changes. When triggered the signs
are a red rush, itchiness, scaling of the skin that may become loose and thin or thick depending on
how the normal process of keratinization has been affected. As well as blisters that may be weeping
and the skin may crack. The symptoms and appearance of eczema could occur in two or more of the
characteristic listed above making it different from one person to another.
There are two types pf eczema:
1) Endogenous: caused by an internal stimulus via the bloodstream.
2) Exogenous: caused by external contact with a primary irritant to which the skin is allergic. This
condition is often referred to as contact dermatitis. Some of the main irritants are cosmetics,
detergents, soap, rubber, dyes. If the irritant which causes the exogenous eczema is identified then
the avoidance of that substance will affect a cure.
Contact dermatitis-is an inflammatory skin condition, when brought on by an irritant the skin turns
red, dry and swollen. Irritation can be caused by acids, alkalis, solvents, perfumes, lanolin, detergent
and nickels. This could lead to an infection of the skin.
10 Describe the types of bone:
 Long: these are weight bearing bones that provide structural support (arms and legs).

Short: allow a wide range of movement that long bones can’t (wrist and ankle).

Irregular: bones come in a variety of shapes: usually have projections that muscles, tendons
and ligament can attach to (vertebral column and some facial bones).

Flat: bones are for protection (skull, scapula, ribs, sternum and pelvic bones).

Sesamoid: are small rounded bones embedded in a tendon (kneecap and patella).
11 Label a diagram identifying the bones of the:
skull
vertebral column
shoulder girdle
clavicle
scapula
thorax
upper limbs
sternum
humerus
ribs
vertebral column
radius
pelvis
ulna
pelvic girdle
lower limbs
femur
patella
tibia
fibula
arches of foot
12 Explain in detail the functions of the skeleton:
 Support: The skeleton is able to hold and bear the weight of the tissues. It allows us to stand
up. The bones of the vertebral column, pelvis, feet and legs all support the weight of the
body.

Attachment: The bones act as an attachment for the muscles and tendons and act similar to
an anchor, which allows the muscles to function efficiently.

Protection: The bones protect the vital organs and all of the tissues. The skeleton is formed
in a way that surrounds the vital organs and tissues with a tough ands resilient cover. The
ribcage protects the heart and lungs and the vertebral column protects the spinal cord.

Development of blood cells: These cells are developed in a red bone marrow found in
cancellous bone tissues.

Mineral reservoir: The skeleton acts as storage for important minerals like calcium that can
be released when the body needs it for metabolic processes like muscle contraction and the
condition of nerve impulses.

Movement: Movement is able to happen as a result of coordinated action of the muscles
upon the bones and joints. Bones are, therefore, levers for muscles.
13 Describe the types of joints:
 Synovial: these types of joints are able to move freely and have a joint cavity containing a
lubricant called synovial fluid secreted by a membrane.

Fibrous: is an immovable joint held together by fibrosis connective tissue.

Cartilaginous: is a slightly moveable joint connected by cartilage.
14 Describe the range of joint movements for:

Shoulder: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction.

Elbow: flexion, extension.

Wrist: flexion, extension, adduction, abduction.

Hip: allows movement in many directions around a central point: flexion, extension,
adduction, abduction, rotation, and circumduction.

Knee: movements are possible in only one plane: allows flexion and extensions.

Ankle: inversion and eversion.

Intervertebral: only permits rotation
15 Describe three common disorders/diseases of the skeleton system:
Arthritis: - is a gout-joint disorder caused by an excessive collective of uric and crystals accumulating
in the joint cavity (commonly affects peripheral joints and the metatarsophalangeal joint of the big
toe) The kidney can also be affected. Other cartilage may be involved as well.
Arthritis rheumatoid- takes place when the peripheral joints become chronically inflamed. It comes
with a pain and stiffness within the joints, and can potentially cause damage in the joints that can
lead up to a severe disability. Joints swelling and rheumatoid nodules are tender.
Bursitis- is an inflammation of the bursa (a small sack of fibrosis tissue that is lined with synovial
membrane and filled with synovial fluid) as a result of injury or infection and can cause pain,
stiffness and tenderness in the joint.
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
16 Describe the structure of :

Cardiac muscle: are located in the walls of the heart. These muscles are striped in
appearance with a branched structure, with a single nucleus and intercalated discs in
between each cardiac muscle cell. They provide a flow of consistent blood in the body.

Involuntary muscle: are found in the digestive and urinary tract and in the walls of the
blood vessels. These muscles are striated and shaped like a spindle, with a single nucleus.
They move materials through the tracts (digestive, genitor-urinary).

Voluntary muscle: are skeletal muscles attached to the bones. They appear to be striped
and have many nuclei held together by the connective tissues. Voluntary muscles facilitate
the movement of the bones and move blood and lymph. These muscles are also responsible
for heat production and maintain the posture.
17 Describe the functions of muscle:
 Movement- is co-ordinated from the actions of muscles pulling of bones at the joints. The
muscles are also responsible for the movement of blood and lymph.

Maintaining posture-a slight tension in some muscles create positioning of the body against
gravity (sitting or standing).

The production of heat-muscles creating movement of the body generate heat as a product,
helping maintain body temperature.
18 Labels the muscle of the body
deltoid
biceps
pectorals
intercostal
obliques
extensors
rectus abdominus
adductors of the thigh
abductors of the thigh
tibialis anterior
quadriceps
19 List three common disorders/diseases of the muscular system:
Fibromyalqia - Is a chronic condition that produces muscular-skeletal pain. Symptoms before the
condition sets in include a widespread muscular skeletal pain, lethargy and fatigue. The other
characteristics are poor sleep in which the patient has interrupted sleep and wakes up tired and
exhausted. There is also stiffness in the muscles, pins and needles, headaches, the patient finds it
hard to concentrate, memory loss, low mood, frequent urinary, abdominal pain and irritable bowel
syndrome. Anxiety and depression is also common.
Carpal tunnel syndrome -Symptoms include a pain and numbness in the thumb or hand. A pin and
needles sensation might stem in the elbow, it’s common to cause severe pain at night and can cause
muscle wasting of the hands. The condition is most likely to affect people who perform repetitive
strains of the wrist, in professions like massage therapists and secretaries. It is caused as a result of
pressure on the median nerve of the wrist.
Sprain - This is a complete or incomplete tear in the ligaments around a joint. It usually follows a
sudden, sharp twist to the joint that stretches the ligaments and ruptures some or all of its fibres.
Sprains commonly occur in the ankle, wrist and the back where there is localised pain, swelling and
loss of mobility.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
20 Describe the structures of the nervous system:
 Central - this is the main control system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord, it’s
covered by a special type of connective tissue called the meninges. The meninges have
three layers:

Dura mater - this is the outer protective fibrous connective tissue sheath covering the brain
and spinal cord.

Pia mater - this is the innermost layer which is attached to the surfaces of organs and is rich
supplied with blood vessels to nourish the underlying tissues.

Arachnoid mater - this provides a space for the blood vessels and circulation of
cerebrospinal fluid.

Peripheral (PNS) - this system can be subdivided intro the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.

Autonomic - Supplies impulses to smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, skin, special senses,
proprioceptors (sensory nerve endings located in muscles and tendons that transmit
information to coordinate muscular activity), organs and glands. The autonomic nervous
system is made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions that hold complimentary
responses. The activity of the sympathetic system is to prepare the body for expending
energy and dealing with emergency situations. The parasympathetic system balances the
action of the sympathetic division by working to save energy and create conditions needed
for rest and sleep. It slows down the body processes except digestion and the function of
genito-urinary system.
21 Describe the functions of the nervous system: The nervous system has three main functions:
1. It senses changes both within the body (the internal environment) and outside the body (the
external environment).
2. Its analyses the sensory information, stores some aspects and makes decisions as to how to
respond. This is called integration.
3. It may responds to stimuli by initiating muscular contractions or glandular secretions.
22 Describe four common disorders/diseases of the nervous system:
Depression - A combination of low mood, decrease in appetite, poor sleep, lack of concentration
and interest as well a lack of enjoyment in previously loved activities, constipation and the loss of
libido. These are all the symptoms of depression, there are times when the sufferer goes through
suicidal thinking, death wish or active suicide attempts.
The cause of this disorder can be due to a chemical imbalance with the serotonin and noradrenalin.
It could also be endogenous where there is no clear cause for the depression in terms of the nervous
system other than genetic predisposition, the result of a physical illness, loss of an important
relationship or object. A depressed person can look miserable, with a hunched back, facing down
and might avoid eye contact. The disorder varies in people and could become severe enough to
cause psychotic, self induced hallucinations, delusions and paranoia.
Epilepsy – Is a neurological disorder that makes the individual open to frequent and temporary
seizures. It is a complex disorder with different types of conditions that are not always definite.
These are the types :

Generalized – is when the seizures are formed in major or tonic-clonic seizures in which the
patient falls onto the ground unconscious and their muscles are in spasms (tonic phase).
This is followed up by convulsive movements (clonic phase) where the tongue could be
bitten off and urinary incontinence may occur. The movements become less frequent and
gradually stop. The patient might awake to feel confused with a headache and may fall
asleep.

Partial – this may be idiopathic or a symptom of structural damage in the brain. In one of
the types of idiopathic epilepsy commonly affecting children seizures can take shape of
absences this is when there are short spells of unconsciousness lasting for a few seconds.
The patient’s eyes stare blankly; eyelids could be fluttering, fingers and mouth twitching.
This type of epilepsy appears rarely before the age of three or after adolescence. It is often
known to abruptly end in adult life but could be followed by generalised or partial epilepsy.

Focal – this is partial epilepsy caused by brain damage (local or due to a stroke). The area
the brain was damaged in affects the nature of the seizures.

Psychomotor – is caused by a dysfunction of the cortex in the temporal lobe of the brain.
Signs could be hallucinations in sight, smell, taste and hearing. During the seizure the
patient is clouded awareness meaning they may not remember the event.
Meningitis – is when infections by viruses or bacteria inflame the meninges. It comes in intense
headaches, fever, loss of appetite, sensitivity to light and sound and rigid muscles in the neck
especially. In severe cases there could be convulsions, vomiting, and delirium leading to death.
The different types are:

Meningococcal meningitis – involves a haemorrhagic rash on the body. The symptoms
come on suddenly and the bacteria could cause a widespread meningococcal infection
culminating in the meningococcal septicaemia. Unless it is quickly treated death can occur
in a week.

Bacterial meningitis – is treated with big doses of antibiotics.

Viral meningitis - does not respond to drugs but normally has a benign prognosis.
Migraine – a headache on one side of the head, with nausea, vomiting, problems in vision such as
scintillating, light waves or zigzag fashion.
Other types include:
Ophthalmologic migraine – causes red, painful, watery eyes.
Neuropathic migraine – causes one sided paralysis and weakness in the face and body.
Abdominal migraine – causes recurring abdominal pains with nausea and vomiting.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
23 Explain in detail the functions of the endocrine system:
The endocrine system produces and secretes hormones needed to regulate body activities like
growth, development, and metabolism. A hormone is a regulator, secreted by an endocrine gland
that is transported to its destination through the blood stream, with the power of influencing the
activity of organs. Hormones coordinate various functions in the body. Some work in slow action
over a period of years like the growth hormone from the anterior pituitary, others have a quick
action like the adrenaline from the adrenal medulla.
The system maintains the body during times of stress. At times of stress adrenaline and
noradrenaline are released.
It also contributes to the reproductive process. The testes (in a male) have two functions; the
secretion of testosterone and the production of sperm. The ovaries (in females) have two functions;
the production of ova and production of the hormones oestrogen and progesterone. In puberty a
glandular change takes place due to stimulation of the pituitary gonadotrophic hormone in the
ovaries and testes.
At this time the female reproductive system goes through monthly sequenced events, known as a
menstrual cycle. The ovaries undergo cyclical changes, when a number of ovarian follicles develop.
When one ovum completes the development process, it moved into one of the fallopian tubes. If
fertilisation does not happen, the develop ovum disintegrates and the cycle is repeated. The
menstrual cycle typically lasts 28 days.
Pregnancy is approximately nine calendar months long and is divided into three trimesters.
On the first trimester all the body systems develop. The second trimester consists of rapid foetal
growth and the completion of systemic development. The third trimester is mostly a weight-gaining
and maturing process, preparing the baby for life outside of the womb. In the menopause, the
ovaries cease responding to the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), resulting in lower level of
oestrogen and progesterone secretion.
24 Describe the structure of the main endocrine glands and label a diagram identifying the location of
glands:
Hypothalamus - is located in a small region of the brain. It is the main link between the nervous and
endocrine systems. Pituitary hormones are regulated through the release of inhibiting hormones
produced from the hypothalamus. The process is brought on by the hypothalamus creating its own
set of hormones (releasing or inhibiting hormones) as a result of stimulation in the brain. This has
cascading effect on pituitary which in turn produces its own hormones that stimulate other glands
Pituitary - is a gland connected by a stalk to the hypothalamus of the brain. It is made up of two
parts, an anterior and posterior lobe.
The anterior lobe produces:
 Growth Hormone (GH) - regulates the growth of long bones and muscle.
 Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - controls the growth and activity of the thyroid gland.
 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) - stimulates and controls the growth and hormonal
output of the adrenal cortex.
 Gonadotropic Hormones - controls the development of ovaries and testes. The gonads or
sex hormones include:
a) Follicle-stimulating hormone –in woman this stimulate the production t of the gratin follicle
in the ovary which secretes the hormone oestrogen. In men it stimulates the testes to
produce sperm.
b) The Posterior lobe of the pituitary secrets two hormones that are produced in the
hypothalamus but are kept in the posterior lobe:
-Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)-increases water reabsorption in the renal tubules.
-Oxytocin-stimulates the uterus during labour and stimulates the breasts to produce milk.
Pineal - is a pea sized mass of nerve tissues connected by a stalk to the central part of the brain. The
pineal is located between the cerebral hemisphere and is attached to the upper portion of
thalamus. Its function is to secrete melatonin a hormone that synthesis from serotonin. This gland is
thought to influence moods and is responsible for distinguishing patterns in the cycles of the day
and night determining sleep and wake rhythms.
Thyroid – is a gland located in the neck, placed on either side of the trachea. It is controlled by the
anterior lobe of pituitary. The main secretions of the thyroid gland are:
 Triodothyronine(T3) & Thyroxine T4 - Both the T3 and T4 control growth and development
and influence mental, physical and metabolic activities.

Calcitonin – Regulates the level of calcium in the blood. The thyroid gland is controlled by a
feedback mechanism. It will increase to meet the demand for more thyroid hormones at
various times such as during menstrual cycle, pregnancy, puberty.
Parathyroid – are four small glands located on the posterior of the thyroid gland. The main
secretion is the hormone parathormone that assist in regulating calcium metabolism by controlling
the amount of calcium in blood and bones.
Thymus – this gland is placed behind the sternum in front of the heart. It’s important in the process
of cellular immunity.
Pancreas – is an organ with both an endocrine and exocrine function.
 Exocrine function of pancreas - secretion of pancreatic juice to help in digestion
 Endocrine function of pancreas - secretion of the hormone insulin by the islets of
Langerhans cell in the pancreas
Adrenals - are two triangular shaped glands that are placed on top of each kidney. They are made
up of two parts - an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
Adrenal cortex hormones: Glucocorticosteroids (cortisone and hydrocortisone) – control the
metabolism of protein and carbohydrates and utilise fats. They are important in maintaining the
level of glucose in the blood so that blood glucose levels are increased at time of stress.
Mineral corticoids (aldosterone) - act on the kidney tubules, retaining salts in the body, excreting
excess potassium and maintaining the water and electrolyte balance.
Adrenal medulla – secretes the adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones. These hormones are
controlled by the sympathetic nervous system and are released at time of stress. The responses of
these hormones are fast since they control the nervous control. Adrenaline has primary effects on
the heart such as increasing in the heart rate, whereas noradrenaline has a greater effect on the
peripheral vasoconstriction that raises blood pressure.
 Adrenaline dilates the arteries, increases blood circulation and the heart rate.
 Noradrenaline dilates the bronchial tubes, increasing oxygen intake and the rate and depth
of breathing, races the metabolic rate, and constricts the blood vessels to the skin and
intestines, diverting blood from these regions to the muscles and brain to effect action.
 The noradrenaline has similar effect to those of adrenalin and include: vasoconstriction of
small blood vessels leading to an increase in blood pressure, increase in the rate and depth
of breathing, relaxation of the smooth muscles of intestinal wall.
Gonads – are the sex glands. The male testes are situated in a sac known as the scrotum. These
glands have two main functions:


The secretion of hormone testosterone, which controls the development of the secondary
sex characteristics in the male at puberty (influenced by the luteinising hormone)
The production of sperm (influenced by the follicle-stimulating hormone from the anterior
pituitary)
The ovaries in the females are placed in the lower abdomen below the kidneys. The two ovaries are
the sex glands in the female that are both connected to the upper part of uterus by broad ligaments.
The ovaries have two distinct functions the production of ova at ovulation and the production of the
female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
Oestrogen is responsible for the growth and maintenance of the reproductive system and the
development of the secondary sex characteristics. Progesterone is created by the ovaries after
ovulation. It assists the uterus for implantation of the fertilized ovum, develops the placenta and
prepares the breasts for milk secretion.
The ovaries also secrete the following hormones in addition to oestrogen and progesterone:
 Inhibin- is a hormone that secretes the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) towards the end
of menstrual cycle.

Relaxin –is a hormone associated with child birth, it dilates the cervix and assist the pelvis in
widening during child birth.
25 Attach a labelled diagram of the above
26 Describe three common disorders/diseases of the endocrine system:
Addison’s disease- This disease is causes a hypo secretion of the corticosteroids. A person with the
disease undergoes loss of appetite, weight loss, and brown pigmentation around joints, low blood
sugar, low blood pressure, tidiness and muscular weakness. It is treated by replacement hormone
therapy.
Diabetes mellitus – The condition is brought on by a low or absence of insulin and can also be as a
result of hypo secretion. The symptoms include thirst, increase in urine, weight loss, thin skin with
impaired healing capacity, open to minor skin infections and a decrease in pain when insulin levels
are low. There are two types:
 Insulin dependent diabetes (early onset) – Mainly affect children and young adults, takes
place suddenly. The deficiency is due to a destruction of islet cells in the pancreas. The
causes of this are not yet known but it is though to be genetically inherited.

Non-insulin dependent diabetes (late onset) – Typically this type sets in later in life and its
causes are also unknown. Deficiency of glucose inside the body cells might take place
where there is hyperglycaemia and high insulin level. It can be due to changes in the cell
walls which block the insulin-assisted movements of glucose into cells. It can be controlled
by diet and or oral drugs.
Cushing’s syndrome –It happens when there is a excessive amount corticosteroid hormones in the
body but can also result from a hypersecreting of the glucocorticoids. A person with this syndrome
suffers from weight gain, reddening of the face and neck, excess growth of facial and body hair,
raised blood pressure, loss of mineral from bone and sometimes mental disturbances.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
27 Describe the respiratory system and label a diagram identifying the structures:
The respiratory system is made up of the nose, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs that
provide the passageway for air, in and out of the body. Oxygen is needed by every cell of the body
for survival. Respiration is the process in which the living cells of the body gets a constant supply of
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide and other gases. Our respiratory system serves us in many
ways, exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide, detecting smell, producing speech and regulating Ph.
Functions of the respiratory system:
 Exchange of gases - Oxygen and carbon dioxide are the main functions of the respiratory
system that sustain life.
 Olfaction - Specialised nerve endings embedded in the nasal cavity send impulses for the
sense of smell to the brain.
 Speech - The vocal cords in the larynx help to produce speech.
 Homeostasis - the respiratory system helps to maintain homeostasis by keeping oxygen
levels in the blood and eliminating wastes like carbon dioxide and heat.
Nose - lined with cilia and mucous membrane. Inhales air. Moistens, warms and filters the air.
Senses smell.
Naso-pharynx – located in the upper part of the nasal cavity behind the nose lined with mucous
membrane. Continues to filter, warm and moisten the incoming air.
Pharynx - large muscular tube lined with mucous membrane lies behind the mouth and between
the nasal cavity and the larynx. Acts as a passageway for air, food and drink. Resonating chamber for
sound.
Larynx – a short passage connecting the pharynx to the trachea. Provides a passageway for air
between the pharynx and the trachea. Produces sound.
Trachea –a tube anterior to the oesophagus and extends from the larynx to the upper chest,
composed of smooth muscle and up to 20 C-shaped rings of cartilage. Transport air from the larynx
into the bronchi.
nasal cavity
nostril
pharynx
oral cavity
trachea
larynx
carina of trachea
right main (primary) bronchus
right lung
left main(primary) bronchus
base of left lung
diaphragm
28 Describe three common disorders/diseases of the respiratory system:
Asthma - this condition presents as attacks of shortness of breath and difficulty in breathing due to
spasm or swelling of the bronchial tubes. This is caused by hypersensitivity to allergens such as
pollens of various plants, grass, flowers, pet hair, dust mites and various proteins in foodstuffs such
as shellfish, eggs and milk. Asthma can be exacerbated by exercise, anxiety, stress or smoking. It can
run in families and may also be associated with hey fever and eczema.
Bronchitis - This is chronic or acute inflammation of the bronchial tubes. Chronic bronchitis is
common in smokers and may lead to emphysema witch is caused by damage of the lung structure.
Acute bronchitis can result from a recent cold or Flu.
Sinusitis - This condition involves inflammation of the paranasal sinuses. It’s usually caused by viral
or bacterial infection or may be associated with common cold or allergies. The congestion of the
nose results in a blockage in the opening of the sinus into nasal cavity and a build up of pressure in
the sinus. The condition presents with nasal congestion followed by a mucous discharge from nose.
The pain is located in specific areas depending on the sinuses affected. If frontal sinuses affected, a
major symptoms is a headache over one or both eyes. If maxillary sinuses are affected, one or both
cheeks will hurt and it may feel as if there is a toothache in the upper jaw.
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
29 Describe the circulatory system and add a diagram identifying the structures:
Blood is moved in and out of the heart in precise and timed rhythms.
Stage 1 – Blood that is deoxygenated is carried to the superior and inferior vena cava and enters the
right atrium. The right atrium becomes full and empties through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle.
Stage 2 – The right ventricle becomes full and contracts causing the blood to push out through the
pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery is split into a right and left
branch. It moves the blood to both of the lungs making it oxygenated. The oxygen rich blood is
carried back to the left atrium through the four pulmonary veins.
Stage 3 – The third stage takes place at the same time as the first stage. The oxygenated blood is
carried through the left atrium and passes onto the left ventricle to the bicuspid/mitral valve. The
left ventricle becomes full and contracts causing the blood to pass through the aortic valve into the
aorta and to all the parts of the body apart from the lungs. The walls of the left ventricle are thick so
that there is extra strength to push the blood out of the heart and around the body.
30 Describe the structure of the cardiovascular system:
Heart: is a hollow organ made up from cardiac muscles tissues, located in the thorax above the
diaphragm between the lungs. It is composed of three layers of tissue:
 Pericardium (outer layer): Is an enclosing cavity with pericardial fluid in a double layered bag
that reduces friction as the heart moves during its beating.
 Myocardium: the middle layer. This is a strong layer of cardiac muscle which makes up the
bulk of the heart.
 Endocardium: the inner layer. This lines the heart’s cavities and is continuous with the lining
of the blood vessels. The heart is divided into right and left side by a partition called a
septum and each side is further divided into thin-walled atrium above and thick-walled
ventricle below. The top chambers of the heart (the atria) take in blood from the body from
the large veins and pump it to the bottom chambers. The lower chambers, the ventricles,
pump blood though the body’s organs and tissues.
There are four sets of valves that regulate the flow of blood through the heart:
 Tricuspid valve - Found between the right atrium and the left ventricle.
 Bicuspid or mitral valve - Located between the left atrium and left ventricle.
 Aortic valve -Placed between the left ventricle and the aorta.
 Pulmonary valve - Found between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle.
The bicuspid and tricuspid valves known also as the atria-ventricular valves maintain the direction of
blood flow through the heart allowing blood to flow into ventricles but keeping it from returning to
the atria.
The aortic and pulmonary valves are known as the semi-lunar valves. The blood flow is transported
out of the ventricles into the aorta and the pulmonary arteries and prevent any backflow of blood
into ventricles. These valves open in response to pressure generated when the blood leaves the
ventricles. The heart muscle is supplied by the two coronary arteries (right and left) which originate
from the base of the aorta.
31 Explain the functions of the cardiovascular system
The cardiovascular system is how the body is able to function by providing transport for the flow of
substances. It is made up of blood, blood vessels and the heart. A fluid environment is provided by
the blood so that the body cells are transported in specialised tubes known as the blood vessels. The
heart is like a pump that keeps a constant circuit of blood throughout the body.
Blood: Main Functions :
 Oxygen is moved from the lungs to the cells of the body
 The nutrients are transported from the digestive tract to the cells of the body
 Carbon dioxide is carried from the cells to the lungs
 Waste materials are moved from the cells to kidney, lungs and sweat glands
 Hormones from the endocrines glands are transported to the cells
 Enzymes are carried to the cells that need them
 Helps to regulates the body temperature
 It helps to guard the body against foreign substances
Blood Vessels: Arteries main functions – To move oxygenated blood away from the heart.
 The arteries have thick, muscular walls to be able to handle the high pressure of blood
Veins: Main functions - To transport deoxygenated blood towards the heart.
 The walls are thinner, muscular and elastic
 The blood is moved under lower pressure
Capillaries join arterioles and venules together. Their walls are thin enough allowing dissolved
substance to pass in and out of them.
Heart: The main function of the heart
 Regulates a constant circulation of blood throughout the body
 It acts as a pump , this action is known as the cardiac cycle
 Blood is carried from the heart through the organs and tissues and delivers food and oxygen
 Blood is flowed back to the heart through the veins
 After absorbing the needed oxygen the heart pumps blood on the second circuit to the
lungs to replace oxygen and returning with the oxygen supply renewed.
32 Describe the composition and functions of blood
Blood is composed
 Plasma: 55% of fluid or plasma which is a clear, pale, yellow, slightly alkaline fluid consisting
of the following substances.
Transport
Blood is the main source of transport for many substances that travel throughout the body. These
include:
 Oxygen is moved from the lungs to the body cells through the red blood cells.
 Carbon dioxide is carried to the lungs from the body cells.
 Nutrients like the glucose, amino acids, vitamins and minerals are transported from the
small intestines to the cells of the body.
 Water, carbon dioxide, lactic acid and urea are carried in the blood as waste to be excreted.
 Hormones are carried to the target organs through the blood.
Defence
A collective of blood cells are called leucocytes and hold an important role in fighting diseases and
infection.
Clotting
Clotting is the mechanism that allows the control of blood loss from the blood vessels when they
have undergone an injury like a cut. Specialised blood cells named thrombocytes, or platelets, form
a clot around the damaged area to stop the body from blood loss and to prevent the entry of
bacteria.
Temperature regulation
Body heat is regulated through blood; the blood absorbs large quantities of heat produced by the
liver and muscles. This is then moved around the body to keep a constant internal temperature.
Blood is also responsible for regulating the pH balance in the body.
Blood comes in three types:
 Red blood cells – also named erythrocytes are the disc shaped structures that make up 45%
of blood and more than 90% of the formed elements in blood. They are formed in red bone
marrow and contain the iron –protein compound haemoglobin.
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White blood cells – also known as leucocytes are the biggest blood cells and look white
because of their lack in haemoglobin. The cells have a nucleus and tend to be larger in
number than the erythrocyte. White blood cells normally only live for a few hours but in a
healthy body can live up to months and years. The main purpose of the white blood cells is
to help the body fight against infection and disease. This process is known as phagocytosis,
this means to engulf and ingest microbes, dead cells and tissue.
The two main types of white blood cells are the:
Granulocytes – make up 75% of the white blood cells that can divide further into
neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.
Agranulocytes - make up around 20% of all white blood cells and they can be divided into
lymphocytes and monocytes that account for about 5 % of white blood cells.
Platelets – recognised also as thrombocyte are smallest cellular elements of blood. These
small fragments of cell are disc shaped and are formed in the bone marrow with no nucleus.
They tend to have a short life span of only five to nine days.
33 Describe the different types of blood vessels
Arteries
 Carry blood from the heart under high pressure
 The walls of the arteries are thick, muscular and elastic to withstand pressure
 Have no valves, expect at the base of the pulmonary artery, where they leave the heart
 Carry oxygenated blood; expect the pulmonary artery, to the lungs
 Are generally deep-seated, unless they cross over a pulse spot
 Arteries give rise to small blood vessels called arterioles that transport blood to capillaries
Arterioles
 These vessels are small arteries that carry blood to the capillaries
Capillaries
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These are the smallest vessels
Capillaries unite arterioles and venules, forming a network in the tissues
The walls of the capillaries are only one layer thick. Thin enough to allow the process of
diffusion of dissolved substances to and from the tissue to occur
Have no valves
The blood is transported under low pressure but higher in veins
Supplies the cell and tissue with nutrients
Venules
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
Veins
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Found when a group of capillaries join together
Collect blood from capillaries and drain into veins
Carry the blood towards the heart
The blood is moved under low pressure
They have thin muscular walls
Veins have valves at intervals to prevent the back flow of blood.
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Veins carry deoxygenated blood; expect the pulmonary veins, from the lungs
Veins are generally superficial, not deep-seated
Veins from finer blood vessels called venues which continue from capillaries
34 Explain different types of circulation

Systemic or general circulation-this is the largest circulatory system in the body. It moves
oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the aorta. The oxygenated blood
can then be moved through several branches of the aorta throughout the body.
Deoxygenated blood is returned to the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena
cava to be carried to the right ventricle to enter the pulmonary circuit. The function of the
circulation is to bring in nutrients and oxygen to the systems of the body and pass out waste
materials away from the tissues to be rid off.

Pulmonary circulation – circulates deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart
to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. This is where the blood becomes oxygenated
and is then returned to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins to be carried onto the
aorta for the general or systematic circulation. This circulatory system is basically a system
between the heart and lungs, where a high concentration of blood oxygen is restored and
the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood is lowered.
35 Describe three common disorders/diseases of the cardiovascular system
Anaemia
This is condition takes place when the haemoglobin level in the blood is lower than normal. It causes
excessive tiredness, breathlessness in physical activities, pallor and open to infection. There are
more causes to anaemia; this could include blood loss from an accident or operation, chronic
bleeding, iron deficiency because of a blood disease such as leukaemia.
High blood pressure
This is a common condition and in serious cases could result in a stroke or a heart attack. High blood
pressure is when the resting blood pressure is higher than normal. The high blood pressure level as
defined by The World Heath Organisation is over 160mmHg systolic and 99mmHg diastolic. With
this condition the heart is forced to work harder to force the blood through the system which is why
a stroke or a heart attack can occur. Causes include:
 Smoking
 Obesity
 Lack of regular exercise
 Eating too much salt
 Excessive alcohol consumption
 Too much stress
It can be controlled by:
 Anti-hypertensive drugs that help to control and lower blood pressure
 Decreasing salt and fat in diet to prevent hardening the arteries
 Weigh loss
 Stopping smoking and cutting down alcohol consumption
 Relaxation and less stress
Congenital heart disease
This disease is a defect in the formation of the heart resulting in problems with its efficiency. Defects
can come in the following ways but could vary based on the severity of the defect:
 Ventricular septal effects – non-closure of the opening between the right and left
ventricle.
 Atrial septal defect – non-closure of the opening between the right and left atrium.
 Coarctation of the aorta – narrowing of the aorta.
 Pulmonary stenosis – narrowing of the pulmonary artery
 Patent ductus arteriosus - non-closure of the communication between the pulmonary
artery and the aorta that exists in the foetus until delivery.
 A combination of defects
36 Label diagrams identifying structures and locations of nodes:
1. Palatine tonsil
2. Submandibular node
3. Parotid glands
4.Cervicall nodes
5.Axillary nodes
6.Lymphatic vessel
7.Cubital supratrochlear nodes
8.Thoracic nodes
9.Abdominal nodes
10.Pelvic nodes
11.Inguinal nodes
37 Describe the structure of the lymphatic system:

Lymph capillaries: are miniscule blind-end tubes, similar in structure to blood capillaries.
Function: to drain any excess fluid and waste products from the tissue spaces of the body.

Lymph ducts: (thoracic and right lymphatic) the thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic vessel
in the body and extends from second lumbar vertebra up through the thorax to the root of
the neck. The right lymphatic duct is very short in length. It lies in the root of the neck.
Function: Collect lymph from the whole body and return it to the blood via the subclavian
veins.

Lymph nodes: Oval or bean-shaped structures covered by a capsule of connective tissue.
Made up of lymphatic tissue.
Function: Filter lymph of micro-organism, cell debris or harmful substances.

Thymus gland: The thymus gland is a triangular-shaped gland composed of lymphatic tissue.
It is located in the upper chest above the superior vena cava and below the thyroid where it
lies against the trachea.
Function: in a new born baby it promotes the development and maturation of certain
lymphocytes and in programming those to become T-cells (specialised types of lymphocytes
of the immune system). The thymus gland begins to atrophy after puberty and become only
small remnant of lymphatic tissue in adulthood.
38 Describe the functions of the lymphatic system:
Drainage: - is an important function of the system. As the blood circulates around the body the
blood plasma leaks into the tissues. Most of the fluid makes its way back to the blood stream but
some along with other matter stay behind. The lymphatic system removes the fluid and these other
matters from the tissue and returns them to the bloodstream. This function keeps the fluid balanced
and is stopping the death of organisms.
The lymphatic system is drained by movement of lymph, which begins in the lymphatic capillaries.
This movement is supported by:
 The pressure from the skeletal muscles against the vessels during movement.
 Respiration which causes changes in the internal pressure.
 The compression of lymph vessel from the pull of the skin and fascia during movement.
Production of lymphocytes: - Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell produced by the immune
system as a way of protecting the body from cancerous cells and pathogens. Lymphocytes are made
in the bone marrow of the skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum and thymus gland.
Absorption of fat: - The lymphatic system is able to absorb fat through the villi of the small
intestine. Carbohydrates and proteins pass to the bloodstream but the fats are moved onto in the
intestinal lymphatic vessels, known as lacteals.
Production of antibodies: - The body has several defence mechanisms to help protect and prevent
the entry of pathogens. The lymphatic system fights off invading micro-organisms by producing
antibodies. Filtered lymph’s are reproduced in the lymph node and the antibodies created In this
process are able to destroy the infection.
39 Describe three common disorders/diseases of the lymphatic system:
Acquired immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) – Is a condition contracted as a result of the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) that over time destroys the immunity of the individual. The Virus
stops the body’s immune responses making the body easily prone to infection and in result AIDS. In
normal individuals infections with mild symptoms can prove to be severe in AIDS patients. The
patients could also be prone to cancers. The syndrome is caused by contacting infected blood or
body fluids. It’s most common in drug addicts that use infected injection needles and syringes and
unprotected sexual intercourse.
Lymphedema – Is a swelling of the body tissues brought on by accumulation of tissue fluid. It can be
caused as a result of heart failure, liver, or kidney disease or due to chronic varicose veins. The
resulting the swelling of the tissues may localised, as with an injury or inflammation or may be more
generalised, as in heart or kidney failure. Subcutaneous oedema commonly occurs in the legs and
ankle due to influence of gravity, and its common problem in women before menstruation and in
the last trimester of pregnancy.
Hodgkin’s disease – This is malignant disease of the lymphatic tissue, usually characterised by
painless enlargement of one or more groups of lymph nodes in the neck, armpit, groin, chest or
abdomen. The spleen, liver, bone marrow and bones may also involve. Apart from the enlarging
nodes there may also weight loss, fever, profuse sweating at night and itching.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
40 Label a diagram identifying the structures:
A – Pharynx
B – Mouth
C – Salivary glands
D – Oesophagus
E – Liver
F – Gall bladder
G – colon
H – Appendix
I –Stomach
J – Pancreas
K – Small intestine
L – Rectum
M - Anal sphincter
41 Describe the functions of the digestive system:
The digestive system is made up of the following parts: mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine (consisting of the duodenum, jejunum and the ileum), large intestine (consisting of
the caecum, appendix, colon, and rectum) and the anus.
The digestive system has two main functions:
 Breaking down food and fluids into chemicals to be absorbed into the bloodstream and
moved throughout the body.
 Getting rid off waste products by excretion.
Digestion takes place in the alimentary canal; the canal is a continuous muscular tube from the
mouth to the anus. Digestion is the process in which food is broken down. Ingestion is a part of this
process; it is the act of eating food that is then passed onto the alimentary canal.
Digestion takes place in the following process:
Mechanical – By chewing food with the teeth, a process known as mastication solid food is split into
smaller pieces. And then by the churning action of the stomach through peristalsis. The food is
tasted by the tongue and mixed with saliva from the salivary glands. The saliva contains the enzyme
ptyalin that breaks down some of the carbohydrates into smaller molecules known as maltose and
glucose. The food mass or bolus produced is then swallowed.
Chemical – Digestive enzymes break down the large molecules of carbohydrates, proteins and fat
into smaller ones.
Absorption – Is the movement of substances from the walls of the small intestine. In this process
nutrients are absorbed through the villi and are transported by the blood and lymph vessels to be
carried to various parts of the body. Absorption and digestion takes place in the passage of food
through the alimentary canal. This is a continuous tube approximately 9 meters (30 feet) long, from
the mouth to the anus; most of its length is coiled up in the abdominal cavity
Assimilation – Is when digested food is used up by the tissues after absorption.
Elimination/Defecation – Is the process of getting rid of semi sold waste (faces) through the anal
canal.
42 Describe three common diseases/disorders of the digestive system:
Appendicitis – Is an acute inflammation of the appendix. The main symptoms include a pain centred
in the abdomen and un the right lower abdomen over the appendix. It’s usually treated by surgery
referred to as appendectomy.
Cirrhosis of the liver – Is the result of chronic inflammation, it refers to a distorted or scarred liver.
The functional liver cells are replaced by fibrous or adipose connective tissue. The symptoms
include jaundice, oedema in the legs, uncontrolled bleeding and sensitivity to drugs. Cirrhosis of the
liver can be caused by hepatitis, alcoholism, certain chemicals that destroy the liver cells or parasites
that infect the liver.
Hepatitis – Is the inflammation of the liver. It is caused by viruses, toxic substances or
immunological abnormalities. There are three types of hepatitis.
 Hepatitis A – this type is contagious and is caught through the faecal/route. It is transmitted
by ingestion of contaminated food, water or milk. The incubation period lasts 15 to 45 days.
 Hepatitis B – it is also known as serum hepatitis and is more serious than Hepatitis A. It is
more serious because it lasts longer and could potentially lead to cirrhosis, cancer of the
liver and a carrier state. The incubation period lasts for one and a half to two months. The
symptoms could go on for weeks and even months. The virus is passed through infected
blood, serum or plasma. But can be spread by oral or sexual contact since it is present in
body secretions.
 Hepatitis C – can lead to acute or chronic hepatitis, carrier state and liver cancer. It is passed
on through blood transfusions or exposure t blood products. Most clients with hepatitis can
appear to be perfectly healthy. Hepatitis C is a side effect o drugs and alcohol so it is not
infective.
THE URINARY SYSTEM
43 Describe the structure of parts of the urinary system:
Kidneys: x2-posterior wall of abdomen on either side of the spine (between twelfth thoracic
vertebra and third lumbar vertebra) main functional organs of the urinary system. Site where blood
is filtered and urine is processed. A Kidney has an outer fibrous renal capsule and is supported by
adipose tissue. It has two main parts:

Outer cortex: - this is reddish-brown and is the part where fluid is filtered from blood. Inner
medulla-this is paler colour and it’s made up of conical-shaped sections called renal
pyramids. This is area where some materials are selectively reabsorbed back into the
bloodstream. There is a large area in the centre of the kidney called the renal pelvis which is
a funnel-shaped cavity that collects urine from the renal pyramids in the medulla and drains
it into the ureter. The medial border of the kidney is called the hilus and is the area where
the renal blood vessels leave and enter the kidney.
-
Nephron: - The cortex and medulla contain tiny blood filtration unit called nephrons.
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney and they extend from the renal capsule
through the cortex and medulla to the cup shaped renal pelvis. Nephrons are approximately
2 to 4 cm long and single kidney has more than a million nephrons.
Ureters: x2 – are long thin tubes that lead from each kidney down to the bladder. Transports urine
from the kidney to the bladder. They consist of three layers of tissue:
 An outer layer of fibrosis tissue
 A middle layer of smooth muscles
 An inner layer of mucous membrane.
Bladder: x1- this is pear shaped sac which lies in pelvic cavity behind the symphysis pubis. Collect
and temporarily stores urine. The bladder is composed of four layers of tissue:
 A serous membrane which covers the upper surface.
 A layer of smooth muscular fibres.
 A layer of adipose tissue.
 An inner lining of mucous membrane.
The bladder’s main function is to store urine. The urine passing out from the bladder is called
micturition and is a reflex that can be controlled voluntarily. The bladder expands with the volume
of urine and the stretch receptors in the bladder walls are stimulated to trigger urination. The
micturition reflex causes the detrusor muscle in the wall of bladder to contract and the internal
urethral sphincter to relax. It’s the combination of both the micturition reflex and voluntary
relaxation of urethral sphincter that allow urination to take place.
Urethra: x1- a canal that extends from the neck of the bladder to the outside of the body. In males
and females the length of the urethra is different. The female urethra is typically only 4cm long,
where as the male urethra is around 18 to 20 cm long. The exit out of the bladder is guarded by a
round sphincter of muscles that relax for the urine to make its way out of the body. The urethra is
made up of three layers of tissue:
 A muscular coat continuous with that of the bladder
 A thin spongy coat that holds al large number of blood vessels
 A lining of mucous membrane
The urethra works with the body as a tube that urine is passed to from the bladder to outside the
body. In males the urethra is longer so serves also as a channel for semen.
44 Describe the functions of the kidney
 The kidney is responsible for filtrating any impurities and metabolic waste from the blood.
 It prevents poisons from dangerously collecting in the body.
 Controls and regulates the balance of water and salt in the body.
 Maintains the normal pH balance in the blood.
 The formation of urine.
 Regulates blood pressure and volume.
 The water level in the body needs to be equal to the amount excreted to contain a constant
internal environment. This is controlled by the kidneys.
 Water is passed through the kidneys as urine as a way off expelling waste.
 The kidneys also control the amount of water in the blood. This is done through the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) the water reabsorbed in the blood is stored and released into the
blood by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
 When the water concentration in blood is low the hypothalamus can detect this change and
release ADH. ADH is triggered to release by dehydration.
 ADH increases the water reabsorbed from the nephron back into the blood. This decreases
the level of urine exiting the kidney and increases the hydration in the blood. This
mechanism reduces the water in the blood back to the appropriate level.
45 Describe three common diseases/disorders of the urinary system
Cystitis – is when the urinary bladder is inflamed commonly due to an infection of the bladder
lining. The main symptoms are a pain right above the pubic bone, in the lower back and inner thigh,
blood in the urine and frequent and painful urination with a burning like sensation. It’s most
common in women because of the shorter urethra.
Kidney stones – are deposits of substances found in urine that form solid stones. The stones locate
in the renal pelvis of the kidney, ureter or bladder. It can be extremely painful and are usually
removed through surgery.
Incontinence – is when urination cannot be controlled voluntarily. Most likely to be due to loss of
muscle tone and problems with innervation.
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
46 Describe and label the structure of the reproductive system:
Both the male and female reproductive systems produce:
-The sex hormones responsible for the male and female characteristics
-The cells required for reproduction
The female reproductive structure includes the: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina and the
vulva. The mammary glands or the breasts are also thought to be part of the reproductive system.
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The ovaries lie on lateral walls of pelvis and have two functions the production of ova and
the secretion of the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
The fallopian tubes transport ova from the ovaries to the uterus. The uterus is placed behind
the bladder and in front of rectum and is designed to nourish and protect a fertilised ovum.
The vagina is a muscular and elastic tube designed for the reception of sperm and provides a
passageway for menstruation and child birth.
The vulva is a collective term for the female genitalia.
The structures of the male reproductive system include: testes, epidymides, vasa deferential,
ejaculatory ducts, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate, Cowper’s gland and penis.
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The testes lie in a scrotal sac: they produce the male sex hormone testosterone. Each testis
is filled with seminiferous tubules in which sperm cells are formed.
The epididymitis are coiled tubes that lead from the seminiferous tubules of the testis to the
vasa deferential. They store and nourish immature sperm cells and promote their
maturation until ejaculation.
The vas deferential leads from the epididymis to the urethra and are tubes through which
the sperm are released.
The seminal vesicles are pouches lying on the posterior aspect of the bladder attached to
the vasa deferential. They secrete an alkaline fluid containing nutrients and is added to
sperm cells during ejaculation.
The two ejaculatory ducts are short tubes which join the seminal vesicles to the urethra.
The Cowper’s glands are pair of small glands that open into urethra at the base of the penis.
These glands produce further secretions to contribute to the seminal fluid.
The prostrate gland lies in the pelvic cavity in front of the rectum and behind the symphysis
pubis. During ejaculation it secrets a thin, milky fluid that enhances the mobility of sperm
and neutralises semen and vaginal secretions
The urethra provides a common pathway for the flow of urine and the secretion of semen.
The penis is composed of erectile tissue and is richly supplied with blood vessels. Its function
is to convey urine and semen.
In the male, decreased levels of testosterone decreases sexual desire and viable sperm:
testes also atrophy as muscle strength decrease.
Fallopian tube
Ovary
Cervix
Vagina
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female
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male
Seminal vesicle
Vas deference
Prostate gland
Penis
Urethra
Epididymis
Testicle
47 Describe 3 common diseases/disorders of the reproductive system:
Female disorders
Amenorrhea – A sudden stop or absence of the menstrual periods. It can be caused by the
deficiency in the ovarian, pituitary or thyroid hormones, mental disturbances, depression, radical
weight loss, stress, excessive exercises or major change in surroundings or circumstances.
Cancer of the breast- Can be spotted as a redness and pain as well as discharge from the nipple. It
can spread locally, to the axilla and neck lymph resulting in oedema of the arm or by blood to the
lung, bone and liver.
Ectopic pregnancy- Is when the foetus develops a different site other than the uterus. This can be
caused by the fertilised egg remaining in the ovary, or the fallopian tube or if it happens to become
stuck in the abdominal cavity rather than growing in the uterus. The most common site for this to
happen is in the fallopian tube. There is danger of haemorrhage and death since the growth of the
foetus can cause the tube to rupture and bleed.
Male disorders
Cancer of prostate – There are usually no visible symptoms but if the cancer is near the urethra then
there could be a frequency in micturition, urgency and difficulty in voiding, blood in urine or
ejaculate. It is typically diagnosed by a rectal examination and it feels nodular and hard. The cancer
if not treated spreads to the bones and causes a pain in the bones, and or a fracture in the bone
after a trivial injury. At the advanced stage of the cancer, the person looses weight and becomes
anaemic.
Prostatitis – Is a condition in which the prostate gland becomes inflamed due to bacteria. Symptoms
include an urgent and frequent passing of urine that could appear cloudy. There are also high fevers
with chills, muscle and joint pains, a dull ache in the lower back and pelvis.
Infertility – Can be cause by a decreased number of mobility in sperm or a total absence of sperm.
Both males and females can suffer from this condition and it may be caused by stress.
Used literature: -Helen McGuinness Anatomy physiology. Therapy basis. Fourth edition.
-Ruth Hull Anatomy Physiology workbook for therapist and healthcare
Professionals.
-Susan Cressy . Beauty Therapy for NVQ 1, 2, 3 LEVELS.
-Lorraine Nordmann. Beauty Therapy 3rd edition the official guide to level 3.