States of Consciousness
Ch. 5
AP Psychology
Alice F. Short
Hilliard Davidson High School
States
of
Consciousness
The Nature of Consciousness
• Defining Consciousness
• Consciousness and the Brain
• Levels of Awareness
Sleep and Dreams
• Biological Rhythms and Sleep
• Why Do We Need Sleep?
• Stages of Wakefulness and Sleep
• Sleep and Disease
• Sleep Disorders
Psychoactive Drugs
• Uses of Psychoactive Drugs
• Types of Psychoactive Drugs
Hypnosis
• The Nature of Hypnosis
• Explaining Hypnosis
• Uses of Hypnosis
Consciousness and Health and Wellness:
Meditation
The Nature of Consciousness
• Defining Consciousness
• Consciousness and the Brain
• Levels of Awareness
• stream of consciousness – term used by
William James to describe the mind as a
continuous flow of changing sensations,
images, thoughts and feelings
Defining Consciousness
• consciousness – an individual’s awareness of
external events and internal sensations under
a condition of arousal, including awareness of
self and thoughts about one’s experiences
– awareness
• global brain workspace
– arousal
– metacognition – thinking about thinking
• EXAMPLE: Thinking about why you are nervous before
an exam
Consciousness and the Brain
• awareness – subjective state of knowing what’s going
on, as occurring in a global brain workspace includes
awareness of self and thoughts about one’s
experiences
– global brain workspace – a collection of neurons from a
variety of brain areas working in parallel that include
prefrontal cortex (the front-most part of the brain) and
the anterior cingulate
• arousal – the physiological state of being engaged with
the environment determined by the reticular activating
system
– refers to the ways that awareness is regulated
• high alert
• low alert
– reticular activating system – a network of structures
including the brain stem, medulla and thalamus
Levels of Awareness
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Higher-Level Consciousness
Lower-Level Consciousness
Altered States of Consciousness
Subconscious Awareness
No Awareness
1. Higher Level Consciousness
• controlled processes – the most alert states of
human consciousness, during which
individuals actively focus their efforts toward a
goal
– require selective attention
– involves prefrontal cortex (usually)
– Example: Focusing on learning something new.
2. Lower-Level Consciousness
• automatic processes – states of consciousness
that require little attention and do not interfere
with other ongoing activities
– Example: typing, texting, driving home, etc. after
mastered
• daydreaming –
– b/w conscious and sleep
– begin spontaneously during low-focus activates
– help make plans, solve problems or come up with
creative idea
– help us to cope, create and fantasize
3. Altered States of Consciousness
• altered states of consciousness or awareness
– mental states that are noticeably different
from normal awareness
– Range: losing sense of self-consciousness 
hallucinating
– Causes: trauma, fever, fatigue, sensory
deprivation, medication, hypnosis and
psychological disorders
4. Subconscious Awareness
• waking subconscious awareness
– incubation – subconscious processing that leads
to a solution to a problem after a break from
conscious though about the problem
• thinking about or doing something else  solution
magically appears in mind!
• subconscious awareness during sleep and
dreams
– we retain some awareness during dreams
5. No Awareness
• unconscious – applies to someone who has
been knocked out by a blow or anesthetized
– a.k.a. nonconscious
• unconscious thought – according to Freud, a
reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings,
and thoughts that are beyond conscious
awareness; Freud’s interpretation viewed the
unconscious as a storehouse for vile thoughts
A SHORT Time to Ponder
• What are controlled processes and automatic
processes?
Sleep and Dreams
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Biological Rhythms and Sleep
Why Do We Need Sleep?
Stages of Wakefulness and Sleep
Sleep and Disease
Sleep Disorders
• sleep – a natural state of rest for the body and
mind that involves the rerevsible loss of
consciousness
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
• biological rhythms
• circadian rhythms
– suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
p. 143
• biological rhythms – periodic physiological fluctuations in
the body, such as the rise and fall of hormones and
accelerated and decelerated cycles of brain activity, that
can influence behavior
• circadian rhythms – daily behavioral or physiological cycles,
which involve
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sleep/wake cycle
body temperature
blood pressure
blood sugar level
– suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) – small brain structure that uses
input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the
daily cycle of light and dark; the mechanism by which the body
monitors the change from day to night (located in
hypothalamus); sends information to:
• hypothalamus & pineal gland (temperature, hunger, release of
hormones – melatonin)
• reticular formation (sleep and wakefulness)
Desynchronized and Resetting
• desynchronized biological clock –thrown off their
regular schedule
– jet lag – result of two or more body rhythms being out
of sync
– changing work shifts
• increased risk of heart disease
• gastrointestinal disorders
– insomnia
• resetting biological clock
– daylight
– melatonin
• useful in eastward travel
• not useful in westward travel
A SHORT Time to Ponder
• Would a lot of these problems exist before
industrialization?
Why do We Need Sleep?
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avoid becoming prey
avoid injury at night
conserve energy
search for food in safer conditions (daylight)
restores, replenishing, rebuilds the brain and body
increased production of cells; reduced breakdown of
proteins
• enhances synaptic connections between neurons
• consolidates memory for specific information, for skills
and for emotional experiences
• conducts activities that strengthen memory
associations  long term memory (occurs in cerebral
cortex)
Effects of Chronic Sleep Deprivation
• 8 hours sleep/night
• sleep deprivation
– decreases brain activity in thalamus and prefrontal
cortex
– reduces complexity of brain activity
• shorter pathways
– reduced abilities to make moral decisions
• STUDY: 53 hours of wakefulness –> agree with decisions
that violated personal standards
A SHORT Time to Ponder
• Is sleep deprivation and American epidemic?
If yes, what could be the long-term
consequences?
Wakefulness and Sleep
• Wakefulness (2 total stages)
• Sleep (5 total stages)
• electroencephalograph (EEG) – monitors
brain’s electrical activity
Wakefulness
• beta waves – concentration and alertness
– highest in frequency
– lowest in amplitude
– desynchronous
• alpha waves – relaxation and drowsiness
– synchronous
– slow down (lower frequency)
– higher amplitude
Sleep (5)
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Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 5 (REM sleep)
• Sleep Cycle (1-5): 90-100 minutes
• Stages 1-4 sometimes referred to as
non-REM sleep
– dreams (stages 1-4): less vivid, briefer, less emotionally charged
– dreams (stage 5): more vivid, longer, more emotionally charged
Stages 1 and 2 Sleep
• 60% of a whole night’s sleep
• light stages of sleep
– “I wasn’t asleep.”
• Stage 1 – drowsy sleep
– myoclonic jerks (I see you!)
– feeling of falling
– theta waves (slower frequency; greater amplitude than alpha
waves)
– gradual change from alpha waves
• Stage 2 – muscle activity decreases; no longer consciously
aware of the environment
– theta waves interspersed with sleep spindles (sudden increase
in frequency)
Stages 3 and 4 Sleep
• 20% of a whole night’s sleep
• delta waves (slowest; highest amplitude)
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a.k.a. delta sleep
difficult to wake
deepest sleep
bed wetting, sleep walking, sleep talking
wake up: confused and disoriented
• difficult to distinguish b/w 3 and 4
• Stage 3
– delta waves less than 50% of time
• Stage 4
– delta waves more than 50% of time
REM Sleep
• 20% of a whole night’s sleep
• REM (rapid eye movement) – figure 5.5, p.147
– dreaming
• longer REM  more likely to remember
– waves similar to relaxed wakefulness
– role in memory and creativity
– progressively longer in later sleep cycles
– most likely to wake just after REM sleep
Sleep
Stages –
EEG
Patterns
p. 147
Sleep Though the Life Span
• Children:
– deep sleep  growth hormone
– sleep well:
• avoid caffeine
• experience regular bedtime routine
• have no TV in bedroom
• Adolescence
– cerebral cortex developing (sleep linked to brain development)
– 9 hrs 25 min
• shortfall  attempt to “catch up” on weekends (can’t) 
– melatonin secreted
• 9:30 p.m. – early adolescents
• 10:30 p.m. - later adolescents
– inattention in class
– poor performance
Sleep Through Life Span
• adults
– go to bed and wake up earlier
– Middle Adult (40s-50s)
• need less sleep
– Late Adult (60s +)
• 50% report problems falling or staying asleep
Sleep and the Brain
• neurotransmitter activity
– initiated in reticular formation (core of brain stem…
damage to this area can lead to coma or death)
– serotonin
– norepinephrine
– acetylcholine
• Stages 1-4  neurotransmitters drop
• REM
– initiated by increase in acetylcholine
– ends with increased serotonin and norepinephrine
– most like to wake just after REM period
Sleep and Disease
• Increased Occurrence During Sleep
– stroke
– asthma attacks
• Sleeplessness
– obesity
– heart disease
• Fighting Disease
– cells produce cytokines (powerfully sleep-inducing)
• Mental Disorders (freq. associated with sleeplessness)
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depression
Alzheimer disease
stroke
cancer
Sleep Disorders
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insomnia
sleep walking and sleep talking (and eating)
nightmares and night terrors
narcolepsy
sleep apnea
Insomnia
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inability to sleep
1/5 adults
more common in women and older adults
more common in people who are thin,
stressed or depressed
• Mild Insomnia: treat with quality sleep habits
(same bedtime, sleep in dark and cool
environment, avoiding caffeine and naps)
Sleepwalking and Talking
• somnambulism = sleepwalking
– stages 3 & 4
– linked to sleep deprivation and alcohol use
– should wake individual
• somniloquy = sleep talking
– not accurate
• sleep eating (rare) – Ambien side effect
– buttered cigarettes, salt sandwiches, raw bacon
Nightmares and Night Terrors
• nightmare – a frightening dream that awakens the
dreamer from REM sleep
– peak at ages 3-6
– experienced by college students 4-8 times per year
• night terror – features sudden arousal from sleep and
intense fear
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rapid heart rate
rapid breathing
loud screaming
heavy perspiration
movement
peak at ages 5-7
occurs during slow-save stage 4 (non-REM) sleep
Narcolepsy
• narcolepsy – sudden, overpowering urge to
sleep
– involves problems with hypothalamus and
amygdala
– emerges in adulthood
– may occur while talking or standing or any other
daily activity
– can be triggered by extreme emotional reactions,
such as surprise, laughter, excitement or anger
Sleep Apnea
• sleep apnea – a sleep disorder in which
individuals stop breathing because the windpipe
fails to open or because the brain processes
involved in respiration fail to work
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loud snoring  silence (not breathing)
12 million Americans (2006)
more common in infants and adults 65+
more common in the obese, men, people with large
necks
– may factor into sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
Dreams
• manifest content – according to Freud (who
was coo-coo-ca-choo), the surface content of
a dream, containing dream symbols that
disguise the dream’s true meaning
• latent content – according to Freud, a dream’s
hidden content; its unconscious and true
meaning
• 2 Most Prominent Dream Theories
– cognitive theory
– activation-synthesis theory
Dream Theories
• cognitive theory of dreaming – theory
proposing that we can understand dreaming
by applying the same cognitive concepts we
use in studying the waking mind
– dreams = subconscious cognitive processing
involving information and memory
• metaphorically related to a person’s preoccupation
– CRITICISMS: lack of attention to the roles of brain
structures and brain activity in dreaming
Dream Theories
• activation-synthesis theory – theory that
dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex
synthesizes neural signals generated from activity
in the lower part of the brain
– dreams  brain’s attempts to find logic in random
brain activity (internally generated stimuli) that occurs
during sleep
• primary motor and sensory areas of forebrain stimulated
(create sensation of running/feeling wind, etc.)
• dreams = “cognitive trash”
– CRITICISM: damage to the brain stem does not
necessary reduce dreaming; life-experiences stimulate
and shape dreaming
Psychoactive Drugs
• U.S. has the highest rate of adolescent drug
use of any industrialized nation.
• Why do you think this is the case?
Psychoactive Drugs
• psychoactive drugs – drugs that act on the nervous
system to alter consciousness, modify perception and
change mood
– Reasons / Justifications:
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deal with life’s activities / escape from harsh realities of life
reduce tension
relieve boredom and/or fatigue
curious about effects
– Reasons Drug Use is Stupid
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losing track on one’s responsibilities
problems in workplace and in relationships
increased risk for serious (sometimes fatal) diseases
tolerance
addiction
dependence
expensive
others to be discussed on later slides… it’s a long list
Psychoactive Drugs
• tolerance (need more)
– need to take increasing amounts of a drug in order
to get the same effect
• physical dependence – physiological need
– withdrawal
• psychological dependence – strong desire
– feeling of well-being / reduction of stress
• addiction – physical or psychological or both
on a drug
How to Become an Addict… or Not
(Not is Better)
• psychoactive drugs  increase dopamine
levels in brain’s reward pathways
• reward pathway (p. 155)
– ventral tegmental area (VTA)
• limbic and prefrontal areas activated by dopamine
produced here
– nucleus accumbens (NAc)
Reward Pathways for Drugs
Types of Psychoactive Drugs
• depressants
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alcohol
barbiturates
tranquilizers
opiates (a.k.a. narcotics)
• morphine
• heroin
• stimulants
– caffeine
– nicotine
– amphetamines
• diet pills
• crystal methamphetamine (a.k.a. crystal meth, crank, tina)
– cocaine
– MDMA (a.k.a. Ecstasy, X, XTC)
• hallucinogens
– marijuana
– LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
Depressants
• depressants - psychoactive drugs that slow
down mental and physical activity
– alcohol
– barbiturates
– tranquilizers
– opiates (a.k.a. narcotics)
• morphine
• heroin
• alcohol
Depressants
– inhibitions decrease and judgment becomes increasingly impaired
– extreme intoxication  coma and/or death
– increases concentration of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
• to cerebral cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, amygdala, nucleus accumbens
– 2nd most widely used drug (after caffeine)
• 2/3 of American adults drink; 30% binge drank in past year (5+ drinks)
– involved in 60% of homicides (either offender of victim)
– 65% aggressive sexual acts against women – offender consumed
– binge drinking increases during first 2 years of college  decreases with
permanent job, marriage or cohabitation, parenthood
• 11 times more likely to fall behind in school
• 10 times morel likely to drive
• 2 times as likely to have unprotected sex
• alcoholism – a disorder that involves long-term, repeated, uncontrolled,
compulsive and excessive use of alcoholic beverages
– impairs as drinker’s health and social relationships (1/9 drinkers)
– one-third rule (1. dead/terrible shape; 2. still fighting addiction; 3. sober or
drinking socially)
– alcoholism recovery
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negative experience w/ alcohol
substitute dependency (meditation, exercise, overeating)
developing new positive relationships
joining a support group
Depressants
• barbiturates (examples Nembutal and
Seconal)
– decreased central nervous system activity
– impaired memory and decision making
– can be lethal
– most often used in suicide attempts
– treat insomnia
• largely replaced by tranquilizers
Depressants
• tranquilizers (examples: Valium and Xanax)
– reduce anxiety
– induce relaxation
– feeling of calm (small doses)
– drowsiness and confusion
– tolerance – takes only a few weeks
– addictive
– withdrawal symptoms
Depressants
• Opiates (a.k.a. Narcotics), examples: morphine
and heroin
– depresses central nervous system activity
– affect synapses that use endorphins
– euphoric and pain-free
– increased appetite for food and sex
– highly addictive
– craving and painful withdrawal
Depressants
Stimulants
• stimulants – psychoactive drugs that increase the
central nervous system's activity. The most widely
used stimulants are caffeine, nicotine,
amphetamines and cocaine.
– caffeine
– nicotine
– amphetamines
• diet pills
• crystal methamphetamine (a.k.a. crystal meth, crank, tina)
– cocaine
– MDMA (a.k.a. Ecstasy, X, XTC)
Stimulants
• caffeine
– most widely used drug in world
– boosts energy and alertness
– caffeinism – an overindulgence in caffeine
• mood changes, anxiety, sleep disruption
• 5 or more cups of coffee per day
• symptoms: insomnia, irritability, headaches, ringing
ears, dry mouth, increased blood pressure, digestive
problems
• withdrawal last a couple days
Stimulants
• nicotine
– addictive
– improved attention and alertness
– reduced anger and anxiety
– pain relieve
– withdrawal symptoms last months or longer
– kills 400,000 people each year in U.S.
• more than AIDS, alcohol, motor vehicles, homicide,
illegal drugs, and suicide combined
Stimulants
• Amphetamine (a.k.a. uppers)
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boost energy, stay awake, lose weight
diet pills (increase release of dopamine)
Ritalin (ADD medication)
crystal methamphetamine (a.k.a. crystal meth, crank, tina)
• can be smoked, injected or swallowed
• releases enormous amounts of dopamine (intense feeling of
pleasure
• damages dopamine receptors (chasing unattainable high)
• “Take crystal meth, and never be that happy ever again…” – great
sell?
• household products (ingredients): battery acid, cold medicine,
drain cleaner, kitty litter… great sell?
• devastating to rural areas
Stimulants
• cocaine
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from coca plant (Bolivia, Peru)
snorted or injected (power or crystal)
flood bloodstream – euphoric for 15-30 minutes
depletes dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine
• agitated and depressed coming off of high
• crack – potent form of cocaine
– chips of pure cocaine; usually smoked
– believed one of the most addictive substances
– “Once you go crack, you always go back.” Great sell?
Stimulants
• MDMA (a.k.a. Ecstasy, X, XTC)
– both stimulant and hallucinogenic properties
– “empathogen” – people “warm up” to others
– releases serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine
• depletes body of serotonin (listlessness continues for
days)
– impairs memory and cognitive processing
• cognitive deficits for 2+ years after abstaining
– destroys axons that release serotonin
• repeated use  depression
Stimulants
Hallucinogens
• hallucinogens (a.k.a. psychedelics) –
psychoactive drugs that modify a person’s
perceptual experiences and produce visual
images that are not real
– marijuana
– LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
Hallucinogens
• marijuana – the dried leaves and flowers of the hemp plant Cannibis
sativa (Central Asia)
– dried resin = hashish
– active ingredient = THC (delta-9-terrahydrocannabinol)
• does not effect specific neurotransmitter
• disrupts membranes of neurons
• affects functioning of neurotransmitters and hormones
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increase pulse rate and blood pressure
reddening of eyes
coughing
dry mouth
smoke = more damaging than tobacco smoke
difficult to classify
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tiger spontaneous unrelated ideas
distorted perceptions of time and place
increased sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells and colors
erratic verbal behavior
impairs attention and memory
– pregnant women  neg. attention (including lower intelligence)
– “gateway drug” = largely misnomer
Hallucinogens
• LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
– even low doses can produce striking perceptual changes
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objects and shapes glow
colors become kaleidoscopic and astonishing images unfold
sense of time influenced (time can seem crazy-long)
pleasurable OR grotesque
bad trip  extreme anxiety, paranoia, suicidal or homicidal
tendencies
• side effects: dizziness, nausea, tremors
• emotional and cognitive effects: rapid mood swings, impaired
memory
– acts primarily on serotonin
• can affect dopamine
Hallucinogens
Critical Controversy:
Should Illicit Psychoactive Drugs Be
Legalized for Medical Use?
p. 164
• Read and discuss.
Hypnosis
• hypnosis – an altered state of consciousness or a
psychological state of altered attention and expectation
in which the individual is unusually receptive to
suggestions
• 4 Steps
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minimize distractions
concentrate on something specific
informs person on what to expect
suggests certain events of feelings he or she knows will
occur or observes occurring “you are getting tired…”
• hypnotizability
Explaining Hypnosis (2)
• divided consciousness view of hypnosis –
– Ernest Hilgard’s view that hypnosis involves a
splitting of consciousness into two separate
components, one of which follows the hypnotist’s
commands and the other of which acts as a
“hidden observer”
• social cognitive behavior view of hypnosis –
– theory that hypnosis is a normal state in which the
hypnotized person behaves in the way he or she
believes that a hypnotized person should behave
Uses of Hypnosis
• most effective when combine with
psychotherapy
• reducing pain
– sensory cortex was not activated in hypnotized
patients
– the “ouch” signal never made it to awareness
• used to treat schizophrenia
Consciousness and Health and
Wellness
• mindfulness meditation – used by yoga enthusiasts
and Buddhist monks
– increased activation in the left hemisphere (“happy brain”)
• hypnagogic reverie – an overwhelming feeling of
wellness right before you fall asleep – a sense that
everything is going to work out well
• meditation
– initial increases in activation of the basal ganglia and
prefrontal cortex
– decreases in the anterior cingulate (associated with
conscious awareness and acts of will)
– controlling one’s thoughts in order to let go of the need to
control