The Americas:
National Expansion,
Regional
Imperialism –
the rise of the U.S.
The Americas in the
th
th
Making: 18 -19 C.
19th Century Developments
Continuing Patterns: Colonial (European) Interference,
Influence
- Most important in Spanish, Portuguese former colonies:
the Roman Catholic Church
- even after liberal upheavals in Europe, Church
remained strong
- former colonies remained strongholds: clergy continued
to be contenders for local power, equivalent to ‘class’
interests
19th Century Developments
Church had ‘monopoly’ on education, intellectual life
during colonial era: following Independence…
- ‘liberals’ wanted secular education, full
between ‘Church and State’
separation
- ‘conservatives’ supported the political role of the Church
and wanted it built into new constitutions
Remained contentious issue throughout 19th century -Church influence still active in 20th century
19th Century Developments
Direct challenges to South America:
- British, French naval blockades at different times, of
Argentina
- Britain repeatedly violated Brazilian national waters in its
efforts to end the slave trade slave trade
- French returned to ‘re-take’ Haiti 1801
19th Century Developments
And to Mexico:
- Spanish invaded 1829
- French attacked Veracruz in 1838
- full-scale invasion 1862 [see discussion below, part of
story of US Imperialism]
- Different circumstances, similar goals: the former to reestablish influence in the region, the latter to establish it
[rebuilding what it had lost elsewhere in NA in 7-yrs war]
19th Century Developments
Also to the United States: War of 1812
- Direct challenge by Britain: in 1814: occupied
Washington, burned the Whitehouse and Capital
- British in Canada allied with ‘loyalist’ Amerindians who
fought against US forces on side of British
Damage to the Capital (above)
And ‘White House’ (drawing)
19th Century Developments
Continuing Patterns: failed attempts to ‘create’ nations of
different regions, economies, ethnic groups
- Simon Bolivar: from freeing Venezuela – went on to
create regional ‘confederation’ “Grand Columbia”
- Jose Antonio Paez: resisted Bolivar’s government-- in
turn established Venezuelan 1829
- Led to break up of short-lived’ regional state’
Created ‘Gran Colombia’:
confederation Ecuador, New Granada, Venezuela
19th Century Developments
Continuing Patterns: failed attempts to ‘create’ nations of
different regions, economies, ethnic groups
- Similar situation elsewhere: United Provinces of Rio de la
Plata, ‘loyalists’ in Uruguay and Bolivia, separatists in
Paraguay –
All led local independence movements
- even Buenos Aires, Argentina had difficulty uniting,
controlling far-flung regions
19th Century Developments
All Achievements (Independence, Unification, Secession)
– achieved by war, strong military leaders
- leaders often reluctant to give up ‘power’ enjoyed during
process of independence – whether from colonial or local
powers
- promised strength, stability to war-weakened societies
19th Century Developments
All Achievements (Independence, Unification, Secession)
– achieved by war, strong military leaders
- often supported by people initially
- later challenged when reluctant to respect democracy
(give up authoritarian power)
19th Century Developments
Examples:
- Bolivar (Venezuela), de Iturbide (Mexico): their military
reputations provided the foundation for personal political
power – power based on personal ‘achievement’, charisma
- Can be easily challenged when political situation changes,
when people seek different kind of ‘authority’ – or just
another
- Paez (Venezuela): used personalized power to resist
Bolivar’s government when it ceased to be popular
19th Century Developments
Examples: United States
- Andrew Jackson: used it to win presidency as ‘popular’
candidate (defeating older, wealthy ‘political aristocracy’ )
- cut away at Constitutional powers of Congress and
Supreme Court by increasing those of president
Andrew Jackson (1767-1845)
19th Century Developments
Examples: L’Ouverture (Haiti)
- 1800: L’Ouverture declared himself ‘Commander-inChief’ of the Island
- instituted policies to restore plantation society: required
labour to regenerate economy
- seen as attempt by island slaves to re-introduce slavery
19th Century Developments
1801 New Constitution: slavery, racial discrimination
‘abolished’ forever
- alienated Whites (who turned to Napoleon to re-establish
former regime)
- and Coloureds who lost privileges
- mandatory labour, general ‘bourgeois values’ enshrined:
alienated slaves
- 1801: massive uprising against L’Ouverture
19th Century Developments
1801 Uprising:
- opened door to Napoleon’s ‘return’ to the island (French
troops)
- ultimate defeat of French, victory of new regime that
reacted against everything ‘French’ – from executed
soldiers/officers to ‘collaborators’
-end of L’Ouverture’s ‘French Haiti’: in turn generated
reactions among neighbours – including US.
19th Century Developments
Continuing Patterns: slavery and abolition
- Britain’s abolition of the slave trade was not universal:
continued into Spanish and Portuguese territories until mid(even late) century
- Issue between Brazil and Britain (re: slave ships) but also
domestically (cause of Pedro I’s abdication; focus of Pedro II
in attempt to keep throne)
19th Century Developments
Continuing Patterns: slavery and abolition
- Bolivar had taken ‘risk’ of alienating his own class to
advocate abolition: why? To recruit slaves to ‘the cause’ of
Independence
- And to assure support (military) of Haiti
19th Century Developments
Brazil:
- Pedro I: ratified treaty ending importation slaves 1830 but
trade continued into 1850s
- war with Paraguay (1865-70): opportunity for slaves to
gain freedom by joining army
19th Century Developments
Brazil:
- convinced many of abolitionist cause
- runaways grew in number: little support for returning
them
- Yet: 1888 before abolition achieved -- shows depth of
belief in ‘slavery’ as natural social condition (with
possibilities for integration)
19th Century: United States
Rise of United States as Regional Imperial Power
-In context of ‘nationalisms’ throughout central/south
America and Caribbean, US in best position to gain
strength in region
- while regionally ‘unequally developed’ – South
agricultural, slave labour, North industrial, wage labour –
overall economy still stronger than any to its south (and
west – Amerindian, Mexican)
19th Century: United States
‘Manifest Destiny’:
-‘Divinely Ordained’: subjugation of indigenous ‘nonChristian’ people
- reinforced Westward movement
- Combined with ‘strongman leadership’: ‘United ‘ States
held together longer than confederations elsewhere
Manifest Destiny
19th Century: United States
US-Mexico: 1820s – 1830s
- Mexicans invited Americans invited into northern
provinces to help develop them: Mexicans had no
investment ability – former colonial wealth in silver no
longer viable
- Americans soon outnumbered Mexicans: resented their
lack of political authority
- particular grievance: Mexican laws against slavery -Americans brought slaves as their labour force
19th Century: United States
US and Mexico: 1835-36
- Mexican ‘liberals’ joined disgruntled Americans
- They rebelled: gained independence for ‘Texas’
- became US ‘slave state’ in 1845
19th Century: United States
US and Mexico: 1835-36
-provoked outright war
-American forces captured Mexico City 1848
- forced cession of huge territory: New Mexico, Arizona,
California in return for $15million ‘cash supplement’
19th Century: United States
Mexico: liberals under Benito Juarez took control
- to re-establish stability: new Constitution imposed
limiting power of Church and Military
-Conservatives retaliated: invited Napoleon III (France) to
reinstate ‘their’ power
-Another example of Europe returning to the New World:
Napoleon’s forces invaded Mexico 1862
19th Century: United States
Competing Imperialisms: France vs US
-French installed Austrian Hungarian emperor in Mexico
-several years of war followed
- US used diplomatic pressure to restore Mexican president
to power: established foothold in country
Napoleon requests Egyptian
Troops
Major French Assault; ‘taking of
Republican Flag’; execution of Emperor
19th Century: United States
Secession of US Southern States: ‘American Civil War
1861-5’
- problems posed by expansionism, “nationalism” grew
during early 19th C.
- new acquisitions of territory created not onlyu conflict
with Amerindians, neighbours (Mexico) but: domestic
political crisis
19th Century: United States
Secession of US Southern States: ‘American Civil War
1861-5’
- with growing importance of slave-based southern
agriculture (especially cotton) for industries (north and
south) based on this production: political pressure grew to
ensure that States created in new lands were ‘Slave States’
19th Century: United States
Series of ‘negotiated legislations’ passed to mediate
between different demands: ultimately led to War
- 1800: slave states majority
- Missouri Compromise 1820: Slavery prohibited north of
latitude 36 degrees 30’
- 1821, 1837: ‘slave’ / ‘free’ states equal in number
Slave-Free States 1837
19th Century: United States
19th Century: United States
Battle over Slavery continued: 1846 Slaves States gained
majority of ONE
-precarious balance of states cause of concern for both
anti- and pro-slave factions
-Kansas-Nebraska: became battleground (literally) for
struggle
-‘pro-slavery’ settlers moved into region to assure vote
19th Century: United States
“Bloody Kansas”: on-the-ground violence
-Government sent forces to support pro-slavery
authorities; congress refused to recognize legality of State
-Revealed depth of cleavage in Government itself!
- eventually enough anti-slavery voters moved into state to
reverse position
19th Century: United States
1861: Kansas admitted as ‘free state’
Just as Civil War began. . .
19th Century: United States
Civil War: Secession of the South:
- federal policies (‘compromises’ not withstanding)
ultimately alienated the Southern states
-As we have seen elsewhere: attempts to negotiate basic
differences ultimately failed
-formed Confederate States of America: seceded in 1861
19th Century: United States
American Civil War:
- President Lincoln handled Southern States same way
other new national leaders handled problem: military force
to remain part of new nation
- difference: all successful ‘secessions’ had taken place
soon after War of Independence in Latin America: this
attempt was almost a century later
-- too many vested (economic) interests to permit
19th Century: United States
War Failed but Impact Long-Lasting:
- over 750,00 lives lost
-fought over ‘slavery’ but not really about slavery in sense
of moral issue (abolitionist movement not central here –
see below)
-About politics and economics: slave populations brought
political representation, labour for production required by
industry
19th Century: United States
Origins of Abolition in US:
- in the US it was cotton (and its role in industrialization –
Britain but also the US North) that drove early 19th
century growth in slavery
- contrary to general impression, abolitionist activity not
defined by region (north/south)
- - women, free/freed African Americans organized most
anti-slavery activity throughout country
Uncle Tom’s Cabin
Harriet Beecher Stowe
- teacher: wrote novel
about ‘life of slaves’ 1852
- main character ‘Uncle
Tom’, long-suffering slave
around whom others
stories revolved
- hugely popular
- caricatured by many
19th Century: United States
Abolition of Slavery
- Frederick Douglass (freed slave) one of most well
known
19th Century: United States
Secession Failed: but Impact Long-Lasting
- social impact: fed into late-19th century rise in racism,
discrimination
- included ‘backlash’ vis-à-vis slavery: political issues never
addressed by outcome of war
19th Century: United States
Post Civil War: Emancipation not Equality
- legal freedom did not guarantee ‘equality’
- everywhere, ‘blacks’ faced discrimination and/or
patronization
- in the South, pseudo slavery perpetuated through ‘Jim
Crow’ laws: segregation in housing, transport, education
“Jim Crow”: caricature
“Jim Crow”: caricature
19th Century: United States
Southern Paper [“Mobile Register", Alabama] editorial
June 19, 1897:
"There is a feeling in the white man's mind that whoever of
the race not his own who attempts to defy this race
instinct, and violently upset the physical line which
nature has established, does by that act take his life in
hand".
Estimated more than 2,500 in America 1882-1918
19th Century: United States
Discrimination Not Only About ‘being black’:
- Post Civil War era one of economic growth and need for
labour
- Southern reaction largely cultural but also economic
- Economic need for labour, combined with economic
possibilities for developing ‘new west’ – including
California –led to demands for immigrant labour
19th Century: United States
Chinese Immigration:
- conditions in China [see earlier lecture on Asia]:
overpopulation for available land, ‘homelessness’ – led to
massive emigration
-By late century: 1870s-1880s
- 100,000 into Peru
- 120,000 into Cuba
- 50,000 into Canada
19th Century: United States
Chinese Immigration: to the Us
- 300,000 by 1882: marked California Gold Rush
- Size of population change in such short period: bound to
have impact
Chinese Workers in California Gold Mines, c. 1860
19th Century: United States
California’s Anti-Coolie Act of 1862:
“There is hereby levied on each person, male and female,
of the Mongolian race, of the age of eighteen years and
upwards, residing in this State, except such as shall, under
laws now existing, or which may hereafter be enacted, take
out licenses to work in the mines, or to prosecute some
kind of business, a monthly capitation tax of two dollars
and fifty cents, which tax shall be known as the Chinese
Police Tax. . .”
Chinese Immigration to US
Chinese emigration to America: sketch on board the steam-ship
Alaska, bound for San Francisco. From "Views of Chinese""
published in The Graphic and Harper's Weekly. April 29, 1876
19th Century: United States
Immigrants Intended ‘Short-term’ Stay but….
- situation in China difficult: money in US good
- many stayed much longer than anticipated: either by
them or by Americans
19th Century: United States
- American ‘fears’ grew: Chinese portrayed as drug-using
‘aliens’
- grew as century moved on
- 1896, larger concerns with Immigrants and Immigration
(in general) topic of major Public Concern