SLE Methods: A Review
Douglas Fleming
Faculty of Education
University of Ottawa
Pendulum Swings in the Field
“our field has been afflicted with many false
dichotomies, weak conceptualizations, and
neglect of critical issues and variables” (Carroll,
1965, p. 102)
Method, Approach and Technique
 an approach is one’s assumptions and beliefs about
language and teaching;
 a method is the pattern with which you make
pedagogical choices based on your approach;
 a technique is a specific set of activities for the
classroom based on your preferred method.
based on Anthony (1963)
Grammar Translation
• formal codification commonly attributed to Erasmus
(1466-1536);
• developed out of the ecclesiastic use of Latin;
• adopted by educated and class elites;
• centered on the memorization of verb forms, grammar
rules, and vocabulary;
• methods concentrated on:
• the translation of literary texts;
• comprehension questions following a text;
• teacher-centered activities.
Audio-lingual Approach
• originated out of the U.S. ‘Army Method’;
• based on the behaviorist belief that language learning
consists of habit formation;
• communication and context not emphasized;
• purpose of language use for learner not judged to be
important;
• features repetitive drills and memorization of dialogue;
• emphasis placed on pronunciation;
• activities usually teacher-centered.
Designer Methods
 a multitude of techniques developed by specific
curriculum and materials designers in the 1960’s-1980’s;
 often spawned dogmatic attitudes (and profitable
educational empires);
 most were based on the pop-psychology of the time;
 examples include:
• Total Physical Response
• Suggestopedia
• The Silent Way
Criticisms
 we need to discard simple formulas (Stern, l983)
 tensions exist between conceptions of teachers as
a) technical implementers of fully developed
curricula and b) fully developed professionals
(Pennycook,1989)
 singular methods are irrelevant to most practice
(Nunan, 1991)
Stephen Krashen
• one of the best known applied linguists today;
• often (justifiably) criticized for being pseudo scientific;
• legacy has been important if only for the way he forced
the field to deal with long ignored fundamental issues
and contradictions.
 hypotheses
 Acquisition/ Learning Hypothesis
 Monitor Hypothesis
 Natural Order Hypothesis
 Input Hypothesis
 Affective Filter Hypothesis
(1981) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning
The Communicative Approach
 the most commonly accepted methodology today;
 concentrates on function rather than form;
 as Allen and Widdowson (1979) stated, the approach
involves, "the learning of rules of use as well as rules of
grammar" (p.141);
 the goal is to create a realistic context for language
acquisition in the classroom.
 functional language usage; the ability of learners to
express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and
needs.
 open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and
exchanges of personal information are commonly utilized;
 students usually negotiate meaning while working with
authentic materials (realia) in small groups activities;
 associated with pedagogical tasks (Johnson, 1979)
Expanded Notions of Language
Canale and Swain’s (1980) model of communicative
competence:
 linguistic
 socio-cultural
 strategic
 discoursal
Expanded Notions of Pedagogical Options
Stern’s (1983) teaching strategies:
 crosslingual vs. intralingual
 objective vs. subjective
 explicit vs. implicit
the most fundamental question still remains:
what is the relationship between explicit knowledge of the
language and actually using it?
Ellis (1997) identified 3 positions in the research:
- Strong Interface Position
(Biaystok, McLaughlin, Sharwood-Smith)
- Non-Interface Position
(Krashen, Terrell)
- Weak Interface Position
(Ellis, Long, Selinger)
Weak Interface Position
 explicit instruction is a ‘consciousness-raising’ activity
the enhances input:
1) for comprehension, helping the learner to intake
(recognise and understand features of the input)
2) for explicit knowledge, helping a learner learn about
the structure metalinguistically
 facilitates ‘noticing’ and ‘noticing the gap’
 helps combine structured syllabi with those that are
functional or task based
Focus on Form
 grammar is heterogeneous and it is important to mix
explicit and implicit techniques depending on the grammar
item, the communicative task and the learner involved
(Kennedy, 2004);
 in a sense, this is a compromise between the strong and
the non-interface positions outlined earlier;
 moves past the sterile phonics/ whole language debates;
 represents the basic theoretical background justifying such
structured techniques as AIM, Balanced Literacy and Smart
Learning.
See forthcoming TESOL Quarterly Special Issue (edited by Nasarji)
Implications
 learners:
should become less dependent on rote learning and
more adept at understanding and manipulating
linguistic forms in actual communication.
 teachers and curriculum writers:
should exercise professional agency in the interests of
a balanced and thoughtful approach to curriculum
development, lesson planning and task design