RA Logic Model Narrative Description (revised October 3, 2011)
I.
Inputs
II. Mediating Outcomes
III. Outcomes
A. Teacher Mediating Outcomes
B. Student Mediating
A. Significant increase in
A. RA professional Development and supports for
A1. Teacher leaders support teacher
Outcomes
achievement, especially among
high school ELA, biology, U.S. history teachers
development and implementation of
high-need students:
RA: At least monthly on site
and teacher leaders including:
B1. Increased
opportunities/ meetings for teacher
A1. Increased disciplinary
collaboration in a
 Professional development (65 hours over two
community and collaboration
community of readers literacy in science, English
years) characterized by:
language arts and history as
and writers
- content focused on disciplinary literacy
measured by ETS assessments and
A2. Teachers increase use of RA
- duration
state ELA exams
approach
strategies:
B2.
Increased
use
of
- collective participation
a.
Providing
reading
opportunities
that
comprehension
- active learning
reflect breadth in genres/text type,
A2. Increased content knowledge
strategies
- coherence
frequency, volume, and
in biology and US history as
 Inquiry-based professional development on:
accountability
for
reading
reflected on state standardized
B3.
Increased
- metacognitive inquiry
b.
Supporting
student
effort
to
tests
metacognitive
inquiry
- collaboration that facilitates metacognitive
comprehend
disciplinary
text.
inquiry and conversations
c. Fostering metacognitive inquiry
A3. Improved course
B4. Improved reader
into
reading
and
thinking
processes
performance: improved grades;
identity
B. Recruiting and training of teacher leaders on
d. Providing explicit instruction and
increased number credits earned in
the RA model & strategies
modeling
of
reading
comprehension
core courses
B5.
Improved
student
 One TL recruited for each school
routines,
tools,
strategies
and
identity
 TLs participate in the same 65 hours of training as
processes
A4. Increased
teachers
e. Fostering and supporting student
B6. Increased reading promotion/retention: increased
collaboration
likelihood of on-time promotion;
of a variety of texts
C. Follow-up support for teachers
f. Employing instruction that
increased probability of retention
At least monthly on-site teacher meetings facilitated
promotes
engagement,
studentin school (decreased dropouts)
B7.
Increased
Student
by teacher leaders
centered learning and inquiry-based Engagement
learning
G. Burden on teachers- (RA can be more work for teachers, being
IV. Factors that facilitate/hinder implementation:
A. Sense of commitment and purpose related to the initiative
responsive to learners in the moment, responding to new goals, new
B. School cohesion/community
routines, and a higher level of cognitive complexity)
C. Understanding and knowledge of disciplinary ways of thinking
H. Misalignment of district policies with the initiative and curriculum
D. Teacher sense of self-efficacy, confidence
constraints
E. Reducing risk for teachers especially re: evaluation of new practices
F. Support for implementation at site (administrative, social, material)
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The purpose of this document is to articulate the theory of action underlying the Reading Apprenticeship
model and to identify the core components of program inputs and related mediating and long-term
outcomes. Particular attention is paid to those core inputs and outcomes that are absolutely necessary to
achieving hypothesized term student outcomes. The theory of action is intended to guide the RA RCT
study, especially in terms of developing instruments to measure core inputs and outcomes and to guide
analyses.
I.
Inputs
The core inputs of the Reading Apprenticeship model include:



Professional development for Reading Apprenticeship teachers
Recruitment and training of on-site teacher leaders to support the implementation of Reading
Apprenticeship
Optional follow-up support for teacher leaders and administrators.
A. RA Professional development for teachers: The core of the reading apprenticeship intervention
is 65 hours of professional development in the RA model and philosophy. The training is
delivered by experienced PD facilitators who have implemented RA and have been trained by the
SLI staff. The RA PD consists of:



Five full days of training in the first summer prior to implementation- focusing on the foundation
of RA;
Two days of training during the first year of implementation – focusing on formative assessment,
differentiation, and planning for implementation; and
Three days of training in the summer following the first year of implementation- focusing on
formative assessment and planning for implementation.
Make-up training is offered for the five foundational days of professional development, reflecting the
essential nature of this training for implementing RA.
The training covers the following topics:
 Articulating and defining the RA model and framework (social, cognitive, knowledge building
and personal dimensions);
 Defining, modeling, exploring and practicing RA instructional strategies that foster metacognitive
inquiry, collaboration that facilitates metacognitive inquiry and conversations; and students’ use
of reading comprehension strategies;
 Describing the teachers’ role in an RA classroom including formative assessment and
differentiation of instruction;
 Teaching discipline-specific reading comprehension strategies and instructional practices; and
 Planning for implementation.
A key aspect of the professional development is working to change teachers’ perspective from seeing
themselves as only teachers to seeing themselves as learners. SLI intends to accomplish this through
inquiry based, collaborative discussion of metacognitive processes, with a lot of actual reading and smallgroup discussion. RA professional development uses three modes of inquiry:
1. Building knowledge of reading
2

Teachers practice reading, discuss thinking processes in conversation framed on
social routines (e.g., through think alouds, think/write-pair-share using written
notes/annotations)
2. Building insight into student learning
 Teachers observe videos and written case studies
 Teachers discuss/share observations/interpretations
3. Building effective use of strategy instruction
 Teachers choose texts that raise authentic problems for themselves as readers
 Teachers use metacognitive inquiry and group discussion to solve comprehension
problems
 Teachers discuss how metacognitive strategies might extend to the classroom
RA teacher professional development is designed to exhibit each of five key characteristics shown in
previous research to be related to improving teaching and learning: content focus, duration, collective
participation, active learning and coherence (Desimone, et al. 2009).

Content focus: RA professional development is focused on disciplinary literacy, specifically
embedding reading comprehension tools and instruction into English language arts, biology and
history texts. Disciplinary literacy is the notion that some literacy practices are discipline specific. For
example, the norms of evidence, logic and discourse are different for different discipline. Academic
disciplines each have unique languages—shared ways of thinking, speaking and writing. Skillful
readers understand these differences and use that knowledge in reading disciplinary texts. The RA
PD also emphasizes pedagogical content knowledge (knowledge about how students acquire certain
knowledge, as opposed to teacher behavior), especially anticipating problems students might
encounter in reading disciplinary texts and knowing how to provide specific support to help students
overcome difficulties.

Duration: Structured and sustained follow-up for teachers implementing RA is provided in 65 hours
of professional development sequenced over a two-year period. In addition, between the day-long PD
sessions, teachers are supported through web-based resources and at least monthly meetings with RA
colleagues and teacher leaders.

Collective participation: A key component of RA PD is teacher discourse about literacy, content, and
problems of practice. The RAISE initiative engages school-based teams of at least six teachers to
develop a professional community that supports teachers in their efforts to implement RA. (The
monthly school-based meetings that are facilitated as part of follow-up support provide opportunities
for RA teachers to support each other and collaborate through inquiry and conversations around
literacy in the content areas.)

Coherence: RA PD addresses teachers’ need for learning to build on and value their existing
knowledge and beliefs. RA may challenge teachers’ beliefs and practices. At the same time it
provides support for resolving the resulting cognitive dissonance and situates learning within the
classroom context. While the RA approach may contradict some state and local initiatives or
mandates (e.g., scripted curriculums), RA is flexible in that it allows teachers to integrate RA
instructional strategies within existing curriculum and text. It is also closely aligned with subject-area
learning goals and the Common Core Standards.

Active learning: RA PD is inquiry-based and collaborative and mimics the practices teachers are
expected to implement in their classrooms. Teachers engage in inquiries about disciplinary reading
and its relationship to literacy; they collaboratively investigate student work and videotaped
classrooms; and they practice classroom routines based on RA strategies.
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B. Training and recruiting teacher leaders
SLI recruits and trains teacher leaders (TLs) who support implementation of RA in schools. Teacher
leaders are recruited from among teachers who have already had training and experience implementing
RA and/or have experience and capacity in leading teachers. They are often teachers participating in the
study, but they may also include a curriculum coordinator or school administrator with primary
responsibility for supporting teachers, but who is not implementing RA in a classroom.
TLs receive the same 65 hours of professional development provided to teachers in the initiative.
C. Follow-up support for teachers
Teachers participate in at least monthly on-site meetings of one class-period or longer facilitated by
teacher leaders.
In addition to the professional development of teachers and teacher leaders, SLI provides optional followup support. Teacher leaders are invited but not required to attend and use supports that includes:
•
•
•
I.
resources for teachers and teacher leaders provided on a web-based portal (to be developed in
years 1-2 of the initiative);
regular communication and monthly webinars between SLI site coordinators and teacher leaders,
in which the site coordinators discuss and facilitate problem solving, strategy sharing and
resources (model lessons, protocols, practice guides and illustrations), and provide additional
professional development to TLs as needed. Each state in the initiative has at least one site
coordinator. Site coordinators have experience in implementing RA and supporting others in
implementation of RA. The site coordinators are selected by SLI;
outreach to administrators: bi-monthly contact (via email, phone or visits) by site coordinators or
SLI leadership to RA school principals to offer assistance and support as needed.
Mediating Outcomes
A. Teacher Mediating Outcomes
We hypothesize that Reading Apprenticeship improves student outcomes by first affecting a set of
intermediate outcomes that facilitate the achievement of the program goals. Intermediate outcomes fall
into two categories. First, teacher leaders, with training and support from SLI, support other teachers in
their development and implementation of the RA approach. The second category of intermediate
outcomes for teachers is related to changes in teacher practices, specifically their increased use and
facility of RA strategies in their classroom.




A1. Teacher leaders support teacher development and implementation of RA: Teacher leaders
(TLs) facilitate teacher professional development and implementation of RA at the school level
through at least monthly meetings with school-based teams. The TLs provide support to teachers
in their professional development, help them problem solve, and provide tools to facilitate
implementation. Meetings may include
sharing and reviewing student work,
discussing problematic lessons and problem solving,
sharing successful lessons, and
exploring RA tools and protocols.
RA tools and protocols help focus teachers’ attention on essential elements in implementing RA,
such as fostering student engagement with text.
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•
•
•
•
As a result of the TL facilitated meetings and support, teachers will have:
a better understanding of the RA model,
solutions to implementation challenges,
examples of successful lessons to draw from, and
increased ability/willingness to discuss with other teachers instructional strategies/challenges
around literacy.
A2. Teachers increase use of RA approach strategies and integrate RA into their classroom practices.
There are six key elements related to teachers’ integration of the RA approach into their classroom and
instructional practices:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Providing reading opportunities that reflect breadth in genres/text type, frequency, and volume
Supporting stud dent effort to comprehend disciplinary text.
Fostering metacognitive inquiry into reading and thinking processes
Providing explicit instruction and modeling of reading comprehension routines, tools, strategies
and processes
e. Fostering and supporting collaboration
f. Employing instruction that promotes engagement, student-centered learning and inquiry-based
learning
Each is described below.
a. Teachers provide reading opportunities that reflect breadth in genres/text type, frequency,
volume, and accountability for reading:




breadth: teacher assigns a wide range of instructional genres/text types serving a variety of
purposes (five or more, e.g., primary source documents, newspaper, magazine articles, archival
footage, slides)
frequency: reading is assigned with the understanding that students are to read in every or nearly
every lesson
volume: teacher assigns large volumes of text (the equivalent of an 800 page text book) from a
textbook, articles and other supplementary texts
accountability: students are held accountable for understanding reading assignments. Students
cannot meet class expectations without reading (e.g., some important content is not presented
verbally- it is only gained through students’ reading and comprehending).
b.
Teachers provide on-going support of student effort for reading and comprehending
disciplinary text. Teachers promote and facilitate student problem solving and meaning making
by:
 Providing ongoing modeling/instruction;
 Providing guided practice and independent practice opportunities for using reading
comprehension strategies, disciplinary thinking and problem solving;
 Fostering student collaboration that supports metacognitive inquiry and conversations; and
 Holding students accountable for and assessing student comprehension of text and uses
assessment to guide instruction and support
Teacher support helps students become active agents in the process of reading and learning. Over time,
students are expected and able to read and comprehend more text, with less support from the teacher
during class time.
c. Teachers foster metacognitive inquiry into reading and thinking processes.
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Teachers foster metacognitive inquiry by:
 Teaching, modeling and providing opportunities for students to practice metacognitive processes,
routines, tools and strategies.
 Engaging students in frequent metacognitive conversation about reading and thinking processes,
e.g., by having conversations about the thinking processes students and teachers engage in as they
read (e.g., noticing and sharing difficulties/confusion in reading and problem solving) and think
alouds—verbally describing one’s thoughts while reading and making thinking visible. In
metacognitive conversations, students actively discuss and inquire into:
- text meaning;
- their own and others’ reading processes;
- utility of particular reading strategies; and
- their preferences, strengths and weaknesses as a reader.
 Holding students accountable for and assessing metacognition (e.g. through collecting thinking
logs or annotations, or assessing student talk)
d. Teachers provide explicit instruction and modeling of reading comprehension routines, tools,
strategies and processes including (but not limited to):
- setting a reading purpose;
- choosing a reading process that fits the reading purpose;
- previewing text that is long or appears to be challenging to identify strategies for dealing with
it;
- tolerating ambiguity or confusion in understanding a text while working on making sense of
it;
- use context to clarify confusions by reading on and re-reading; making connections from
texts to personal experience and knowledge;
- chunking;
- visualizing what the author is describing or representing content in drawings,
- graphs and other visuals;
- questioning;
- predicting;
- paraphrasing;
- using graphic organizers;
- writing to clarify understanding; and
- comparing and contrasting.
e. Teachers foster and support collaboration
Teachers create and foster a collaborative environment where all members of the classroom collaborate in
comprehension by sharing their knowledge and experience and questions. Class members draw on each
other’s knowledge, serving as resources to make sense of text together. Students participate in discussions
in thoughtful and respectful ways. Student grouping arrangements vary to support collaboration and may
include pairs, small groups and whole class discussions.
f.
Teachers employ instruction that promotes engagement, student-centered learning and inquirybased learning

Teachers employ student–centric instructional practices that foster a classroom environment that
emphasizes students as agents in the process of reading and learning. Students are actively
engaged in inquiry, reading and intellectual work rather than passively listening to teacher
lectures and summaries of information. Practices include:
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o
o

Giving students roles that make them responsible for sense-making;
Facilitating students’ active engagement in learning through an inquiry orientation to
instruction;
o Asking students to pose questions and problems as well as respond to questions about
course readings;
o Encouraging students to feel responsible for sharing difficulties and working together to
clarify and understand difficult text, rather than waiting for the teacher to provide
answers;
o Employing student-centered participation structures (collaborative groups, partners).
o Employing routines and assignments that are open-ended to promote participation and
success of a wide range of students.
Teachers differentiate instruction as indicated by modifying texts, tasks and support to
accommodate the needs of individual students.
B. Student Mediating Outcomes
As a result of participating in RA classrooms, students experience a variety of changes in their attitudes,
level of engagement, and exposure to and use of a variety specific literacy practices. The set of
intermediate outcomes hypothesized to be affected by the RA intervention include:
B1. Increased collaboration in a community of readers and writers: Students in RA classrooms more
frequently contribute to and participate in class discussions, collaborate effectively and respectfully with
peers; draw on each other’s knowledge, serving as resources to make sense of text together,
B2. Increased use of comprehension strategies: Students in RA classrooms more frequently use
comprehension strategies including those listed under teacher intermediate outcomes (e.g., setting a
reading purpose; choosing a reading process that fits the reading purpose; previewing text that is long or
appears to be challenging to identify strategies for dealing with it; chunking, visualizing, paraphrasing,
etc). Their use of comprehension strategies will increase over time and students will select different
strategies depending on the type of text and areas of difficulty.
B3. Increased metacognitive inquiry: Students in RA classrooms more frequently actively inquire into
text meaning; discuss and inquire about their own and others’ reading processes; the utility of particular
reading strategies; and their preferences, strengths and weaknesses as a reader. The frequency with which
students engage in these conversations increases over time.
Engaging in these strategies will increase students’ sense of reader and student identity, lead to increased
reading of a variety of texts, and increased engagement in class and school.
B4. Improved reader identity – Students’ awareness of their reader identity increases: Students are more
aware of their reading processes, habits, strengths, weaknesses, attitudes and preferences in reading.
B5. Improved student identity – Students in RA classes have more positive perceptions of themselves
as students: They are more serious about school, think about their future educational goals, have more
confidence in their reading and abilities in content areas (biology, ELA and US history) and improved
academic self-concept (e.g. they think of themselves as capable students.)
B6. Increased reading of a variety of texts- Students in RA classes increase their engagement in reading
a variety of text including academically challenging course materials. RA students read more text in and
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outside of class, read a wider variety of text (including graphs, illustrations, diagrams, primary sources,
etc) and spend more class time engaged in text-based discussions.
B7. Increased Student Engagement: improved attendance, increased homework completion and quality;
increased classroom participation and attention.
II.
Student Outcomes
A. Students in RA classrooms will demonstrate significant increases in achievement, especially
among high-need students (especially ELL, minority and low-income students). Specific
outcomes include:
A1. Increased disciplinary literacy in science, English language arts and history, as measured by
ETS assessments and the state ELA exams: improved ability to comprehend complex text; increased
academic vocabulary; increased persistence with difficult text; increased ability to use text cues to
understand new vocabulary
A2. Increased content knowledge in biology and US history as measured by state standardized tests
A3. Improved course performance: improved grades; increased number credits earned in core courses
A4. Increased promotion/retention: increased likelihood of on-time promotion; increased probability of
retention in school (decreased dropouts)
III.
Factors that facilitate/hinder implementation
The larger school and district context within which RA is implemented can facilitate or hinder its success,
and subsequently outcomes. Key factors related to successful implementation include:
A. Sense of commitment and purpose related to the project- The extent to which teachers and school
administrators understand the purpose of RA and believe that it will improve instruction and
learning.
B. School cohesion/community- The extent to which teachers work in a cohesive and collaborative
environment that supports teacher learning and implementation of RA.
C. Understanding and knowledge of disciplinary ways of thinking – the extent to which teachers
understand their discipline (e.g., how to identify, read, create and source documents in the
discipline, discipline specific vocabulary, etc.)
D. Teacher sense of self-efficacy and confidence in implementing RA practices, belief that they can
be successful.
E. Reducing risk for teachers especially regarding evaluation of new practices: It may be ‘safer’ for
teachers to rely on their standard practices rather than try new practices that take time to develop
and use successfully.
F. Support for implementation at the site (administrative, social, material)
G. Burden on teachers- (RA can be more work for teachers, being responsive to learners in the
moment, responding to new goals, new routines, and a higher level of cognitive complexity)
H. Misalignment of district policies with the initiative and curriculum constraints (e.g., mandated
scripted curriculums)
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