Chapter 16: Absolutism and Constitutionalism in
Western Europe
Seventeen-Century Crisis and Rebuilding
Economic and Demographic Crisis
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Majority of peasants lived in villages
Hierarchy
o Independent farmers—landless peasants—dependent laborers and peasants
Bread was primary source of nutrition
When food prices got to expensive, peasants raided local food shops
Moral economy
o Economic perspective in which the needs of a community take precedence over
competition and profit
Seventeenth-Century State Building: Common Obstacles and Acvhievements
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Absolutist monarchies
o All power under personal control
Constitutional monarchies
o Respected laws passed by representative institutions
Rulers who wanted to increase power encountered obstacles
o Lack of communication btw different parts of the state
o Lack of information about other parts of nation
o Cultural and linguistic differences
o Local power structures and gov’t
Louis XIV was ultimate symbol on absolutism
Sovereignty
o The supreme authority which controls all aspects of the state (legal, military,
financial, etc. )
Popular Political Revolts
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Popular Revolts
o 17th cen. revolts that were common across Europe due to increased taxation and
warfare
Spanish Uprisings
o Catalonia, Portugal, Netherlands, and Palermo
o Bread riots
French Uprisings
o Bordeaux, Amiens, Montoellier
Violent and angry
Absolutism in France and Spain
1
The Foundations of Absolutism: Henry IV, Sully, Richelieu
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Henry IV (r. 1589-1610)
o loved by his people
 everyone was fed
o kept France at peace
o cared about the people
o Edict of Nantes
 Allowed Protestants the right to worship
Maximilien de Bethune, Duke of Sully
o Henry’s chief minister
o Lowered taxes
o Increased income
o Annual fee on royals and nobility
New trade and industrial developments like roads
Armand Jean du Plessis Richelieu (1582-1642)
o assigned as a minister by Marie de Medici for the child king Louis XIII
o wanted for monarchy to regain total control and power
o intendants
 sheriffs who were deployed to different regions in France and controlled
the local gov’t
 managed taxes, recruited for military, regulated local economies
o wanted religious uniformity
 1627- cancels Protestant military and brands Huguenots as a national
threat
 Siege on La Rochelle
o Wanted to eliminate foreign threats
 Signed a allegiance treaty with Hapsburg in 1631
Religious authority (read: Cardinal Jules Mazarin) considered ‘immortal’ b/c of political
backing, began to eliminate all Protestants from villages, destroying religious texts
Fronde
o Violent uprisings during Louis XIV minority
o Caused royal family to retreat from city, traumatized boy king
1651-Louis XIV was declared a king in his own right
Louis XIV and Absolutism
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Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)
o Divine right of kings
 The belief that the role of king was a god given position
o Selected ministers of lesser class so people would know that he holds the ultimate
power b/c powerful people work for him
o Never called meeting of the Estates General
 Nobility can’t meet and plan a revolt
o Revoked Edict of Nantes in an attempt to create a total religious unity
o Absolute monarchy
2
 A form of gov’t in which a sovereignty rests in one sole monarch
o Sought to enhance the glory of the dynasty
Financial and Economic Management under Louis XI: Colbert
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Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683)
o Appointed financial minister
o Mercantilism
 Aimed at increasing national amount of gold
 Increase international tariffs, decrease domestic tariffs, ppl buy domestic
gods, not international
o Created new industries, textile industry most impotant
 Encouraged foreign craftsman to come and work for good wages and
benefits
o Merchant marines
 Transported all French goods, took control of European shipping routes
 Founded colonies: Quebec, Mississippi River lands (Louisiana)
Louis XIV’s Wars
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Believed conquering is the highest honor
Francois de Tellier (Marquis de Louvois)
o Appointed secretary of war
o Raised army size via recruitment
 Kidnapped drunks off the streets, or not drunks.
 Conscription
 And a lottery
Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)
Dutch War (1672-1678)
War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697)
Expanded into the Spanish Netherlands, Strasbourg, Lorraine
Expansion created coalitions against French expansion
Financial troubles, as well as hierarchical favoritism, and grain inflation added to
France’s demise
War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
o King Charles of Spain offered throne to Louis XIV grandson Phillip of Anjou,
which violated a previous treaty which stated that Spain would be divided
amongst France and the Holy Roman Empire. But Phillip is given the throne by
Louis, breaking the treaty.
o English, Dutch, and Prussians form Great Alliance
 Check France’s expansion
 Fought it until 1713
o Peace of Utrecht
 A series of treaties from 1712 to 1715 that ended the war, eneded French
expansion, and marked rise of British Empire
 Britain got: Nova Scotia, Gibraltar, Hudson Bay, Newfoundland, and
Minorca
3
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o Gave EU powers international cooperation
After war, France was at the brink of bankruptcy
Louis XIV dies September 1, 1715
The Decline of Absolutist Spain in the Seventeenth Century
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Spain experienced massive debt, kept declaring bankruptcy until it lost all national credit,
coinage devalued
Wanted to restore to old glory, fought with France useless wars to gain territories, and
lost
Revolt in Catalonia and Portugal, which also won
Treaty of the Pyrenees
o Ended Franco-Spanish conflict
o Marked decline of Spain’s military power
Moneymaking was considered vulgar and undiginified
King Phillip III expelled many Muslims (he was Catholic) and Jews, a moajority of the
working force.
Many found obstacles and financial difficulties that were unnecessary
Spain had useless spending on projects like a canal, which it could not afford
Don Quixote
o Published by Cervantes, depicted failure of the entire fabric of the Spanish society
on several levels.
The Culture of Absolutism
Baroque Art and Music
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Baroque style
o Emotional art form revitalized by the 16th century church, reached musical
maturity with the compositions of Bach
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)
o Animated figures, melodramatic contrasts, monumental size
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)
o Organist, invention, tension, and emotion
Court Culture
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Louis established his court in Versailles so it would stand out in the country side and be
recognized as the source of power
All nobles had to spend part of their year there
o Often crowded with 3000-10,000 ppl residing
o Had to follow a tortuous system of etiquette and rituals
Women often wooed nobles and helped spread relations between nobility
French Classicism
4
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1635-Richelieu commissions the literary scholars to create a dicitionary, thus creating the
French Academy
French Classicism
o A style of French art, architecture, and literature based on Greek and Roman
models
Music
o Jean Baptiste Lully (1632-1687) orchestral works
o Francois Couperin (1668-1733) organ and harpsichord works
o Marc Antoine Charpentier (1634-1704) solemn religious music
Theater
o Moliere and Racine
Constitutionalism
Absolutist Claims in England (1603-1649)
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Elizabeth I power was significantly diminished but she retained it by not marrying
1603-James Stuart becomes James I (r. 1603-1625)
o King of Scotland, did not want to display his majesty, apathetic ruler
o Believed the monarchy was a God-given right, began to develop absolutism
o Tried to rule without Parliament with his son Charles I
Religious Divides
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Puritans
o Members of the Church of England who wanted to purify the catholic elements
within the church and make it much more religiously pure
o Wanted to abolish bishops, who were main supporters of the throne
Charles I wanted to bring back Roman Catholicism, married a French Catholic and
supported the archbishop of Canterbury William Laud
o Laud tried to impose a new book of prayers, which was ciolently rejected by
Presbyterian Scots, and Charles had to summon an army in 1640 to suppress
rebellion]
Charles ruled without Parliament until 1640, unfairly taxing the nation
o Parliament didn’t allow king an army and enacted legislation limiting monarchial
power and made arbitrary gov’t impossible
Triennial act (1641)
o Parliament must be met every 3 years
Irish rebellion against oppressive English lords
o Charles couldn’t stop them b/c he had no army
Charles I fled North and built his own army of nobility forces and mercenaries, and
marched on London against the Parliamentary army
The English Civil War (1642-1649)
o New Model Army, parliamentary forces under Oliver Cromwell, defeated the
king’s forces, capturing Charles in 1647 and dismissed all supporting members of
Parliament
5
o 1649-remaining members of Parliament tried Charles I and beheaded him January
30, 1649
Puritanical Absolutism in England: Cromwell and the Protectorate
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A republic gov’t proclaime, with Oliver Cromwell as the head
The Protectorate
o Military dictatorship which ruled England
o Instrument of Government (1653)
 Gave Cromwell ultimate power and a council of state
 Triennial meetings and right to raise taxes for Parliament only
Cromwell dismissed Parliament, and divided England into 12 states ruled by a general,
and enacted quasi-martial law, ruling with a puritanical ideals
Allowed some religious difference, but after several massacres (Drogheda) left Irish
hatred
Navigation Act (1651)
o English goods transported on only British ships
o Developed English merchant marine, which threatened Dutch control of shipping
industry
Cromwell died in 1658, succeeded by Richard
Richard lost support of army and people, and had to abdicate, and England was ready to
restore monarchy by 1660
The Restoration of th English Monarchy
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Charles II (r. 1660-1685)
o Test Act of 1673
 Those who refused the Eucharist of the Church of England could not vote,
hold public office, preach, teach, attend University, assemble in meetings
o Appointed five council members who would serve as an intermediate btw him and
Parliament, became known as the Cabal, the precedent to the cabinet
o Charles made an agreement with Louis XIV that for 200,000 annual pounds,
England would become catholic and support FR against DU
o Anti-Catholic fear spread the nation,
James II (r. 1685-1688)
o Appointed Roman Catholics to positions of power, and attempted to revive
absolutism
A revolution (non-violent) occurred b/c 7 bishops were imprisoned and James had a son
o James Protestant daughter and Dutch husband William of Orange were placed
onto the throne as the royal family fled to FR
The Triumph of England’s Parliament: Constitutional Monarchy and Cabinet
Gov’t
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Events of revolution called Glorious Revolution b/c no blood was spilled
The acceptance of the throne by William and Mary emphasized the power of Parliament
New Constitution
6
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o Parliamentary laws could not be suspended
o Triennial meetings
o Crown can’t interfere in Parliamentary debates and elections
o No standing army in peace time
o Catholics can’t have arms
Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690)
o Written by John Locke, gov’t that oversteps it’s duties (protecting life, liberty,
and property) becomes a tyranny
o Ppl have right to rebel under tyrannical rule
The Dutch Republic in then Seventeenth Century
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Won independence from Spain from the Thirty Years’ War
A republican form of gov’t
States General
o The National Assembly of the United Provinces, all issues tht the provinces
couldn’t handle independently went here, all voices were heard
Stadholder
o The chief executive officer in each province,
Success was b/c no religious or ethical bias, as long as religion was private
Chapter 17: Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe
Warfare and Social Change in Central and Eastern Europe
The Consolidation of Serfdom
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Serfdom
o A system by which a peasant was bound to the land by nobles
After black death, serfdom increased, and laws restricting peasants almost completely
were set in place
o By 1500, nobles can command their peasants to do anything, including working
6-7 days a week
o Russia-peasants couldn’t move across estates, Prussia-peasants tied to nobles,
Poland-nobles have complete control over peasants
The Thirty Years’ War
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Peace of Augsburg of 1555
o Kept peace in the HRE (Holy Roman Empire)
o Stated that the religion of the prince determined the religion of the ppl, but when
the prince’s religion changed, tensions btw the nobility and the ppl increased
Protestant Union (1608) created by Lutheran princes, and Catholic League (1609) was
created in response, both experienced territorial disputes
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Ferdinand of Styria closed Protestant churches, in Bohemia in 1617, as a result,
Protestants threw two of his advisors out of the window on May 23, 1618
4 phases of the war
o Bohemian (1618-1625)
 Civil war in Bohemia btw Protestants and Catholics
 1620-Catholic victory at the Battle of White Mountain
o Danish (1625-1629)
 Christian IV with the protestants against Albert of Wallenstein with
Catholics
 Albert of Wallenstein entered the war to gain money and territory for
himself
 Hapsburg power peaked in 1629, emperor issued Edict of Restitution
which restored all Catholic property lost to Protestants
o Swedish (1630-1635)
 Gustavus Adolphus fought for Protestants, and Richelieu fought with him
to weaken the Hapsburg empire
o French (1635-1648)
 Richelieu declared war on SP, and financed Swedish campaign, and
burned GE lands
Consequences of the Thirty Years’ War
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Peace of Westphalia
o A series of treaties that recognized sovereignty of 300 GE princes, made
Calvinism permissible, acknowledged independence of the United Provinces, and
reduced Catholic Church in Europe
Destructive to the economy
o Majority of working population killed
o Trade routes, especially around GE were destroyed
o Inflations
The Rise of Austria and Prussia
The Austrian Hapsburgs
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Hapsburgs were in a severely weak state, and political power lay with independent cities
and principalities
Bohemian Estates
o The largely protestant representative body of the different estates in Bohemia,
reduced power by Ferdinand II
o Landholdings confiscated and given to Catholics, eventually aristocracy was fully
indebted to Catholics
o Ferdinand II enserfed the population of Bohemia with is new nobility
Ferdinand III (r. 1637-1657) established a permanent standing army
8
Austrian Rule in Hungary
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HU refused AU rule begin they were mainly Protestant
HU rose up under Francis Rakoczy while Hapsburgs were involved in the war of
Spanish Succession
o Charles VI makes a compromise—HU gets land back, but accept AU rule
o Double-monarchy is installed
Prussia in the Seventeenth Century
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Elector of Brandenburg
o Seat which helped in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor, a seat traditionally
held by Hohenzollern
Frederick William (r. 1640-1688)
o Wanted to unify Brandenburg, Prussia, and territories around the Rhine
o Dominated by Junkers, nobility of Brandenburg and Prussia, and allies of
Frederick William
o Forced estates to increase taxes to have a permanent standing army, and soon
gained power over the Estates, and had massive support for permanent army
o The wars that eventually swept across PR increased support for military funding,
and nobility accepted claims in return for political authority
The Consolidation of Prussian Absolutism
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Frederick I (r. 1713-1740) became the first king
o created a bureaucracy and eliminated parliamentary estates and local gov’t
o military
 disciplined lifestyle
 everyone in army-nobility and Junkers became officers
 extreme training, the army became the best and largest in EU
 didn’t ‘spend’ any of his soldiers
The Development of Russia and The Ottoman Empire
The Mongol Yoke and the Rise of Moscow
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nomadic Mongol tribes under Chinggis Khan took control of Eastern Territories8in 1213th century
Mongol Yoke
o 200yr rule of Mongol rule over RU territory
o Slavic princes were used as tax collectors, serfs with high authority
Alexander Nevsky and the other princes were able to win utter trust of Mngols, therefore
they inherited the land’
Ivan III
o stopped acknowledging Mongol power, And declared himself (with princes)
autocrats
o support of the boyars
9
o political and religious inheritance of Byzantine Empire
o tsar, the RU term for king
Tsar and People to 1689
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Ivan IV (r. 1533-1584)
o King at 3, at 16 he ignored his advisors and crowned himself, becoming the first
real ‘King’
o Known as Ivan the Terrible after death of wife b/c he murdered his son, caused
countless wars and battles, and jailed or executed those who he suspected of
opposing him
Service nobility
o Class of nobility which got some land in return for serving in the army
o Many fled, especially the veterans and joined free outlaw groups and armies
known as he Cossacks
The merchants often were taxed heavily, and the successful ones were the tsar’s agents
Time of Troubles (1598-1618)
o Times of rebellions (Cossack rebellion) and wars
Michael Romanov (r. 1613-1645)
o Reconsolidated central authority, rebellions and social uprisings still continued
The Reforms of Peter the Great
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Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725)
o Led a group of officials throughout western EU to learn crafts and culture
o Secret alliance w/ Denmark and Poland to wage a war against Sweden
o Charles XII of Sweden defeated Denmark and ambushed RU forces at Narva
(1700)
 Start of the Great Northern War (1700-1721)
o Required every nobleman to serve in army
o Created schools and universities to produce skilled technicians and experts
o Declared that everyone in society start at the bottom and work up, therefore the
ppl in charge deserve it and will be the best option for whatever position
o New Army was able to defeat Sweden at Poltava (1709), and winning in 1721
o Built St. Petersburg in north, signifying RU victory
o Ppl disliked many new Western ideals he was creating
 Inheritance of land by first born son, cutting rest of family out
The Growth of the Ottoman Empire
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Considered foreign and barbaric by EU
Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566)
o Captured Constantinople, then went on to the Balkans and parts of Hungary
o Sultan, the OE version of sovereign emperor
o Used a slave army, became known as the Janissary Corps, a core part of the
army which soon became a volunteer position
Millet System
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o A system where subjects were divided into religious communities with each
millet enjoying autonomous self-governing under its religious leaders
Istanbul became capitol
Sultans procreated with concubines to prevent pregnancies
Starting with Sultan Suleiman who married his concubine and ad kids with her, woves
began to ecercise more power and te sultan’s exclusive authority gave way to a more
bureaucratic administration
Chapter 18: Toward a New Worldview (1540-1789)
The Scientific Revolution
Scientific Thought in 1500
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Natural philosophy
o A term for the study of nature of the univers, its purpose, and how it functioned;
encompassed “science”
o Based on ideas of Aristotle and ancient philosophers
Separate spheres, the universe is at the center, around it were ten spheres, encompassing
elements of the known universe, and beyond the 10th sphere was heaven
o Unchanging and therefore perfect
o Idea of separate spheres dominated most thoughts on philosophy and science
The Copernican Hypothesis
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Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
o Thought the sun was at the center, not the earth
o On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)
 The Copernican Hypothesis was the idea of a heliocentric universe,
brought attacks from religious leaders.
 Newly discovered star supported his hypothesis
From Brahe to Galileo
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Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
o Observed a new star in 1572
o Had mass data, but his apprentice Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) created a
mathematical system of relationships throughout the universe
 Three laws of motion
 Orbits are elliptical, not circular
 Planets don’t move at uniform speed
 Time of orbit is related to distance from sun
Galileo Galilei (1546-1642)
o Experimental Method
 The approach that the proper way to explore the workings of the universe
was through respectable experiments and not speculations
o Law of inertia
11
 An object keeps moving unless acted upon by another force.
o Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World (1632)
 Openly criticized church’s view and proclaimed his own ideas, went
against what the church told him was legal
Newton’s Synthesis
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Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
o Religious and into alchemy
o Law of Universal Gravitation
 Every object in the universe is mathematically drawn towards every other
object in the universe
Causes of the Scientific Revolution
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Development of the medical university, allowing extensive research and proffesorships
The Rennaissance stimulated scientific process through recovery of ancient texts
Necessity for technological developments of a nation as a whole, many scientists were
employed by gov’t
Better way of obtaining the knowledge of the universe
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
o Bacon created empiricism, a theory of inductive reasoning, calls for acquiring
evidence through observation and experimentation rather than reason and
speculation
o Descartes created analytical geometry, and created Cartesian Dualism, the idea
that all of reality can be condensed into mind and matter
Science and Society
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Scientific Community
o The international social group that expanded with the rise of modern science, its
members were linked together by common interests and shared values as well as
by journals and the learned scientific societies founded in many countries
Gov’t often supported research
o National Academies of Science in London (1662) and Paris (1666) and Berlin
(1700), and later all of EU
Women were largely rejected from the scientific community, but some such as Margaret
Cavendish and Anne Conway pushed through, and were even supported by some.
Few practical economic applications, and was rather a pursuit of an intellectual
revolution rather than profit.
The Enlightenment
The Emergence of the Enlightenment
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Newton’s Principia and death of Louis XIV helped tie scientific revolution and society
Ppl believed that thought could go beyond the ancient Greek and Roman ideas
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Skeptics arose, questioning the necessity of ideological conformity and the factuality of
truth
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)
o Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697)
 Outlined the ideas for skepticism, the belief that nothing can be known
beyond all doubt, and that humanity ad to stay open-minded
EU learned of the different Eastern and Western cultures
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
o Written by John Locke
o Tabula rasa
 The idea that the human mind is blank at birth, and knowledge is built on
understanding, which is the opposite of what Descartes hypothesized
The Philosophes and the Public
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Philosophes
o FR intellectuals who proclaimed they were bringing light of knowledge
o Three reasons for emerging in FR
 FR was the language of intellect and the educated classes
 FR had some freedom of speech, more than other countries
 Had a goal of reaching a wider variety of ppl, used the republic of letters
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
o Spirit of Laws (1748)
o Separation of powers
 The idea that despotism could be avoided if political power is shared and
divided by a variety of classes and ppl
Francois Marie Arouet—Voltaire (1694-1778)
o Arrested for insulting noblemen early in his life, exiled to England to study
o Gained a lot of interest from Madame du Chalet
 Interest in Newton
o Concluded that the best gov’t option was a good monarch
o Did not believe in social or economic equality
o Challenged Catholic church, although religious himself
Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts
o Written by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert
o Questioned theology and religion, exalted science and the industrial arts
o Criticized social and legal injustice and cruelty
Urban Culture and the Public Sphere
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Reading and production of books grew
Reading revolution
o The transition into a literate society, from religious texts to broad and diverse
material
Conversation and debate (skepticism) grew, often residing in salons, which were social
gatherings by rich Parisian women where philosophes met and discussed their ideas with
each other and the public
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o Allowed for several social classes to merge, economic and social status no longer
mattered, only intellect.
Rococo
o A style noted for its sofe pastels, ornate interiors, and sentimental portraits,
inspired by women
Public sphere
o The idealized intellectual space that emerged in EU during the Enlightenment,
where members of society came together as individuals to discuss issues relevant
to the society, economics, and politics
Philosophes believed that the lower classes held no interest in the discussions and ideas
Late Enlightenment
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Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
o Attacked rationalism and civilization as destructive
o The basic goodness of a child and the individual had to be protected
o Called for a division of gender roles
o The Social Contract (1762)
 General will
 Common interest of the ppl is sacred and absolute, is not
necessarily reflected by the will of the majority but by the
interpretation of a farseeing minority
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
o What is Enlightenment (1784)
 If thinkers were granted the policy of free speech, everyone would involve
themselves with it
 Individuals must obey all laws
Race and Enlightenment
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Ppl believed that like the universe, humans had a hierarchy as well
All thinkers placed their race at the top,
The Enlightenment and Absolutism
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Enlightened absolutism
o Rulers who adopted enlightenment ideals w/o surrendering absolute power
Frederick the Great of Prussia
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Frederick II—Frederick the Great (r. 1740-1786)
o Invaded Maria Theresa’s Hapsburg lands, the beginning of the War of Austrian
Succession (1740-1748)
 massive competition for all lands
o Maria Theresa allied with FR and RU and tried to conquer PR during the Seven
Years’ War (1756-1763), but PR did not fall
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o Created a more religiously and socially tolerant state, simplified legal system and
eliminated torture
o Constructed agriculture and industry
Catherine the Great of Russia
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Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
o Married to Peter III, who alienated the army by withdrawing them from alliance
against PR
 Catherine used this to conspire and eventually kill him, and took power
o Three main goals
 Bring western culture back to RU employing western architects and artists
 Domestic reform through better laws
 Appointed a new legislative commission
 Restricted torture and allowed some religious toleration
 Territorial expansion
 Armies were able to take back last Mongol lands
 Partition of Poland, RU forces defeat Turks, creating tensions with
AU who say that if Turks are not harmed, RU, AU, and PR get to
separate Poland, began in 1772
o Emelian Pugachev
 Proclaimed himself true tsar, issued the abolishing of serfdom, taxes, and
army service
 Had massive following, resulting in a rebellion
 Crushed, and Cathrine gave nobles total serfdom b/c of their support
during the rebellion
The Austrian Hapsburgs
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Maria Theresa (1740-1780)
o After war of AU succession, she issued three major aspects of reform
 Limited papal political influence
 Central bureaucracy, smoothing out provincial differences
 Improve agricultural population
Joseph II (r. 1780-1790)
o Abolished serfdom in 1781
o All peasant labor be converted to cash, lessen their workload
Leopold II (r. 1790-1792)
o Cancelled Joseph’s edicts, and peasants were forced to do labor again
o Reestablished serfdom
Chapter 19: The Expansion of Europe in the 18th Century
Agriculture and the Land
The Agricultural Revolution
15
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Peasants tried to improve their difficulties by taking the land from those who did no
labor
o Didn’t work, only radical reform such as the FR revolution brought change
Agricultural revolution
o the period during which great agricultural progress was made and the fallow was
gradually eliminated
o alternate grain with nitrogen storing crops such as peas, beans, turnips, potatoes,
clovers, and grasses
o crop rotation
 the system by which farmers rotated the types of crops they grew in each
field so soil would be replenished for each new harvest
o feed for animals was improved, build up herds during the winter
o enclosure
 the movement to fence in fields to farm more effectively
 many farmers found this to be too expensive
 the enclosed farms, although resisted by towns, soon financially
overpowered the lesser farms
The Leadership of the Low Countries and England
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Dutch
o had massive success in farming b/c of densely populated farms, seek maximum
yield
o Drained marshes and swamps
o Dutch had surplus crops, sold them off, became a specialized field and “a Mecca”
of agricultural techniques
Jethro Tull (1674-1741)
o used horses instead of oxen for plowing
o selectively breed livestock
EN farmers began producing 300% more food than before
Proletarianization
o The transformation of large numbers of peasants into landless rural wage workers
The Beginning of the Population Explosion
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Although experiencing steady growth, 17th cen. Pop was experiencing disease and war
18th cen., pop begins to increase in growth rate
o Women had more babies b/c of greater employment opportunities
o Decline in mortality, disease
o Advances in medical knowledge such as inoculation
o Cleaner water supply
o Safeguarding of food, less crop failure,
Cottage Industry and Urban Guilds
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Cottage Industry
16
o Domestic industry, a stage of rural industrial development with wage workers and
hand tools that preceded that emergence of large-scale factory industry
The Putting-Out System
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The Putting-Out System
o The merchant gives material to peasants in cottage industry, cottage workers
make goods, resell them to merchant, buy more raw materials etc. etc.
The Textile Industry was considered one of the most important and pinnacle in the
development and representation of global economic development
The Textile Industry
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Most ppl employed in textiles
Worker lived in a windowless room which served as a bedroom, kitchen, and workshop
All family members helped in business
o Loom was the man’s job
o Women and children threaded the needles and did auxiliary work
o Took 4-5 spinners to keep a weaver fully operational
o Wives and daughters soon took up spinning, part hobby part work
 Women’s wages were ridiculously low
If workers did produce the quota, wages dropped, if wages were to high, they had little
incentive to work, therefore, low wages were often used
Urban Guilds
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Guild system was the organization of artisanal production into trade based organizations,
each guild monopolized its industry, had the right to monopolize it, train apprentices, hire
workers, and get the best goods
Worked only by old methods, obstructing technological innovations, under risk of
termination, guilds created new technologies only available for themselves, found other
ways to get around the law
Sons were automatically allowed into a guild, otherwise, one had to go through several
years of training and preparation before given a chance to enter
The Industrious Revolution
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Industrious revolution
o The shift that occurred as families in NW EU worked longer hours and focused on
wages instead of producing goods for household consumption, reducing families’
economic self-sufficiency
o Males became the ‘bread-winners’
Building the Global Economy
Mercantilism and Colonial Wars
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Navigation Acts
17
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o Controlled import of goods to BR and BR colonies
o Colonists buy all goods from BR and ship all goods on BR ships
o Damaged Dutch shipping and commerce, along with the 3 Anglo Dutch wars
o Allowed BR to take lead in economic advancements in EU
FR began to rival BR with a powerful fleet and worldwide colonial trade
o War of Spanish Succession gave BR many colonies and control of West African
slave trade
Seven Years’ War
o FR traders built forts around Ohio and down the Mississippi River
o Virginia forces attack FR soldiers, starting war for Canada
o FR forces win at 1st under marquis de Montcalm, but BR win battles with naval
force under William Pitt
o 1759-BR forces defeat FR
Treaty of Paris (1763)
o Gave BR all colonial fronts
BR became leading producer of all colonial goods such as coffee and sugar
Debt peonage
o A system allowed a planter to keep his workers in perpetual debt bondage by
advancing food, shelter, and money
Creoles
o Spaniards born in America
Mestizo
o Spanish term for someone of mixed racial origins
The Atlantic Slave Trade
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AM farmers had high living standards b/c of cheap labor from slaves brought by SP and
Portugal in 16th century
Slaves traveled to South AM to plantations, allowing for cheap tobacco, sugar, rice, and
cotton for AM and EU
Atlantic Slave Trade
o Forced migration of Africans for slave labor on plantations, peaked in BR in 18th
century
BR became leader of slave trade
o Adopted shore method of trading, allowing trading faster off of boats instead of
permanent trading posts
African wars increased, African rulers began working with EU, increasing punishments
for crimes from fines to enslavement
Slave trade was considered a legit business in EU, but after horrors were realized,
abolition movement, especially amongst women, increased
1807-Parliament abolished slave trade
Trade Empire in Asia
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Dutch dominated Asian trade,
English East India company (1600)
18
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o Undercut Dutch trade
o When Mughal emperor died, allowed for greater economic pursuits in nation,
waged wars on India
o Competition with FR
Robert Clive, after victory over Mughals, became first foreign governor in Bengals
India became the ‘jewel’ of BR empire
Adam Smith and Economic Liberalism

Adam Smith (1723-1790)
o Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the wealth of Nations (1776)
 Stifling gov’t influence on economic workings
 Allowed merchants to conduct business however they wanted to
 Gov’t should only defend against foreign invasion, maintain civil order,
sponsor public institutions that could not profit from private investors
 Outlined for economic liberalism
Chapter 21: The Revolution in Politics
Background to Revolution
Legal Orders and Social Change
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Three social groups called estates
o the first is clergy
 no taxes
 ability to tax landowner
o nobility
 owned 25% of all land
 light taxes
 exclusive hunting and fishing rights
o everyone else
 prosperous merchants, lawyers, poor rural farmers
 wealthier members known as bourgeoisie
social flow btw. Bourgeoisie and nobility and clergy
by the 1780s, historians agree that the Old Regime no longer worked
The Crisis of Political Legitimacy
Louis XV (1715-1774)
o Since Louis was five, Parlements
 Able to evaluate royal decrees
 Used this to keep the king from imposing taxes after all wars
o Appointed Rene de Maupeou as chancellor
 Abolished Parlements and expelled vociferous members
o King cam under attack and “desacralization” came into effect
 King is not a god given right
19
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Louis XVI (1774-1792)
o Just wanted to be loved
The Impact of the American Revolution
Affected both financial and ideological aspects of France
American Revolution
o Like in France, began with increased taxes
o No real political control, fend for themselves
o July 4th, draft declaration of independence with all negative empirical pressure
o France joined the colonists because they wanted revenge because of the Seven
Years’ War
o Treaty of Paris of 1783
 Recognizes the independence of 13 colonies
o Inspired French b/c they saw how small rural community can establish a republic
and beat an empire
o French gain nothing from aiding the victory, so even greater debt
Financial Crisis
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Great Financial debt from multiple wars (Austrian Succession, Spanish Succession,
Seven Years’)
o Less than 20% of budget for productive functions of the state
Louis XVI calls Assembly of Nobles
o A group of noblemen and high ranking officials
o Opposed new tax
o Needed to call Estates general
o all new taxes vetoed by Parlements
Revolution in Metropole and Colony
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The Formation of the National Assembly
each estate had reps and prepared a list of grievances to present
o all three estates had very similar grievances
 stop absolutism
 all taxes and decrees must go through estates general
 greater individual liberties
Each house (clergy, nobility, the people) held one vote, but that meant that the 3rd estate
often lost, so the gov’t agreed that the 3rd estate has as many delegates as the first 2
combined
May 1789, meetings begin
At first, the first two estates did not want to be with the third, but soon inter-group flow
increased.
June, 17, third estate with support of priests and nobility called themselves the National
Assembly
Oath of Tennis court
o The estates will not disband until a new constitution is written
20
The Revolt of the Poor and the Oppressed
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Started with poor grain harvest in 1788
o Price of bread soared
o Demand of manufactured goods almost none
o 1/8th of population was in pauper living and in want
Feared that the moderate financial minister would be fired and then the peasants would be
at the mercy of landowning aristocrats
Rumors of army invasion from Versailles spread through Paris
July 14th, ppl seized weapons
o Head towards Bastille which was a military armory guarded by retired soldiers
and mercenaries
o Fighting started, peasant victory w/ 98 ppl dead.
Fighting throughout the country side
o Peasants seized noble fortresses and burned feudal laws and ownership documents
Great Fear
o Fear of thieves and murderers in countryside and forests
A Limited Monarchy
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)
o Liberty, prosperity, innocent until proven guilty
Liberal revolution took stronger footholds
Economic crisis worsened after fall of Batille
October 5, 1789, 7000 women march to Versailles to get bread
o Slaughtered guards
o Searched for queen b/c of her immoral behavior
o Invasion stopped by national guard
o Forced king and royal family to move and live in paris
National Assembly followed king and until 1790-1791 pursued a constitutional
monarchy
o King accepted constitution in July 1790
The New Constitution
o All lawmaking power towards the National Assembly
o Broaden women’s rights
o Elected officials
o Financial support for illegitimate children
o Civil liberties
Replaced provinces with 83 districts
Monopolizing guilds and businesses abolished
New paper currency
National church with elected priests
Revolutionary Aspirations in Saint-Domingue
Domingue was most profitable French colony
o 500,000 slaves, along with free Africans and mixed breeds
21
World War and Republican France
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Foreign Reactions and the Beginning of War
Mighty triumph of liberty over despotism
England wanted to follow French revolutionary example
Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
o Glorified unrepresentative parliament, opposed reform, thought reform would
lead to crisis
o Reflections on the revolution in France
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-17970
o First outspoken feminist
o Had many followers
 Olympe de Gouges
o Beginning of modern women’s equal rights movement
Other European countries felt threatened of the war in Europe
o Could spread to their countries
June, 1791, Royal family arrested for attempting to flee
Austria and Prussia write the Declaration of Pillnitz
o They will intervene if the fighting becomes to intense
Legislative Assembly formed in October 1791
o Younger members of the Jacobin Club
 Radical political clubs in Paris
o Thought the Declaration was a direct threat
o April 1792 France declares war on Hapsburg monarchy
Rumors of royal treason spread throughout the nation
August 10, 1792-mob attacks Tuileries as royal family flees
o King flees to Legislative branch, which subsequently suspends all his power and
arrests him
National Convention formed, representatives are elected
o Gives the lower class a voice and a chance to sit on the committee
The Second Revolution
fall of monarchy
September Massacres
o Massacres of aristocrats and clergy in prisons
 Symbolic of elimination of old regime and first two estates
September 1792, France is declared a republic by the National Convention
National Convention gains significant political control
o Consisted of two groups
 The Girondists
 Younger, les radical members of the Convention
 The Mountain
 Older, more radical, headed by Robespierre, held more powerful
positions
22
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Louis is accused of high treason and collaboration with the Hapsburgs after the
Brunswick Manifesto
o If royal family is harmed, we will burn Paris to the ground
o Girondists wanted him arrested, but not killed, while the mountain said that
keeping him alive would give him a chance to gain supporters
January 21, 1793, Louis XVI is executed
o National regicide
o Other European countries saw this as a threat because it can inspire the people of
their countries to rise up
September 20, 1792, Prussia is defeated at the Battle of Valmy
French armies move through northern France
o Abolished feudal laws, killed nobility, liberated people
Sans-culottes were the laboring poor of Paris, and became the decisive power btw
Girondist and Mountain power in the Paris National Convention
o The Mountain promised daily bread, June 2-a coup is staged and 30 Girondists are
arrested, passing power to Mountain
Committee of Public Safety created, headed by Robespierre given dictatorial power
with national emergency
Total War and Terror
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July 1794- AU Netherlands and Rhineland conquered by FR
Planned economy
o set maximum prices for products in attempt to fix inflation and unemployment
Reign of Terror (1793-1794), when Robespierre used revolutionary terror to solidify
homefront of FR, caused 40,000 deaths
Nationalism emerged as a patriotic dedication to a national state and mission, a decisive
element in FR republic’s victory
Revolution in Saint-Domingue
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August 1791-slaves organized a widespread revolt, a resulted in destruction of hundreds
plantations
April 4, 1792- National Assmebly enfranchises all free blacks
1795-former slaves won full political rights
General Toussaint L’Ouverture helped regain FR control over freed slaves in SaintDomingue
The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory
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Robespierre began killing his supporters as well as critics
o A coup was staged by radicals and moderated in Convention, on July 27-1794 (9th
Thermidor)
o Thermidorian Reaction
 The period after the execution of Robespierre in 1794
 Middle-class lawyers and professional assumed authority
23
 Working poor most affected by reforms
The Napoleonic Era (1799-1815)
Napoleon’s Rule of France
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Napoleon Bonaparte was considered a national hero
Born in Corsica in 1769
Directory was about to be overthrown b/c it was a weak dictatorship, and ppl wanted a
strong leader
November 9, 1799-Directory members ousted in a coup, Napoleon named first consul of
the republic
Maintained and strengthened power by working w/ and gaining support of powerful
business groups in FR
Civil Code of 1804 which reassured the goals of the 1789 revolution, equality of all male
citizens and security of wealth and property
established the Bank of FR w/ prominent FR bankers
gained support of peasants by defending their lands
the only p-ppl who were pushed to the sides were the former radical revolutionaries
healed relations / Catholic Church to maintain order and peace amongst the ppl
o The Concordant of 1801 in which the Pope gained right for FR Catholics to
freely practice their religion, and Napoleon gained power to elect bishops and
paid the clergy and exerted influence over the church
Had an authoritarian rule—women lost may gains, and were dependent on the men of the
family
Free speech and freedom of press were violated
Napoleon’s Expansion in Europe
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Attempted to make peace w/ BR and AU, AU rejected so FR overtook it
Treaty of Lunéville (1801) AU lost almost all It lands and GE territory
Treaty of Amiens (1802) gave FR control of Holland, and territory west of the Rhine
Trade restricted for BR and wanted to attack BR but fleet destroyed at Battle of
Trafalgar (October 21, 1805)
Au, RU, Sweden, BR form 3rd Coalition
RU and Au defeated at Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805)
PR entered war when Napoleon tried to reorganize GE states, but defeated at Jena and
Auerstadt (October 1806)
The War of Haitian Independence
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André Regaud set up gov’t in south of country
Civil war broke out btw Regaud and L’Ouverture
Napoleon ordered Leclerc to crush new regime under L’Ouverture
1802-L’Ouverture arrested and brought to FR
January 1, 1804-Saint-Domingue gained independence
24
The Grand Empire and Its End
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The Grand Empire was Napoleon’s name for the European empire over which he
intended to rule, would consist of FR, lesser states, and AU, PR, and RU
Middle class and peasants benefited, but Napoleon was seen as a conquering tyrant than a
liberating ruler
In SP, 1808, Catholics, monarchists and patriots rebelled, and after FR occupied Madrid,
guerilla warfare began
BR counter-blockade halted FR
Napoleon began invading RU June 1812 and met at Battle of Borodino and burned down
Moscow, but after heavy fighting, Napoleon retreated b/c of winter and his men were
freezing and starving to death
March 1814-Treaty of Chaumont allied BR, RU, AU, and PR against FR,
Napoleon captured and exiled to Elba, Bourbon dynasty reestablished
Napoleon returned to FR and took power, and fighting began again known as hundred
Days, and Napoleon was defeated on June 18, 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo
French Revolution Timetable
1789:
1790:
1791:
1792:
1793:
May 5-Estates General Convenes
June 17-3rd estate declares itself the National Assembly
June 20-Oath of Tennis Court
July 14-Storming of Bastille
July-August-Great Fear
August 4- National Assembly abolishes feudal laws
August 27-Declaration of the Rights of Man
October 5-Women’s March on Versailles
November-National Assmebly confiscates Church land
July-National church established
June-Royal family arrested during flee
August-Declaration of Pillnitz
-Slave insurrections
April-FR declares war on AU
August-mobs attack palace, Louis XVI taken hostage
September-September Massacres
-FR declared a Republic, monarchy abolished
January-Louis XVI executed
February- FR declares war on BR, HO, SP
-Revolts commence
-Slavery abolished
March-tensions btw Girondists and Mountain rise
April-June- Committee of public Safety established, Girondists
25
1794:
Post-1794:
arrested
September-Price controls are instituted
-BR invades Saint-Domingue
Reign of Terror begins, lasts until ‘94
February-all FR slavery in all territories abolished
Spring-FR armies win
July-Robespierre executed
-Thermidorian Reaction
Directory rules from’95-‘99
’95-economic controls are abolished, sans-culottes oppression begins
’97-Napoleon defeats AU in IT and Paris
’98-AU,GB,RU form 2nd coalition, overthrows directory ‘99
Philosophers of the early-mid 19th Century
Charles Fourier
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Socialist thinker
Believed a cooperative society would be much more productive
Poverty is principal cause of disorder
Proponent of women’s rights
o Believed marriage was a form of legal prostitution
Louis Blanc
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Socialist thinker
Organization of Work (1839)
o National workshops
Workers can control their own livelihood
Workers should have the right to vote
Pierre Joseph Proudhon
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Socialist thinker
Believed property was a form of theft
o Workers don’t see the proper result of their labors
Considered “anarchist”
Marx’s inspiration
Karl Marx
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Father of socialism and wrote the Communist Manifesto along with Friedrich Engels
The Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848)
o There was always a class conflict
o Contained rational and organized arguments
o Crisis of over production and industrialization
26
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o
o
o
o
Hegel
o
Human nature is the result of human labor
Two classes: bourgeoisie and proletariat
The proletariat will revolt
Bourgeoisie created the proletariat
Dialectic
 Framework for the development of everything
 Three parts
 Initial idea (thesis)
 Argument against initial idea (anti-thesis)
 Creates a new idea from the combination of the two (synthesis)
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Thesis
Anti-Thesis
is
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Synthesis
is
 Ex: bourgeoisie----Proletariat-----Communism
Crisis of over production
o Prices go down
o Bourgeoisie create new markets and lay off workers
o Caused industrialists to join ranks of proletariat
If proletariat changes, everything has to change
No sense of reciprocity btw bourgeoisie and proletariat, and as capitalism grows,
conditions of the worker decrease
Chapter 22: The Revolution in Energy and Industry
The Industrial Revolution in Britain
Eighteenth-Century Origins
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Colonial and slave trade increased
Development in canals allowed for easier transport of goods throughout country
Improved agricultural methods, allowing for bountiful crops and low food prices
BR had central bank, stable gov’t,
Industrial Revolution
o The burst of major inventions and technical changes
The First Factories
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Necessities for better textile industry products created a surge of new technology
o Spinning jenny created by James Hargreaves in 1765
27
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o water frame created by Richard Arkwright, required a specialized mill to run, but
created more and thicker thread, allowed for the beginning of factories which
employed over 1000 workers
clothing and jobs became easily accessible
everyone can work, including children ages 5/6, most ppl preferred working from home
than a factory
The Steam Engine Breakthrough
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industries needed a more durable and productive source of power
energy crisis began, BR began coal industry
o pumps pulled by animals were used, and the animals had to be fed, protected, and
rested
Thomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen created the first primitive steam engine, which
burned coal to produce steam which operated a pump
James Watt added a condenser to the steam engine to make it energy efficient, which
allowed the steam engine to become fully functioning machine
steam engine became pinnacle in most BR industries
The Coming of Railroads
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steam cars created in 1820s
rails were developed to support heavy locomotives
Rocket the name given to the first successful steam locomotive in 1830, created by
Geroge Stephensonon the Liverpool-Manchester railroad, first major railroad in nation
expanded markets. Led to large expansive factories, eliminated cottage workers and
urban artisans
construction was dangerous and required a lot of labor
Industry and Population
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1851-The Great Exhibition and industrial fair held at Cristal Palace in London
o Not only brought industrialization into a full blown international process, but
asserted BR superiority in it
Thomas Malthus’ Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) stated that population
would grow faster than food supply, eventually leading to hunger
o Solution was to marry later in life, but industrialization led tohigh GNP and more
food, therefore more population
Industrialization in Continental Europe
The Challenge of Industrialization
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All EU was on same level of industrialization, but BR led all markets by 1830, and grew
to 3x FR per capita industrialization in 1860
FR Revolution created social and economic turmoil in continental EU, and severed ties
w/ advanced BR
28
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BR goods dominated all ppl. Nations couldn’t get local products to sell
BR technology was too advanced to copy, steam power was expensive
3 advantages over BR
o Putting-out enterprise, merchant capitalists, skilled urban artisans
o Borrow engineers and factory workers from EN
o Independent of foreign control
Government Support and Corporate Banking
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Tariff protection
o Gov’t laying high taxes on cheap imported goods
o Used by FR after Napoleonic Wars to limit BR products
GE formed Zollverein, a customs union allowing GE goods to move amongst GE states
w/o tariffs
PR guaranteed state funding in building of railroads if private companies couldn’t
FR leased railroads and roads to priate industrialists to make money back
Belgium banks created limited liability policy, so investors only lose what they put in, not
any more
Corporate banks created in FR and GE helped fund state affairs
Relations Between the Capital and the Labor
The New Class of Factory Owners
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Previously religious and race discriminated ppl gained better opportunities
Larger factories made it harder to start up a small business
Formal education became important
Sense of class-consciousness developed, the sense of class differentiation
Women lost opportunities to join workforce
The New Factory Workers
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Many ppl believed that BR factory life was cruel and unsanitary
o William Blake (1657-1827) and William Wordsworth (1770-1850)
Luddites, the handicraft workers in northern EN attacked factories in 1812 b/c of poor
working conditions
Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) believed that new poverty was worse than the old
poverty, described in The Condition of the Working Class
Andrew Ure believed that working conditions were not as bad as described
Wages improved 50%
Conditions of Work
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1770s-factory workers who were used to cottage industry had to change their work habits
in the factories to adapt to machine’s working tempo
Strict schedule, unlike previous, free schedule of peasants
Factories resembled poor-houses, ppl would live in them
29
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[1790s-factories became more acceptable/common
1802-abandoned or orphaned child labor abolished
In mills and mines, families would work together, children would climb into the shafts
b/c they were small
o Working as a family unit made factory labor bearable
Robert Owen (1771-1858) presented anti-child labor petition to Parliament in 1816
Factory Act of 1833
o Limited child work day btw ages 9-13 8hr work days, 14-18 12hr work days
o Children under 9 to be enrolled in elementary school
Hierarchy
o Manufacturers hired subcontractors, who hired working crews, who were often
close to the subcontractor
Changes in the Division of Labor by Gender
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Separate spheres
o Gender division, placing the wife as mother and homemaker, husband as wage
earner
4 main aspects
o Women in working class were less likely to work full-time after 1st child was born
o Only the poorest women worked for wages, husbands were sick/dying/missing
o Unmarried, poor women joined by full-time ounger emplyees, but who only
worked in certain jobs
o All women are confined to low-paying dead-end jobs
3 main ideas
o Factory discipline conflicted w/ childcare
o Running a household was difficult enough
o Women in the workplace allowed for more unplanned pregnancies and
illegitimate births
Mines Act of 1842
o Prohibited underground work for all women and boys under 10
The Early Labor Movement in Britain
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
2nd largest occupation was domestic service, of which 90% were women
Working class solidarity and class-consciousness developed in the work place
BR attacked monopolies, guilds, and workers in the name of economic freedom
Combination Acts (1799) outlawed unions and strikes
o Handicraft artisans discovered capitalist corporations cutting laws, flooding trade
w/ unorganized workers
o Discredited by majority or artisans, ppl recommenced strikes,
1834-Robert Owen creates the first union called the Grand National Consolidated
Trades Union, but after it collapsed, BR began seeking new model unions to again
monopolize industries for capitalists
30
Chapter 23: Ideologies and Upheavals (1815-1850)
The Peace Settlement
The European Balance of Power



The Quadruple Alliance met at The Congress of Vienna to determine a peace settlement
for FR
o Agreed on restoration of Bourbon dynasty
o 1st settlement gave FR its 1792 territories
o Raise barriers against renewed FR aggression
Klemens von Metternich (AU) and Robert Castlereagh (GB) wanted to establish a
balance of power in EU, an excuse used at the Congress of Vienna to resolve disputes
btw nations in Great Alliance
o GB got colonies, AU expanded to Venetia, Lombardi, Poland, but gave away
Southern GE, RU took small Polish kingdom, PR got Saxony
After Napoleon’s escape form Elba and return to FR, 2nd Peace of Paris issued
o Also moderate, and Great Alliance agrred to meet periodically to discuss common
interests, creating the EU congress system
Intervention and Repression



Holy Alliance formed in 1815 under Metternich btw AU, PR, and AU, meant to uphold
conservative order
1820-revolutionaries force kings of SP and 2 Sicilies to grant liberal constitutions, and
Metternich intervened, marching troops into SP in 1821, and restored monarchies
Carlsbad Decrees (1819), issued by Metternich to the 38 GE states, meant to root out
subversive ideas in universities and newspapers
Radical Ideas and Early Socialism
Liberalism



Liberalism posing a threatto conservatism, liberalism demanded equal rights and
liberties, representative go’t and equality before the law, individual freedom
o Aligned w/ laissez-faire economic policy
In BR, economic liberalism was embraced by business groups, becoming the doctrine of
business interests
Wanted some restrictions on voting, limited to well-to-do aristocratic landowners,
substantial businessmen, and successful professionals
Nationalism

Nationalism was the idea that each people (nation) had its own genius, cultural unity;
meant to increase massive national pride
31




National cultural unity unrealistic b/c ppl spoke diff. dialects, diff ethnicities, diff
religions
Exploded when became political reality, creating well defined borders per nation
(creating independent nations)
Creation of national standardized language
Created a we-they feeling amongst ppl and nations
French Utopian Socialism



Socialism was a backlash against emergence on individualism, a move towards
cooperation
economic planning: gov’t should organize the economy and not depend on competition,
help the poor (equality btw rich and poor), property regulated,
Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) claimed that the key to social organization was the
removal of “parasites” such as the court, lawyers, church men, and be replaced by
scientists, engineers, and industrialists
The Birth of Marxian Socialism


Karl Marx (1818-1883) along with Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) wrote The
Communist Manifesto
o Described how all of history was a struggle btw the elite bourgeoisie and the
working class proletariat
o Fantasized a revolution, where the working class rises up against the elite, claims
all of history follows this pattern
Georg Hegel (1770-1831) inspired Marx w/ his dialectic, or the thesis-antithesissynthesis theory (see end of chapter 23 notes)
The Romantic Movement
Romanticism’s Tenets


Romanticism was a movement against classicism and the Enlightenment, characterized
by a belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, and spontaneity
Early romanticists called themselves Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress)
Literature



William Woodsworth (1770-1850) published Lyrical Ballads in 1798
Victor Hugo (1802-1885) exemplified fascination w/ fantastical characters and exotic
historical settings and human emotions
o The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831)
Amandine Aurore Lucie Dupin (George Sand)
Art and Music

Beethoven
32


Eugène Delacroix
Franz Liszt
Reforms and Revolutions
National Liberation in Greece



Liberal revolution in 1821 under Alexander Ypsilanti
Metternich supported OE , but ppl supported Greece, RU b/c of Orthodox ties
1827-RU, GB, FR support Greece, defeated Turkish fleet and Greece became a RU
protectorate
Liberal Reform in Great Britain






Society dominated by landowning aristocracy
Corn Laws prohibited the importation of foreign grain unless BR grain rose to an
unrealistic price
o Triggered protests and demonstrations
1817-Tory gov’t suspends traditional rights
1819-Six Acts passed which heavily taxed press and eliminated mass meetings
o Caused peaceful protests that were dispersed by armed cavalry, dubbed the Battle
of Peterloo
The Whig Party proposed the Reform Bill of 1832 which increased the amount of voters
by 50% and gave political representation to industrial areas
o Allowed
Ten Hours Act of 1847 passed which limited the workday of women and young ppl in
factories to 10hrs
Ireland and the Great Famine



Irish Catholics rented land from Presbyterian landlords who often took advantage of them
resulting in abominable living conditions for the peasantry
Most ppl relied on potatoes as main source of food b/c it was cheap to grwow and
nourishing, so when crop failed in 1848 and 1850, mass hunger spread, known as the
Great Famine
BR gov’t slow to aid, and continued to collect taxes
The Revolution of 1830 in France





Liberal constitution under Louis XVIII
o Constitutional Charter of 1814 protected economic and social gains made by
sections of the middle class and peasantry
Only 100,000 men had the right to vote, and voted only for their personal benefits
Charles X (r. 1824-1830) wanted to reestablish old aristocracy
Took Algiers in June 1830, Muslim revolt in 1831 was subdued
Stripped wealthy middle class of its voting rights and in three glorious days thae gov’t
collapsed
33

Louis Philippe (r. 1830-1848) accepted Constitutional Charter and adopted red-whiteblue flag
The Revolution of 1848
A Democratic Republic in France











Louis Philippe’s gov’t refused electoral reform
February 22, 1848-barricades went up around Paris
February 24-Louis Philippe abdicates in favor of his grandson but ppl didn’t want a
monarchy which led to the creation of a provisional republic led by a 10-man executive
committee
A constitution was drafted for the Second Republic,
o universal male suffrage
o Slaves freed
o Abolition of death penalty
o Ten-hour workday
Louis Blanc represented socialist republicans and pressed for recognition of socialist
right to work
As depression worsened, national workshops rose, everyone was trying to join them
A new Constituent Assembly was elected consisting of 500 moderate republicans, 300
monarchists, 100 radicals
Clash btw liberal capitalism and socialism
Workers invaded Constituent Assembly on May 15
June 22-gov’t dissolves national workshops
o Resulted in an uprising and 10,000 were killed during the June Days
Louis Napoleon was placed into power during the election of 1848
The Austrian Empire in 1848










Revolution in FR caused demands for liberal outcry
Popular revolts arose when gov’t hesitated in meeting liberal demands
Monarchists managed to restore power
1848-nationalist Hungarians vied for full civil liberties and national autonomy
Metternich fled to London while Ferdinand I promised reforms and a liberal constitution
Liberal constitution pushed through in March
Archduchess Sophia of Bavaria convinced Ferdinand I to abdicated in favor of her son
Francis Joseph, and planned to rush revolution
June 17working class revolt crushed in Prague
October- peasants attack students and redicals in Vienna, and retook the city
Francis Joseph was crowned emperor
Prussia and the Frankfurt Assembly

Also wanted a liberal constitution
34





Factory workers joined middle class in an uprising, Fredrick William IV agreed oto a
liberal constitution
A self appointed committee of liberals at the Prussian Constituent Assembly began
planning for a unified GE state
Denmark claimed PR territories Schleswig and Holstein, delaying the drafting of a
constitution
1849-Fredrick William grants a partially liberal constitution
Fredrick William tried to get monarchs of GE to elect him emperor, AU supported by RU
forced PR to renounce all of its schemes of unification in late 1850, failing the attempts
of uniting GE in both a liberal national state and in a conservative PR republic
Chapter 24: Life in the Emerging Urban Society in the
19th Century





Industry and the Growth of the Cities
Cities were cesspools of filth and grime
The only reason cities maintained population was because rural population steadily
moved to the cities
Great Britain
o Cities grew 6x over 50 years (1.5mil in 1801 to 6.3mil in 1851
Crowded
Lack of public transportation
Public Health and the Bacterial Revolution



Edwin Chadwick
o Inspired by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
o Utilitarianism
 Social policies should be for the greater good of the greates number
o Reinforced by cholera in 1848
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
o Discovered pasteurization
Germ Theory
o Disease is spread by filth but not caused by it
Urban Planning and Public Transportation



Napoleon III (r. 1848-1870)
o Promoted welfare
Georges Haussmann (1809-1884)
o Built out of old houses instead of creating completely new ones
o New streets
o New sewers
Street car developed in the 1890s
Rich and Poor and Those in Between
35




Social Structure
Increased wages by 1906
Still intense poverty
Enormous gap between rich and poor b/c industrial and urban development made society
less unified
Each class had a series of subdivisions
The Middle Classes




Three groups
o Top
 Successful business families
 No longer radical after 1848
 Some members joined the old aristocracy, making up 5% of the pop.
o Middle
 Moderately successful undustrialists
 Lawyers and doctors
o Lower
 Shopkeepers
 Small traders
 Tiny manufacturers
New jobs emerged
White collar employees
Relativelye well educated workers
Middle Class Culture





Favored dinner parties
Well housed and fed
Variety of clothing
Education became a large part of the annual budget
Music and literature became a big part of life
The Working Classes





Majority of people
Still owned land
Labor Aristocracy
o Made up 15% of the class
o Highly skilled workers
o Under pressure by being replaced by large numbers of cheaper and less skilled
workers
o Adopted puritanical values
Semi-skilled and unskilled workers
o Crafts
Unskilled workers
36


o Unorganized and divided
Domestic Servants
o Growing segment of the work force
sweated industries
o poorly paid handicraft production
Working-Class Leisure and Religion





taverns and pubs
blood sports such as cock fights and bullbaiting
racing and soccer
music halls and vaudeville theaters
church attendance declined
o materialistic urban environment
o Catholic and Protestant churches were seen as conservative
The Changing Family
Premarital Sex and Marriage





Romantic love spread through working classes
Financial considerations played a major role
Dowries and elaborate marriage contracts existed in France
Many men married late b/c of the preoccupation with money
155,000 registered prostitutes
Kinship Ties


Newlyweds tried to live near their parents
Many turned to families for aid with sickness or financial troubles
Gender Roles and Family Life






Separate spheres strictly enforced
Women faced discrimination at work and in education
Women lacked legal rights
Many organized feminist organizations
o Gave women full property rights in England, 1882
o Professional and white collar employment, post-1880
o Inspired by Marxian society
Women gained power in the home while losing it outside the home
o Many women managed the money, giving the husband an allowance
Marriage ties were reinforced by 1880s
Child Rearing

Breast feeding increased
37



Greater concern for older or adolescent child
Couples began to limit the number of children they had
o Care better for the ones they had
o Financially beneficial
Greater tensions between child and father
`
Science and Thought
The Triumph of Science




Thermodynamics
o A branch of physics which explored the relationship between heat and
mechanical energy
o Applied to chemical processes and mechanical engineering
Chemistry and electricity expands
Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)
o Created periodic table of elements
o Organic chemistry
 Study of compounds of carbon
R&D
o Research and development
o Model for many other industries
Social Science and Evolution




Social scientists emerge
o Collected numerical data from gov’t abt. pop and created theories based on that
data
Auguste de Comte (1798-1857)
o System of Positive Philosophy (1830-1842)
o Created the positivist method
 Each branch of our knowledge passes through three different conditions
Theological (fictitious), metaphysical (abstract) and the scientific
(positive)
o Evolution
 Gradual change and continuous adjustement
Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
o Disproved that the earth was formed by cataclysmic events
Social Darwinists
o Thinkers that saw the human race as driven forward to greater specialization and
progress by unending economic struggle, allowing for survival of the fittest
Realism in Literature

Realism
38




o Literary movement which depicted life as it was
Began with describing middle class life and then moved onto grittier topics such as
hunger, poverty, violence, sex, and alcoholism
Began in France
o Honore de Balzac (1799-1850)
 The Human Comedy
 100 books, depicted amorality in all of France
o Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880)
 Madame Bovary (1857)
 Middle class life, adulterous and smug
o Emile Zola (1840-1902)
 Germinal (1885)
England
o Mary Ann Evans (George Elliot) (1819-1880)
 Middlemarch: A Study of Privincial Life (1871-1872)
o Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)
 Tess of the D’Ubervilles (1891)
 Return of the Native (1878)
Russia
o Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)
 War and Peace (1864-1869)
Chapter 25: The Age of Nationalism (1850-1914)
Napoleon III in France
The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
o Elected president after 1848
 Name of Napoleon Bonaparte
 Peasants wanted a tough ruler to curb socialists
 Strong campaign with a plan
o Worked well until National Assembly (NA) refused to extend term limit
 1851-coup d’état, and promising universal male suffrage Louis seized
power with majority of population support
Napoleon III’s Second Empire



Louis proclaims himself Emperor Napoleon III with majority of population support
Boosted economy
o Regulated pawn shops, supported credit unions, right to form unions, right to
strike
Didn’t eliminate NA, but gave less power, members elected every 6yrs
39



Won great political victories, but lost international support when he tried to reorganize
Europe
Middle class liberals stopped support b/c they France was losing to Prussia and Italy
Louis grants a liberal constitution,
Nation Building in Italy and Germany
Cavour and Garibaldi in Italy




Italy was a collection of city states, the northern province (and main one) SardiniaPiedmont (Sardinia) was ruled by King Victor Emmanuel
Emmanuel elected Count Camillo Benso di Cavour as minister in 1850
Cavour wants to unite the northern states, under control by Austria at the time
o Created a liberal constitution
o Program of highways and roads
o Needed allies to go against Austria
 France under Napoleon III agreed b/c they didn’t want Austria to be too
strong
o Needed a reason to go to war
o After victories in 1859 (when Austria attacked) France withdrew from alliance b/c
it didn’t want a strong neighbor in the south
o Nationalist movement became strong enough to sustain itself, so Cavour gave
away Nice and Savoy (1860) in return for the allegiance
o Man people in mid-Italy wanted to join the newly liberated and united kingdom
Giussepe Garibaldi
o Rebel leader in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
o May 1860-Red shirts (rebel army) gain popularity and retake Palermo
o Began moving towards Rome, so Cavour (not wanting to fight France/ lsoe
support of Italian Catholics ) made a plebiscite and Garibaldi agreed
Bismarck and the Austro-Prussian War (1866)



Post-1848, Austria was the only state not part of the Zollverein
o German Customs union
o Allowed Prussian Empire (in charge of the German States) to hold against the
Austrian empire
William I (r. 1861-1888)
o Ruled Prussia
o Wanted more taxes for military budget but wasn’t unapproved by Parliament
o Called on Count Otto von Bismarck to help work out with Parliament
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
o Minister in 1862
o Lashed out at middle class opposition which controlled the Parliament
o Lost popularity
o Danish War
 Danish king tried to take back saome land, lost against Prussia and Austria
o Realpolitik
40
 Power with realism and pragmatism
o Austro Prussian War
 Assurance of French and Italian support/neutrality
 Used areas of Shleswig and Holstein as a reason to go to war
 7 weeks
 Prussian army technologically advanced
 Battle of Sodowa
 Prussian victory
 Austria leaves German affairs
 Northern states ally
The Taming of the Parliament


Bismarck becomes Chancellor and William emperor of the Northern empire
o Controlled army and foreign affairs
o Universal male suffrage
Popularity rose
The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)





Nationalist movement spread through South
1870-France attacks Prussia b/c of otheir possible allegiance with Spain
French defeated at Sedan on September 1, 1870
German forced surrounded Paris, which surrendered January 1871
United empire, William I became emperor
o Universal male suffrage
The Modernization of Russia and the Ottoman Empire

Modernization
o The changes that enable a country to compete effectively with the leading
countries at a given time
The “Great Reforms”



Mostly rural culture in Russia
Crimean War (1853-1856)
o Who should protect Christian shrines in the Ottoman empire
o Russia’s transportation network failed
o Russia defeated
Alexander II (r. 1855-1881)
o Human bondage abolished
o Peasants received half the land
o Pay high taxes
o Zemstvo (1864)
41





New institution of local gov’t in reformed RU, whose members were
elected by three-class system if towns, peasant villages, and noble
landowners
Industrial breakthroughs
Spread of Marxian thought
1881-Alexander II assassinated
Alexander III (r. 1881-1894)
o Sergei Witte
 Minister of finance
 State-owned railroads, high tariffs, gold standard of the “civilized world”
 Foreigners locate factories in RU and majority of coal, iron, steel industry
grew in east
The Revolution of 1905




RU had established influence in China and Korea
Japan launched a sneak attack and defeated RU in 1905
Political upheaval
o Business and professional classes wanted a liberal gov’t
o Factory workers upset about work
o Nationalist sentiment
Revolution of 1905
o Popular upheaval that overturned absolute tsarist rule and made RU into a
conservative constitutional monarchy
o Bloody Sunday
 Massacre of peaceful protesters on January 1905 in St. Petersburg who
were presenting a petition to Nicholas II (1894-1917)
o Outlawed political parties became more open
o Many peasant uprisings, mutinies, and revolts
o October Manifesto
 Result of a great general strike in October 1905, granted full civil rights
and promised an elected Duma with power
 Russian parliament which opened in 1906, indirectly thorough
universal male suffrage
o Duma
 Largely middle-class
 Arguments with tsar’s ministers
The Responsive National State (1871-1914)
General Trends



People express loyalty for gov’t
Most men had right to vote
Women gained some voting rights
The German Empire
42





Reichstag
o Elected lower house of gov’t of the new German empire after 1871
Kulturkampf
o A struggle for civilization, Bismarck’s attack on the Catholic Church resulting
from Pius IX’s declaration of papal infallibility in 1870
Bismarck had to control all idealists
o Relied on National liberals who supported legislation
o Catholics through Kulturkampf
o Protestants through high tariffs on grain (Protestants owned eastern lands)
Bismarck wanted to eliminate Social Democratic party
o Largest political party
o Restricted socialist meetings (eventually failed)
o Created programs to win over working-class
 Old age pensions
 Insurance programs
 Social security
William II (r. 1888-1918)
o opposed Bismarck’s attempt to curb socialists
o forced Bismarck to resign
o failed like Bismarck
Republican France




National outcry at the loss of the Franco-Prussian war
Paris Commune
o 1871
o Govern Paris without outside interference
o Crushed by NA army
Unity formed after fighting
o Balance and luck
 Monarchists controlled NA, but could not find an acceptable king
 Middle class was socially, moderately conservative
o Moderate republican leaders
 Majority in NA after 1879
 State schools-less catholic school teachers
 Free education for all sexes
Dreyfus affair
o Jewish captain falsely accused and convicted of treason
o Catholic church sided with anti-Semites, and when Dreyfus was discovered
innocent, France severed all ties from Catholic church in state affairs
Great Britain and Ireland


Britain was seen as a beacon of peace and equality in the late 19th century
o Majority of people have vcoting rights
o Two-party parliament
People’s Budget
43




o A bill passed after Liberal party came to power, increased spending on social
welfare issues, vetoed in the House of Lords
Liberal party increased taxes on the rich as a result of the People’s Budget
After Great Famine, Irish revolutionaries increased
Britain took over control of Ireland
o Armed revolutionaries increase
o Protests erupt in Northern county of Ulster
1914-House of Lords made a compromise to the home-rule bill, but only applied to
Southern counties
o Rejected
The Austro-Hungarian Empire





AU had to compromise to Hungary after Austro-Prussian war
AU and HU joined by shared monarch, common ministries for finance, defense, and
foreign affairs
Many Austrians saw their dominance threatened by Slavs, Poles, etc.
Extremists arise
Nationalism eventually deteriorates the multi-cultural and national Austro-Hungarian
empire
Jewish Emancipation and Modern Anti-Semitism






1848-Jews formed revolutionary vanguard in Vienna and Berlin and the Frankfurt
Assembly
1871-new German Constitution consolidated Jewsih emancipation
o Abolished all restrictions on Jewish marriage, place of living, occupation, and
property ownership
o Still excluded from gov’t and social relations
Jewish careers and talents expanded
1873-stock market crash
o Anti-Semitism arises
o Resentment at Jewish financial control
Zionism
o A movement towards Jewish political nationhood, started by Theodor Herzl
Before 1914, most anti-Semitism was in Eastern EU
Marxism and the Socialist Movement
The Socialist International



Growth of political parties exploded in 1871
German Social Democratic Party
o Embraced Marxist ideals
o Had nearly 1 million working class followers
Russian Social Democratic Party
44



o Started by Russian exiles in Switzerland
Marxian social parties were linked into an international political movement
First International
o First united socialist party
o Embraced patriotism of Paris Commune and French NA
Second International
o Lasted until 1914
o Delegates from different countries met to discuss different ideals
Unions and Revisionism




Socialism wasn’t very radical
Workers were less inclined to follow radical revolutions
o Workers got what they wanted Voting rights
 Tangible (financial, material) benefits
 Patriotic education
 Standard of living rose
Unions increase
o Denied rights until mid-19th
Revisionism
o The effort by various socialists to update Marxian doctrines to reflect the realities
of the time
Political Parties and Philosophical Ideals
Political Parties




Populists
o Early form of political party
o Believed they represented the people
o Violence and terror are the key to reform (early form of terrorism)
o Communists, but did not believe that the Manifesto was the sole way to social
reform
1870s-The Russian Social Democratic Party (RSDP)
o Marxists
o Created by exiled Russians in Switzerland
o Doctrine following revolutionaries
o Western mindset
o Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin
1901- Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRP)
o Main political party in Russia
o Less radical form of populist, but still can be considered mildly terroristic
1898- Social Democratic Labor Party (SDLP)
o Created by the RSDP
45

o Marxist organization and Marxist orientation
o Along with the SRP, play vital role in the revolution
o Unlike populists and SRP, did not think peasants are necessary part to
revolutionary change
o Does not support violence as a tactic
Constitutional Democrats (CD)
o Represent constitutional and liberal middle class
Thinkers and Ideals

Lenin
o Our Programme (1899)
 economic demands
 welfare, steady pay, fair economy
 political demands
 more freedoms, suffrage, unions, public involvement in gov’t
 the incentive to continue to revolt diminishes if the agenda is made
economic and material
 people don’t want to fight when they already have pretty much
everything
 cannot separate political agenda from economic b/c of above reason
o Believed that revolutionary spirit is necessary, had majority of support, called the
Bolsheviks.
 Ideological conformity
 Strict party discipline
 Revolutionary elite called Vanguard
o Hierarchical and rigid, while opposing party is flexible and more participatory
Chapter 26: The West and the World (1815-1914)
Industrialization and the World Economy
The Rise of Global Inequality


The industrial revolution allowed for an economic and social gap between nations
The Third World
o Non industrialized nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America
o Lopsided world
 The lands of the rich and the poor
The World Market



Increase in international commerce
Cotton textile trade
o England was exporting 50%, EU bought 50% of world cotton, India 6%
Railroads helped increase international trade
46
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o Connecting seaports with inland cities
o Supported western economic interests
Steam power
o Trans-continental shipment of goods became feasible
o Suez and Panama canals
Communication
o Telegraph
 Conveyed world commodity prices
Foreign investments
o Until WWI, more than $40 billion in international investments
The Opening of China and Japan
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Trade with EU was strictly regulated by gov’t (Qing or Manchu dynasty)
o All foreign merchants live in Canton
British merchants smuggled opium, but wanted tosell it legally so they pressured gov’t to
let them have an independent state in China
Opium Trade
o Grown legally in India, smuggled into China in fast ships and bribed officials.
Became a destructive vice in Chinese culture.
o Qing dynasty forced foreign merchants to obey Chinese law
 Upon refusal, the British merchants were kicked out, causing a war
British troops from india, and superior naval army was able to crush Chinese army
Treaty of Nanking (1842)
o China gave up Hong Kong, create 4 cities for foreign trade, and give $100 million
Opium flourished, Hong Kong became a Anglo-Chinese enclave
Joined with France, btw 1856 and 1860, England attacked China, and got several more
treaties on trade and investment
Japan was closed off from EU since 1640, and all western ships were removed
Commodore Matthew Perry
o American captain, stormed into Edo (Tokyo) Bay in 1853 and demanded
diplomatic negotiations
o JP agreed to open two ports for foreign trade
Western Penetration of Egypt
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Egypt like EU models of modernization
Muhammad Ali (1769-1849)
o Ruler of Egypt
o Hired French and Italian officers to train armies
o Improved communications and cultivated lands
o EG became an independent, self-sustainable nation by the time of his death
Ismail (r. 1863-1879)
o Khedive
 Prince
o Supported Suez canal
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o Westernization was very expensive, EU bondholders intervene
 Foreign economic control caused nationalist riots throught Alexandria and
other EU cities
o Britain intervenes, puts Ismail’s son Tewfig in power, which causes anti-EU riots
Britain’s intervention provided a new economic, social, and political model for EG and
Africa
The Great Migration

Great migration
o The great movement of ppl that was central experience in the saga of Western
expansion; one reason why the west’s impact on the world in the nineteenth
century was so powerful and many sided
European Migrants
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Death rates fell due to improved standard of living, improved medicine
US absorbed most migrants from EU, but also moved to other nations
Many migrants eventually returned to their homelands
Most migrants would follow a ‘migration chain’ led by a successful businessman of
religious leader
Migration became a form of rebellion, political and social reform
Asian Migrants
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At least 3mil Asians moved away in the 1920s
Became plantation or mine workers
Great white walls
o Laws designed by Americans and Australians to keep Asians out
‘whites only’ immigration was enforced
Western Imperialism (1880-1914)

New imperialism
o The drive to create vast political empires abroad, recalling the old EU colonial
empires of the 17th and 18th centuries and contrasting with the economic
penetration of the non-Western territories btw 1816 and 1880
The Scramble for Africa
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UK, GE, IT, FR all began a scramble for colonies, by 1900, all of Africa was colonized
South Africa
o British took control of Dutch settlements around Cape Town
o Boers (Afrikaners), descendants of Dutch, moved north and settled in Orange
Free State and Transvaal, proclaiming political independence
o British move north and establish in Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe and Zambia)
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o South African War (1899-1902)
 British vs. white leaders like Rhodes in Transvaal
o 1910-Union of South Africa established, allowed Afrikanaers to assume power
over British b/c of number
Leopold II of Belgium (r. 1865-1909)
o Imperialist, started a free-for-all gold rush
Berlin Conference
o A meeting of EU leaders, laid down rules for competition in sub-Saharan Africa
Germany established protectorates in several tribes, France retook Algeria and Senegal,
British controlled West Africa from Cape Colony to Zanzibar,
Battle of Omdurman (1898)
o British forces fight Muslims along the Nile in British pursuit to gain Egypt
Imperialism in Asia
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Dutch began ruling almost all of East Indies, granting some territory to UK and GE
Russia expanded to the Caucauses and French controlled Indochina
US took Philippines from Spanish
Causes of the New Imperialism
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Economic motives
o GB was losing its industrial lead
 Feared FR and GE would control new economic growths, but in reality,
the imperialism in colonies was not very economically beneficial
Political and Diplomatic motives
o GB control of Egypt was for the obtainment of Suez Canal
Patriotism and Nationalism
Benefit to workers and capitalists
Pressure by individual corporations and shipping companies
Social Darwinism and rasict doctrines
o Strong conquering the weak
o Colonies are necessary fro greatness
o Triumph of EU race
Civilization of non-whites
White man’s buden
o Written by Rudyard Kipling in 1899
o The idea that EU chould civilize the primitive non-whites and eventually receive
benefits of modern economics, cities, and society
Spread of Christianity as a result of peace and stability
Critics of Imperialism

J.A. Hobson (1858-1940)
o Radical English economist
o Imperialism
 Rush to colonize b/c rich wanted to get richer trough foreign outlets
49
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Economic benefits did not surpass the livelihood of nations
Rebellion against social Darwinism
Responding to Western Imperialism
The Pattern of Repose
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Traditionalists
o Concentrated on preserving their cultural traditions
Westernizers
Tensions between the two groups, with the modernizers usually prevailing
Post-1917—anti-imperialist actions increased
Empire in India
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India was almost 100% ruled by GB
Great Rebellion (1857-1858)
o Insurrection of Hindu and Muslim mercenaries, spread through northern and
central India before being crushed by loyal native troops from southern India,
leading to a direct ruling by GB
British Rule
o Lived in well shaded villas with several servants
o Secondary English education offering opportunities for economic and social
advancements
o Large railroad network for communication and transportation of goods around the
world and country
o United ethnically and religiously different states into one unified nation
Although India became highly developed, racial segregation was still prevalent
Hindu Indian National Congress was formed, argued for civil rights for Indians, complete
independence
The Example of Japan
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In 1853, Japan was feudal land ruled by a shogun
o Aided by samurai, the warrior nobility
Foreign settlement in Yokohama caused anti-foreign and anti-government assassinations
and terrorism caused by radical samurai
o AM, EN, DU, FR warships demolished key forts and weakened shogun’s power
1867-samurai restore power to shogun, called the Meiji restoration
New rulers, instead of war, began to reform JP to a more modern state
o Building f railroads, liberal society, free gov’t,
1871-leaders abolished feudal structure and declared social equality
o Authoritarian constitution
Toward Revolution in China

Qing Dynasty
50
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o On the verge of collapse by 1860, survived with the elp of loyal scholars and
revitalization ofloyal bureaucracy
o Sino-Japanese war emphasized China’s weakness, provided EU with
opportunities to colonize
Hundred days of reform
o In 1898, western style reforms, attempting to combat EU and JP advances
Others turned to anti-western acts
o Boxers and the Boxer Rebellion (1900-1903)
 Killing hundreds of foreigners and thousands of Chinese Christians
 After rebellion, Qing dynasty suffered and eventually fell, China
proclaimed a Western style republic
Chapter 27: The Great Break: War and Revolution
The First World War
The Bismarckian System of Alliances
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After the wars, a united Germany became a harbinger of peace.
o Kept France from getting too strong, keep peace btw RU and AU-HU
Three Emperors’ League (1873)
o An alliance btw GE, RU, and AU-HU, similar to the Holy Alliance
RU victories in Ottoman Empire threatened balance of power, and Congress of Berlin
(1878) led by Bismarck angered RU nationalists
o Led Bismarck to make a military alliance with AU against RU
IT joined AU and GE b/c of FR and formed Triple Alliance
The Rival Blocs
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1890-Emperor William II dismissed Bismarck, then refused to renew neutrality with RU,
which allowed FR to gain alliance with RU against Triple Alliance
Many wanted an alliance btw GE and BR, but GE’s naval rivalry in 1900 caused tensions
In 1902, BR made an alliance with JP and improved relations with US, formed AngloFrench Entente of 1904 with FR in return for BR support of FR takeover in Morocco,
GE tried toi separate BR and FR by having an international conference on Morocco, but
ended up bringing them closer together, GE became seen as an international threat by
BR, FR, US, and RU
GE expanding navy created tensions in 1907
The Outbreak of War
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
Balkan lands became key factor in starting the war (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Slav nationalism grew in Serbia
51
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AU annexed Bosnia in 1908, and in 1913, AU forced Serbia to surrender in the Second
Balkan war
o As a result, Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo on June
28th, 1914
o AU wanted Serbia punished, and said that Serbia had 48 hours to surrender itself
to AU
June 28th-AU declares war on Serbia, resulting in the third Balkan War
o AU was supported by GE, and RU was the traditional protector of Serbia, so
allied with FR began to mobilize armies
GE wanted to neutralize FR, so it went through neutral Belgium, which caused GB to ally
with FR and RU, creating the Triple Entente
Stalemate and Slaughter
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GE attack on FR b/c of stalemate on FR-BE border and b/c of Battle of Marne on Sept.
6
Trench warfare
o A type of fighting behind trenches, mines, and barbed wire, caused staggering
amount of death
Battle of Somme (Summer 1916) experienced over 1,000,000 deaths and injuries
The Widening War
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RU forces badly damaged at Battle of Tannenburg and Masurian (Aug and Sep of
1914)
o RU kept back by GE and AU-HU forces
IT joined Triple Entente, while Ottoman Empire joined GE and AU-HU, and then
Bulgaria
o Fighting expanded into the middle east, with RU vs. OE
 Caused repression of Armenians, later, OE ordered mass genocide of
Armenians
Hussein ibn-Ali joined with British forces, and managed to incite and Arab riot in 1916
JP used war to gain GE colonies in the pacific
FR used many colonial troops b/c of lack of young men in FR
April 1917-AM declares war on GE b/c of sympathy for Triple Entente and b/c the
German submarine attack on the Lusitania in 1915, Woodrow Wilson said no submarine
warfare, but when GE resumed it, AM entered the war
The Home Front
Mobilizing for Total War
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
All nations thought they had a just cause to fight the war
Total War
o In each country, a gov’t of national unity that began to plan and control economic
and social life in order to make the greatest possible military effort.
o State socialism became a viable economic blueprint
52
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o Demand for work increased, jobs for everyone
Labor unions cooperated with gov’t to provide labor for military effort
Blurred class distinctions, and in BR, the lower third of the population lived best than
ever during the war
Growing Political Tensions
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First 2yrs of the war, massive support by ppl, and each gov’t employed censorship and
propaganda so as to increase support
Spring 1916-strikes and protests against the war began
Soldier’s morale began to drop—IT troops mutinied, FR troops refused to fight
Chief minister of AU assassinated in October 1916
1917-Central powers begin to crack, and begin to believe that they would not survive
another winter in the war
The Russian Revolution
The Fall of Imperial Russia

Czar Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917) led RU into WWI
o Army was unprepared and mobilized ineffectively and poorly supplied
o Failed to ally with citizens and DUMA, instead allying with bureaucratic gov’t
o September 1915-Middle Class and DUMA form Progressive Bloc, which called
for a gov’t which is responsible to the Duma, not the czar
o Left for the front lines, Alexandra was left to rule with Rasputin who was a
charlatan but her most trusted advisor
 Rasputin was killed in December 1916, causing the empress to go into
shock, resulting in in decline of food and morale
o Women marched on March 8, and then on March 12, Duma created a Provisional
gov’t, and Nicholas II abdicated on March 15
The Provisional Government
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Established freedom of thought, religion, assembly, speech, unions, strikes, and liberal
program
July 1917-Alexander Kerensky became prime minister
Petrograd Soviet
o A huge fluctuating mass meeting of 2000-3000 workers, soldiers, and socialist
intellectuals, modeled on the revolutionary soviets of 1905
o Army Order No. 1
 A radical order of the Soviet that stripped officers of their authority and
placed power in the hands of elected committees of common soldiers
Peasants began to get land for their families
Change allowed for Vladimir Ilyich Lenin
53
Lenin and the Bolshevik Revolution
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Lenin was an enemy of imperial RU, and was exiled to Siberia for 3yrs
Joined western socialists and Marxists to expand and revolutionize ideas
3 ideas
o Capitalism can be destroyed by violent means only
o Socialist revolution can be achieved in non-industrial countries if an underclass
was exploited
o The necessity of highly disciplined workers’ party strictly controlled by a
dedicated elite of intellectuals and revolutionaries
Bolsheviks
o Thename for Lenin’s camp of the RU party of Marxian socialism
Realized war was a good opportunity for class war and socialist upheaval
GE allowed passage through GE and into RU b/c they hoped he would weaken RU
Immediately began assault on RU gov’t when he arrived on April 3
Trotsky and the Seizure of Power


Leon Trotsky (1879-1940)
o Made leader of military-revolutionary committee of the Petrograd
o November 6-joined the Bolsheviks and seized gov’t buildings (Provisional gov’t
and congress of soviets)
 Lenin named head of new gov’t
Bolshevik power came around for 3 reasons
o Power had given way to anarchy
o Lenin and Trotsky had ultimate and superior leadership
o Bolsheviks appealed to urban workers and soldiers
Dictatorship and Civil War
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Lenin acknowledged that the war against GE was lost, and sought out peace
Treaty of Brest-Litvosk (March 1918)
o Gave up western RU to GE
Constituent Assembly
o A freely elected assembly by the Bolsheviks, but permanently disbanded within
one day under Lenin’s orders after the Bolsheviks won less than one-fourth of the
elected delegates
 Helped feed the flames of civil war
The Whites opposed the Bolsheviks (The Reds) rose to power and gained support
Summer 1918- 18 regional gov’ts fought against the Bolsheviks, and the Whites began a
war against the Reds
October 1919-The Whites nearly take control of Lenin’s gov’t
Spring 1920- White armies are almost completely defeated
War Communism
54
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o The application of the total war concept to a civil conflict, the Bolsheviks seized
grain from peasants, introduced rationing, nationalized all banks and industry, and
required everyone to work
Cheka
o The re-established secret police force which hunted and killed suspected foes
The Peace Settlement
The End of the War
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RU loss boosted GE morale
GE force massive push into FR, but stopped at Second Battle of Marne
o US intervention helped tip the war in favor of the allies
o Allies follow up with steady push onto GE, realizing the GE loss
GE soldiers began mutinying and fleeing
November 3-AU-HU surrender, GE citizens march for peace
November 11, 1918-GE surrenders, war ends
Revolution in Germany
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Nationalistic and republican revolution
Replaced by Weimar Republic
o Social democrats and catholics
Similar to RU revolution, social uprising resulting in overthrowing of authoritarian gov’t
and establishing a provisional gov’t
The Treaty of Versailles
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Peace conference held in Paris on January 1919
BR, US, and FR participated, while RU was in civil war, IT was ignored, and GE was not
invited
League of Nations
o A permanent Organization established during peace conference in Paris in
January 1919, designed to protect member states from aggression and avert future
wars
o BR and FR wanted to punish GE
Georges Clemenceau of FR wanted to radically punish GE, but compromised to stop
pushing for Rhineland as a buffer state if US and BR gave him support
Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919)
o The treaty by which GE’s army was limited to 100,000 men, and GE was declared
responsible for the war and had to payy reperations to all civilian damages caused
by the war
o First rejected by GE, but when naval blockade was not moved, they signed the
treaty
The Peace Settlement in the Middle East
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Balfour Declaration
o Said that BR Palestine will be open for Jews, which signaled an all Jewish
state without Arabs or Zionists
o Hussein ibn-Ali sent his son to the peace conference to get Arab
independence, but got nothing
American Rejection of the Versailles Treaty
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Allied leaders detested Lenin, and thought he posed a threat, wanted world-wide peace
GE new gov’t faced the enormous challenge of reestablishing a peaceful republic, but
needed time, but were treated harshly by allies
Republican Senators in the US refused the Treaty of Versailles, led by Henry Cabot
Lodge
Chapter 28: The Age of Anxiety (1900-1940)
The Search for Peace and Stability
Germany and the Western Powers
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The Treaty of Versailles had not faltered GE recovery and development, remained
strongest nation in EU
FR and BR did not agree on how to treat GE
o FR believed that GE reparations was vital to economy, thought the T of V was the
best way of curbing GE power
o BR wanted GE to regain economic wealth so BR goods can be sold there (John
Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) argued that all EU suffers from GE poverty)
1921-FR allies w/ Poland, forming the Little Entente w/ Czechoslovakia, Romania, and
Yugoslavia against Hungary
The Weimar Republic, under threat of losing territory, paid reparations in 1921, but
was unable to do so the following year
o Raymond Poincaré, FR minister decided to call GE bluff, so FR troops began to
occupy Ruhr in 1923
 GE gov’t forces ppl to stop working and resist FR, FR seals off Ruhr from
GE, and creating borderline hunger in the territory
FR troops could not get ppl to pay, GE printed money so ppl can pay, GE experienced
massive inflation
o Caused social revolution, middle class wiped out, blamed western bureaucracies,
big business, Jews, workers, and communists
Gustav Stresemann (1878-1929) called of resistance in Ruhr and agreed to pay
reparations as long as ability to pay was re-examined, FR accepted
Hope in Foreign Affairs

Charles G. Dawes headed re-examination of reparations, came up with Dawes Plan
(1924) which reduced GE yearly reparations, made payment dependant on GE economic
prosperity, and gave GE loans from US, accepted by all nations
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1925-in Locarno Switzerland, GE and FR accepted their borders, BR and IT agreed to
fight if either FR or GE invaded the other, boundary disputed btw Poland and
Czechoslovakia were settled
1926-GE joins League of Nations
1928-nations sign Kellogg-Briand Pact which condemned war as an instrument of
international policy
Hope in Democratic Government
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Mein Kampf
o Written by Hitler in 1923, outlined his theories and a program for a national
socialist revolution
Hitler’s party gained little support, and in 1928, held only 12 seats in the Reichstag
Weimar Republic was divided into political support for nationalists and monarchists on
one side, Communists on the other, and majority supported Social Democrats
FR gov’t was a moderates and businessmen, and began expensive task of rebuilding wartorn nation
o Restored confidence in nation, boosted economy
BR experienced massive lay-offs, but state health and unemployment and welfare
benefits to all, kept living standards from declining
BR gov’t replaced by Labour party, which, under Ramsay MacDonald (1866-1937) kept
support of Liberal gov’t
o The conservative party under Stanley Baldwin (1867-1947) expressed similar
ideas, kept the party alive
The Great Depression (1929-1939)
The Economic Crisis
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Great Depression
o A worldwide economic depression from 1929-1933
In US, investments fell from $3.5B to $3.2B in 4yrs, while value of shares went from
$27B to $87B
Most stocks were purchased on margin, and falling prices caused everyone to sell
Many investors lent money to EU countries, asked for it back when prices fell, causing
the nations, especially GE and AU to lose a lot of gold supply, which led to ppl not being
able to borrow money so everyone withdrew quickly from the banks, leading to the
biggest bank crash in AU in 1931
World output of goods fell 38%, and nations began to go off gold standard
No country coordinated a response, almost every country suffered from poor economic
policy, ppl believe gov’t should have continued spending in order to stimulate economy
Mass Unemployment

Poverty increased, many ppl lived off gov’t benefits
57
The New Deal in the United States
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945) promised a New Deal which was his plan to
reform capitalism through forceful gov’t intervention in economy
Agricultural Adjustement Act (1933) raised farming prices and income by limiting
production
Works Progress administration (WPA) which employed one-fifth of the working force
building roads, buildings, and bridges
National Labor Relations Act (1935)
The Scandinavian Response to the Depression

Social Democrats
o Flexible and non-revolutionary gov’t that grew out ofcooperative community
action, passed important social reform legislation for both peasants and workers,
gained practical administrative experience and developed and unique kind of
socialism
Recovery and Reform in Britain and France
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
Balanced budget but workers received nearly no unemployment welfare
Low interest rates created a housing boom
Chapter 29:Dictatorships and WWII (1919-1945)
Stalin’s Soviet Union
From Lenin to Stalin
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After RU civil war, the RU state was in ruins, economy and industry destroyed, famine
widespread
Stalin creates the New Economic Policy (NEC) in 1921 in order to regain some support
of peasants, the largest, and potentially most powerfull and revolutionary class, allowed
for limited free market and trade
o Allowed for a recovery in some industry, and by 1921,more grain was produced
than in 1913, most ever
After Lenin’s death (Jan. 21, 1924), competition for seat btw Stalin and Lenin took
place, Stalin won b/c he was able to gain the support of party and best represented
Marxist ideals
The Five-Year Plans

The five year plans were a series of plans devised by Stalin in 1928 which were
supposed to reform the entirety of the nation towards communist ideals
58
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Collectivization was the first step in the plans, which involved turning farmer-owned
farms into large, state controlled enterprises, and the kulaks, or the better-off peasants
were not allowed to join the farms, so many starved and had to give up livestock, so in
protest, they burned all their produce and livestock
Collectivization experienced mass resistance after gov’t victory until gov’t agreed to limit
labor
Industrial change was immense, and dozens of new factories opened, heavy industry
grew
Workers were gov’t assigned, meaning they can work anywhere in any field
Life and Culture in Soviet Society
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Wages decreased, goods were heavily taxed, housing shortage was massive
Ppl believed that they lived in a socialist utopia, surviving capitalist oppression (and
depression) while the West suffered
Workers got old-age pensions, medical services, free education, and day-care centers
Rapid industrialization allowed for more jobs and easier promotions if specialized skill
and trained experts were available
Popular culture focused on greatness of state, horrid realty of capitalism, history was
rewritten to make Stalin look like the point that all of history was leading up to
Stalinist Terror and the Great Purges
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Although public support was immense, privately, Stalin’s views were questioned
o Wife killed herself aftr being insulted for questioning Stalin’s policies in Ukraine
o Sergei Kirov was killed after gaining a greater pull in gov’t than Stalin
 Allowed Stalin to launch a reign of terror
August 1936-16 prominent Bolsheviks confessed to plotting Stalin’s assassination,
1937-mass arrests of party officials, forced confessions, executions, and deportations to
labor camps resulted
Mussolini and Fascism in Italy
The Seizure of Power
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At beginning of WWI, IT seemed to be becoming a democracy
Class differences, church-state, tensions rose, and ppl wanted to be in villages rather than
involved in national affairs
Based on RU revolution, Socialist Party and ppl began seizing land in 1920
Catholic Party emerged soon after b/c pope lifted ban on Catholics in gov’t
1921-opposition amongst anti-liberal conservatives and frightened property owners rose
Benito Mussolinin (1883-1945)
o A Socialist party leader, began urging IT to join allies in 1914, causing him to be
expelled from IT Socialist Party
59
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o Created a band of fascists with angry veterans, focused on expansionist
nationalism, anti-socialism, destroying working-class movements, capitalist
allegiances, and landowners, glorified war
o Black Shirts
 Private army that destroyed all Socialist items in society (buildings,
newspapers, HQ, eventually expelled Socialist party from Northern IT
October 1922-Mussolini declares that he must be king, fascists march on Rome, Victor
Emmanuel III (r. 1900-1946) asked Mussolini to make to cabinet
The Regime in Action
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Election laws were rigged so party always won
Giacomo Matteotti, leader of Socialist Parliament was killed
Freedom of press abolished
Fascist youth movement and labor unions created
Lateran Agreement (1929)
o Recognized the Vatican as an independent state, and in return for financial
support, pope urged IT to support Mussolini
Women’s rights abolished
Hitler and Nazism in Germany
Hitler’s Road to Power


Nazism, a movement of extreme racism and nationalism,
Hitler (1889-1945)
o Absorbed anti-Semitism and racist ideas from Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna
o Joined German Workers’ party after WWI, gained full control of group in 1921
o After the destruction of Weimar, Hitler wanted to start an armed uprising,
although he was imprisoned, Nazism became a prevalent ideal
o Idea of Fuhrer or a dictator with unlimited power, described in Mein Kampf
o Used Great Depression to promise voters economic salvation, gain support
 Rejected free market capitalism,
 Allowed Nazi to become majority in Reichstag by 1932
o Youth appeal helped gain support
o Finally, gained winning suppot in backroom deals with Weimar leaders, became
Chancellor on January 30, 1933
The Nazi State and Society




Enabling Act (March 23rd, 1933) gave Hitler absolute power for 4yrs
Soon only Nazi party was legal, gov’t only prased Hitler, nothing else
State was disorganized b/c of divide btw Reichstag and Hitler
Strikes outlawed, unions and organizations replaced w/ Nazi association, Universities and
literature placed under Nazi control
o Jewish, democratic, socialist literature burned publicly
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Storm Troopers (SA) were fanatically radical, wanted a second revolution, Hitler used SS
to kill 1000 members on June 30, 1934
o Afterwards, army swore oath to total obedience to Hitler, Heinrich Himmler
became leader of SS
Nuremburg Laws (1935) deprived Jews of citizenship and rights
1938-Kristallnacht occurs, destroying all Jewish homes and businesses and synagogues
Hitler’s Popularity
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Work on superhighways, offices, sports stadiums, and public housing began, then focus
on war
o Resulted in drop of unemployment
Active resistance amongst communists and socialists to Hitler in 1933, resulted in
10,000s ppl imprisoned Catholics and Protestants wanted religious life back
Aggression and Appeasement (1933-1939)
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Hitler claimed peaceful intentions while withdrawing from League of Nations
GE tried to reclaim AU, but IT threatened to go to war so GE backed down
March 1935-Hitler opposes T of V by starting a draft, FR, GB, IT sense danger, protest
BR adopted appeasement which would grant Hitler anything if he didn’t go to war
o Anglo-German Naval Agreement (June 1935) broke GE isolation from EU
o GE moves into Rhineland, FR doesn’t act b/c no support from BR
The creation of Axis (GE, JP, IT) aided Gen. Francisco Franco in Spanish Civil War
March 1938-GE places Nazi gov’t in AU,
March 1939- GE invades Czechoslovakia, then Poland on September 1
August 1939-Hitler and Stalin sign Nazi Soviet Non-aggression pact, promising to
remain neutral in war
September 3, 1939-FR, BR declare war on GE
The Second World War
Hitler’s Empire
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Blitzkrieg
o A ‘lightning’ war using planes, tanks, and trucks, used to crush Poland
 RU claimed part of Poland and Baltic States (Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia)
o Overtook Denmark, Norway, Holland, entered Belgium, split FR and BR armies
FR was taken after BR separation, Henri-Phillipe Petain created new gov’t Vichy,
allowed GE to take control of FR, control of West EU
Battle of Britain (1940), GE planes attack BR factories and key locations, BR planes
manage to defend, GE began bombing cities
BR began mass producing planes, outnumbering GE 3:1,
June 1941-GE attacks RU
October 1941-GE overtakes Leningrad
o GE invaders stopped when winter came b//c they weren’t prepared for the cold
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New Order became Hitler’s program, focus on racial imperialism, preferential to Nordic
people, FR were inferior Latin ppl, Slavs became subhuman,
o became key principle in totalitarianism a dictatorship that exercises total control
over masses and seeks to mobilize them for action
The Holocaust
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Holocaust was the systematic effort to eliminate all EU Jews, 6,000,000 perished
GE Jews were moved to Poland, placed in Ghettos, marked w/ Star of David
RU Jews dug mass graves, then gunned down by SS
1941-Mass murder begins in order to speed up process
Auschwitz-Birkenau was most famous camp
o Jews brought to camps, gassed or placed to labor and starved/worked to death
GE ppl didn’t know of camps, those who did had to go along b/c of GE terror and
totalitarianism
Japan’s Empire in Asia
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JP troops entered China late 1938
JP was economically unstable, depended on US oil and scrap metal
o Remained strongly anti-Western,
Pressured Dutch to surrender oil fields, no results, created tensions w/ US
July 1941-invaded Indochina, US severs oil exportation, lessening JP oil by 90%
December 7, 1941- JP launches attack on Pearl Harbor b/c could not survive w/o US
oil for more than 18 months, destroyed the entire harbor but key cruisers and carriers
were away from port, remained unharmed
Hitler declared war on US, JP attacks US and EU colonies,
The Grand Alliance
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Europe first was an agreement made to finish the EU front before turning to the
Pacific
Grand Alliance had most resources (US out produced most of the world by 1943)
BR strong economy able to spread the burden and heavy taxes of war, remained
impregnable by GE
Soviet Union was massive and had millions of soldiers, w/ strong sense of
nationalism
The War in Europe (1942-1945)
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July 1942-GE occupation of Stalingrad
November 1942-SU counterattack, surrounding GE army of 300,000 destroying more
than half
Allies fought heavily in North Africa starting in 1940
May 1942- IT, GE defeated in Africa during the Battle of El-Alamein
September 1943-IT surrender after allies move north through Sicily
GE tripled war effort ,
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Hitler had several attempts on his life (July 20, 1944)
June 6, 1944-D-Day
March 1945-Allies enter GE
SU pushed west since July 1943, reached Warsaw in August 1944,
May 7 1945-SU in Berlin, GE surrenders, Hitler commits suicide,
The War in the Pacific (1942-1945)
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Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942) stopped JP advance on Australia,
Battle of Midway (June 1942) was a subsequent cause of the Battle of the Coral Sea,
resulted in destruction of 4 JP carriers, equalizing JP naval influence in the Pacific
Guadalcanal (August 1942) US enters heavy fighting in Solomon islands, JP troops
taken by US after word of military atrocities in China, racial stereotypes arose
October 1944-Allies nearly take total control of pacific w/ the Battle of Leyte, 282 ships
involved
Iwo Jima and Okinawa (February and June 1945) experienced massive losses
(10-20 million)
August 6 and 9, 1945-atomic bombs dropped
August 14, 1945-JP surrenders
Chapter 30: Cold War Conflicts and Social Transformations
(1945-1985)
The Division of Europe
The Origins of the Cold War
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Hostility btw Western and Eastern superpowers arises after fall of Nazi GE
During WWII, AM, BR didn’t want to discuss peace w/ RU b/c of fear that Stalin would
make a separate peace w/ Hitler b/c AM and BR policies didn’t appeal to him
November 1943-The Big Three (US, BR, RU) meet in Tehran, Roosevelt supported
Stalin’s frontal; assault plan,
February 1945- Big Three meet in Yalta, AM-BR position was weak while RU, having
taken most of eastern EU up to Berlin was significantly stronger
o Agreed that GE would be divided into zones of occupation, and pay reparations to
SU, Stalin agreed to attack JP after Hitler, and eastern EU gov’t would be freely
elected but pro-Russian
o Broke down almost immediately, RU placed communist control over eastern EU
July 1945-Postdam Conference
o Harry Truman demanded free elections in SU, Stalin refused
West Versus East
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May 1945-Truman cuts off all aid to USSR, stated that US will not recognize any gov’t
in power by force
March 1946-Churchill informs AM of an iron curtain across EU
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o Denunciations against SU and Stalin arose across US, but still demobilized troops
from EU
By 1947, many Americans believed Stalin was trying to export communism to US
A struggle btw “capitalist imperialism” and communism arose
The Truman Doctrine aimed at containing communism to Red Army occupied areas
Marshall Plan was a plan of economic aid to EU to help rebuild, which Stalin refused to
do
NATO formed in 1949, an anti-Soviet alliance of Western gov’ts, dividing Europe and
effectively starting the cold war
The Western Renaissance (1945-1968)
The Postwar Challenge
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Poland and eastern GE was to become part of SU
SU was taking factories and rail roads and other industrial structures and moving them
back
By 1947, GE was on verge of collapse, GE sold personal wares to US soldiers for food
Christian Democrat party rose in IT , FR, and Federal Republic of GE
Economic aid and military protection from US helped rebuild GE and EU
Korean war (1950) helped stimulate economic activity, and progress began
The Common Market or the EU economic community emerged as a result of 6 EU
nations in 1957
Decolonization in East Asia
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Decolonization was the reversal of imperialism, caused by a growing sense of
nationalism amongst Asians and Africans’
Gandhi in India rallied against BR rule, creating Indian Nationalism,
Chinese nationalism triumphed against Marxist-Leninist ideology
Decolonization in the Middle East and Africa’
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Violence in Palestine btw Jewish and Arab populations arose
After BR left Palestine, UN decided to divide it into 2 separate states , Jews accepted,
Arabs didn’t, attacked and defeat in 1948
In Egypt, Gamal Abdel Nasser drove out western king, and nationalized Suez Canal
company
o BR, FR, Israel invaded Egypt, and Nasser and nationalists triumphed
o Encouraged nationalists movements across north Africa and across Middle
East
Neocolonialism was a system designed to perpetuate Western economic domination
and undermine the promise of political independence, thereby extending to Africa and
Asia the economic subordination that the US had established in Latin America
America’s Civil Rights Revolution
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Arose as a result of segregation and repression of blacks in US
Front runner was Martin Luther King Jr.
Lyndon Johnson declared war on poverty and congress installed antipoverty programs
Soviet Eastern Europe
Stalin’s Last Years (1945-1953)
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Russian people united under nationalism after WWII
Stalin revived labor camps and many citizens were purged
Any inkling of western ideology or support was destroyed (artists killed, Jews killed,
teachers, writers, citizens…etc.)
5 year plans were reintroduced, heavy industry and military were given top priority
Stalinist systems were exported to EU
Josip Broz Tito successfully resisted Stalinism in Yugoslavia, and began to break away
from SU in 1980
Reform and De-Stalinization (1953-1964)
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Stalin dies in 1953
Stalinist parties split apart, communist reformers led by Nikita Khrushchev rise to
power
o Khrushchev launched an all out attack on Stalin and his crimes at a closed session
of the 20th Party Congress in 1956
De-Stalinization or liberalization began
Communist party stayed in power, but under reformed rule
Independence for AU was accepted in 1955
The End of Reform
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Leonid Brezhnev took power in 1964, began a period of re-Stalinization
Relations in communist china deteriorated
Allies ordered to exit West Berlin, but instead they reaffirmed their position
John F. Kennedy acquiesced to the construction of the Berlin Wall
Brezhnev Doctrine exemplified the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968,
according to which the SU had the right to intervene iin any socialist country whenever it
saw the need
The Soviet Union to 1985
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Re-Salinization was an attempt to maintain firm Soviet control of eastern EU
Standard of living rose for ppl
Strength of gov’t was expressed in the art and culture
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