Dr. Schiller: AP History of Art
Neoclassical Art
The Enlightenment and its Legacy
[some of the slides and/or were taken from
PowerPoints created by Matt Curliss and
William V. Ganis, PhD and/or from Art
History by Marilyn Stokstad ]
NEOCLASSICAL ART
1750-1815
N E O C L A S S I C A L PAINTERS
ENGLISH
Joseph Wright of Derby
William Hogarth
Thomas Gainsborough
Sir Joshua Reynolds
FRENCH
Jean Siméon Chardin
Élisabeth Louise Vigée-Lebrun
Jacques Louis David
Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres
AMERICAN
John Singleton Copley
Factors that sparked the
Neoclassical movement:
Excavations of Pompeii and
Herculaneum in 1738 & Lord Elgin
Marbles of 1801
The Age of Enlightenment and its
emphasis on Reason
Rococo was too frilly and shallow
Differences between Baroque/Rococo and Neoclassical Art
NEOCLASSICAL
Difference #1
Emphasized drawing of line (which appealed
to the intellect), rather than color (which
appeals to the senses)
NEOCLASSICAL
Difference #2
Brushwork was smooth and compositions
were simple to avoid Rococo melodrama
NEOCLASSICAL
Difference #3
Neoclassical figures more solid looking than
French Classical Baroque
SEE THE DIFFERENCE?
Baroque:
Poussin, The Rape of the Sabine
Women, 1640s.
Neoclassical:
David, The Death of Socrates,
1787.
Neoclassical Painting:
Gardner plate 28-3
ENGLISH
Joseph Wright of Derby, A Philosopher Giving
a Lecture at the Orrery , 1763-1765
●Wright specialized in the drama of candlelit and moonlight scene
●Advances in science and technology in the 1700s, which started with the Scientific
Revolution in the 1600s, fascinated people
●Here, a scholar uses an orrery (a special mechanical model of the solar system
showing planetary movement) to demonstrate theory that universe operates like a giant
clockwork mechanism
●the light comes from a candle
representing the sun
●everyone in painting is caught up
in the wonders of scientific
knowledge; an ordinary lecture
take son the qualities of a grand
“history painting”
●Wright renders everything with
careful accuracy of every detail
●His realism appealed to the
accuracy industrialists of the day, such
such as Josiah Wedgwood
Jean
Siméon
Chardin
(French,
1699–
1779)
Soap
Bubbles,
ca. 1734,
oil on
canvas, 24
x 25 in
FRENCH
The idle play of children was a favorite theme of Chardin's, part of the taste for the “natural”
narratives especially if they taught oral lessons, dismissing the frivolities and indecencies of th
Rococo
In this painting of about 1734, he drew inspiration from the seventeenth-century Dutch genre
tradition, for both format and subject.
While it is not certain that he intended the picture to carry a message other than the simple
goodness of ordinary people, soap
bubbles usually allude to the
transience of life.
Chardin painted two other versions
of this picture, including one in
LACMA
William Hogarth
(1697 –1764)
English
a major English painter, printmaker,
pictorial satirist, social critic and
editorial cartoonist
he has been credited with pioneering
western sequential art.
His work ranged from excellent
realistic portraiture to comic striplike series of pictures called “modern
moral subjects”.
Much of his work, though at times
vicious, poked fun at contemporary
politics and customs.
Self-Portrait with Pug-Dog. 1745.
Illustrations in such style are often
referred to as Hogarthian.
William Hogarth, Breakfast Scene from “Marriage a la Mode”, 1745,
oil on canvas, ~2/4” x 3’
Gardner plate 28-9
*the tail end of the arranged marriage of a young noble, after a long night spent in
different pursuits
*wife stayed home--evening of cards and music making/sleepy and flirtatious
the husband away carousing
*in his empty pocket, his wife’s dog sniffs a lacy woman’s cap
*a steward holds unpaid bills and rolls his eyes
*rich home but filled with witty
clues about bad taste of its
owners--e.g., religious paintings
on wall in far room, but
curtained painting probably
erotic!
*This picture is one of 6 that
satirize the immorality the
moneyed English classes
practiced within marriage.
William Hogarth, The Marriage Contract from Marriage a la Mode, 1743
Stokstad plate 26-32.
William Hogarth, The Suicide Countess from Marriage a la Mode, 1745.
William Hogarth, A Rake’s Progress (etching), 1735.
*etching: a kind of
engraving in which the
design is incised in a
layer of wax or varnish
on a meal plate. The
parts of the plate left
expose are then etched
(slightly eaten away) by
the acid in which the
plate is immersed after
incising
Hogarth, A Harlot's Progress, plate 4 of 6
Like many of contemporaries, VigeeLebrun lived a life of extraordinary
personal and economic
independence, working for the nobility
throughout Europe.
She was successful during the age of
the late monarchy in France
She was one of the few women
admitted to the Academy. But after
the French Revolution her
membership was rescinded, because
they no longer allowed women
Élisabeth Louise Vigée-Lebrun
Self Portrait
Uffizi, Florence, 1790
oil on canvas, 8’4” x 6’9”
Gardner plate 28-8
French
Although her mood is lighthearted
and the costume’s details echo the
serpentine curve beloved by Rococo
artists and wealthy patrons, nothing
about Vigee-Lebrun pose or her
mood speaks of Rococo frivolity.
Hers is the self-confident stance of a
woman whose art has won her an
independent role in her society.
She was famous for the force and
grace of her portraits, especially
those of highborn ladies and royalty
Here, she painted herself in a closeup, intimate view at work on one of
the portraits hat won her fame, that
of Queen Marie Antoinette
Vigee-Lebrun
Portrait of Marie Antoinette and
Her Children,
1787.
oil on canvas, ~9’ x ~7 1/2’
Stokstad plate 26-46
FRENCH NEOCLASSICAL
Élisabeth Louise Vigée-Lebrun
Self Portrait with Daughter
1789
Other Female Neoclassical Painters
Adélaïde Labille-Guiard
Self-Portrait with
Two Pupils,
1785,
oil on canvas, 6’9” x 6’
Stokstad plate 26-47
French
Other Female Neoclassical Painters
Angelic Kauffmann
SWISS
The subject of this piece
is an informative
exemplum virtutis
(example or model of
virtue) drawn from Greek
and Roman history and
literature. The moralizing
pictures of Hogarth and
Grueze already had
marked change in taste,
but Kauffmann replaced
the modern setting and
characters of their works.
The actors are clothed in
Roman garb and posed in
classical Roman attitudes
within Roman interiors.
Angelica Kauffmann, Mother of the Gracchi, 1785
oikl on canvas, 40 x 50”
Stokstad plate 26-36.
The theme is the virtue of
Cornelia, mother of the
future political leaders
Tiberius and Gaius
Gracchus, who attempted
to reform the Roman
republic in the second
century B.C. Cornelia’s
character is revealed in
this scene, which takes
place after a lady visitor
had shown off her fine
jewelry and then haughtily
requested that Cornelia
show hers. Instead of
rushing to get them,
Cornelia brings her sons
forward, presenting them
as her jewels.
Angelica Kauffmann, Mother of the Gracchi, 1785.
Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788)
Thomas Gainsborough was an English painter who is considered one of the
great masters of portraiture and landscape.
Thomas Gainsborough, The Blue Boy, c
1770,
oil on canvas, ~71” x 49”
ENGLISH
Perhaps Gainsborough's most famous
work, it might be a portrait of Jonathan
Buttall, the son of a wealthy hardware
merchant, although this was never
proved.
The portrait now resides in the
Huntingdon Library
It was often rumored that
Gainsborough painted the portrait in
response to rival Joshua Reynolds
It is a historical costume study as well
as a portrait: the youth in his 17thcentury apparel is regarded as
Gainsborough's homage to Anthony
Van Dyck, and in particular is very
close to Van Dyck's portrait of Charles
II as a boy
Thomas Gainsborough,
Mrs. Richard Brinsley, 1787
oil on canvas, ~7‘ x5 1/2 ‘
Stokstad plate 26-34
Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792)
Sir Joshua Reynolds, an English painter in the Grand Manner, who
was the foremost portraitist of his day.
Sir Joshua
Reynolds
Sir Joshua Reynolds was the
most important and influential of
18th century English painters,
specializing in portraits and
promoting the "Grand Style" in
painting which depended on
idealization of the imperfect.
ENGLISH
Sir Joshua Reynolds
Miss Elizabeth Ingram. 1757.
Sir Joshua Reynolds, Portrait
of Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic
Muse, exhibited 1784
Sir Joshua Reynolds
The Painter’s Daughters
Chasing a Butterfly
c1756
ENGLISH NEOCLASSICAL
Joshua Reynolds George
Augustus Eliott, Lord Heathfield,
1787,
oil on canvas, 4’8” x 3’9”
Gardner plate 28-11
English
Just weeks before he sat for this
portrait, General Eliott had been
made Lord Heathfield, a reward for
his remarkable achievements as
governor of Gibraltar. Eliott became
a national hero after successfully
defending the peninsula against a
three-year siege by the Spanish
and French. The key signifies both
his and his nation's loyalty to its
colony.
Significantly, the portrait was
commissioned by a print publisher
who wanted to exploit Lord
Heathfield's celebrity through the
sale of prints after this painting.
Sir Joshua Reynolds
Joshua Reynolds,
George Augustus Eliott, Lord Heathfield,
1787,
Thomas Gainsborough
Thomas Gainsborough,
Mrs. Richard Brinsley, 1787.
John Singleton Copley,
Portrait of Paul Revere, 1770,
oil on canvas, ~3’ x 2’4”
Gardner plate 28-13
American
More “Natural”
Neoclassical Style
This work shows a sense of directness and
faithfulness to visual fact that marked the
taste for “downrightness” and plainness many
visitors to America noticed during the 18th
and 19th centuries.
The painting doesn’t show him yet as the
familiar hero of the American Revolution, but
working his everyday profession as a
silversmith.
Revere is seated in a plain, revealingly lit
setting, bent over the teapot in progress yet
taking a quick pause to turn his head and look
the viewer in the eye.
The informality and sense of moment link the
painting to contemporaneous English and
European portraits, but the spare style and
emphasis on the sitter’s down-to-earth style
differentiate the American work from British
and continental counterparts.
John Singleton Copley
Samuel Adams, 1772.
oil on canvas, 50 x 40 “
Stokstad plate 26-1
Other American Neoclassical
WEST,
AMERICAN
The
combination of
traditional
heroic painting
with modern
realism won
viewer’s hearts
during that time
and influenced
many other
historical
paintings into
the nineteenth
century.
\
Benjamin West, The Death of General Wolfe, 1771,
Painters:oil on canvas, ~5 x 7’ Stokstad plate 26-37
Other American Neoclassical Painters
Gilbert Stuart
Portrait of George Washington,
1797.
AMERICAN
Other American Neoclassical Painters
AMERICAN
Charles Wilson Peale
George Washington
ca. 1779-81
oil on canvas
95 x 61 3/4 in.
David was pro-French Revolution
and even signed some death orders
during the Reign of Terror
Later, he admired and painted
Napoleon
Jacques-Louis David
Self-Portrait
1794.
French
Stokstad plate 26-48
JacquesLouis
David, The
Oath of the
Horatii,
1787, oil on
canvas,
~11’ x 14’
This painting occupies an extremely important place in the body of David's work and in the history
of French painting.
It was commissioned by the Administrator of Royal Residences in 1784 and exhibited at the 1785
Salon under the title The Oath of the Horatii, between their Father's Hands.
The story was taken from Titus-Livy. We are in the period of the wars between Rome and Alba, in
669 BCE. It has been decided that the dispute between the two cities must be settled by an unusual
form of combat to be fought by two groups of three champions each.
David succeeded in ennobling these
passions and transforming these
virtues into something sublime. He
chose the idea of the oath (it is not
mentioned in the historical accounts),
transforming the event into a solemn
act that bound the wills of different
individuals in a single, creative
gesture.
The viewer's eye spontaneously
grasps two superimposed orders--that
of the figures and that of the decor.
Through David's rigorous and efficient arrangement, the superior harmony of the colors, and the
spiritual density of the figures, this sacrifice, transfigured by the oath, becomes the founding act of a
new aesthetic and moral order.
He consciously intended it to be a proclamation of the new neoclassical style in which dramatic
lighting, ideal forms, and gestural clarity are emphasized.
Presenting a lofty moralistic (and by implication patriotic) theme, the work became the principal
model for noble and heroic historical painting of the next two decades. It also launched David's
personal popularity and awarded him the right to take on his own students.
Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Socrates, 1787.
This is Marat, one of the head group
that sent thousands to the guillotine
during the Reign of Terror
He was in the bath to relieve the pain
and itching of a disgusting skin disease
He was stabbed to death by a French
woman
Clearly, David, an admirer and
revolutionary colleague, “cleaned him
up” to make this heroic-looking painting.
Jacques-Louis David, Death of
Marat, 1793, oil on canvas, 5’3”
x 4’1”
Stokstad plate 26-49
Jacques-Louis David
Coronation of Napoleon & Josephine of 2 Dec 1804, 1806-7.
NEOCLASSICAL
Jacques-Louis David
Napoleon Crossing
St. Bernard
1800-01.
Napoleon used paintings as
propaganda of his success and
heroism
David painted many of these paintings
Jacques-Louis David
Napoleon in His Study
1812.
J. A. D. Ingres (1780-1867)
•Ingres was greatly influenced by the work of the Italian Renaissance painter
Raphael, and his style has been described as doubly inspired by Raphael
and David.
•While in Italy, Ingres made many pencil portraits that are distinguished for purity and
economy of style.
•On his return to Paris, he became the recognized leader of the neoclassical school
that opposed the new romantic movement led by Eugene Delacroix and Theodore
Gericault.
•His position both as a painter and as the official academic spokesman against the
romanticists was established, and he was given the rank of commander of the Legion
of Honor in 1845. In the Universal Exhibition of Paris in 1855 both he and Delacroix,
his chief rival in art, were awarded gold medals. Ingres died in Paris on January 14,
1867.
•Ingres's strengths—superb draftsmanship, keen sensitivity for personality, and precise
neoclassical linear style—were perfectly suited to portraiture.
•Ingres's influence on art to the present day has been immense; among important later
painters who acknowledged deriving inspiration from his style are Edgar Degas, Pierre
Auguste Renoir, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso.
Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres
La Grande Odalisque, 1814, oil on canvas, ~3’ x 5’4”
Stokstad plate 27-4/French
NOTE that in this painting and the one on the next slide, he had tampered with anatomy
to achieve the effect he wanted—in the next painting, the woman’s arm is way too long,
and here the Odalisque would have needed extra vertebrae to get such a long back!
Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres, Prince
de Broglie, 1851–53,
Oil on canvas; 47 3/4 x 35 3/4 in.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres,
Apotheosis of Homer, 1827.
presents in a single statement the doctrine of ideal form and Neoclassical taste
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres,
Apotheosis of Homer, 1827.
Michelangelo
Nike
Plato
Raphael
Aristotle
Socrates
Homer
Alex. The Great
Aesop
Aristotle
Mozart
“Iliad”
Poussin
Shakespeare
“Odyssey”
Neoclassical Architecture
Abraham Darby III and Thomas Pritchard, iron bridge at Coakbrookdale, England, 1776
1779, 100’ span
Stokstad page 935/English
The Iron Bridge crosses the River Severn at Coalbrookdale in England.
It was the first arch bridge in the world to be made out of cast iron, a material which was
previously far too expensive to use for large structures.
However, a new blast furnace nearby lowered the cost and so encouraged local engineers
and architects to solve a long-standing problem of a crossing over the river.
Pierre Vignon, La Madeleine
Paris, France, 1807-1842
Gardner plate 28-20
French
La Madeleine is known as
the “Temple of Glory”.
It was briefly intended as
a temple of glory for
Napoleon’s armies and a
monument to the newly
won glories of France.
Begun as a church in
1807, at the height of
Napoleon’s power and
reverted back to a church
after his defeat and long
before its completion.
It was designed by Pierre Vignon in 1763-1828. Vignon clothed this Christian church in the
costume of pagan Rome. La Medeleine is a symbolic link between the Napoleonic and
Roman empires.
The temple includes a high podium and a broad flight of stairs leading to a deep porch in
the front. These architectural features, along with Corinthian columns mimic Roman
imperial temples.
The building has a classical shell; however, the interior is covered by a sequence of 3
domes, a feature found in Byzantine and Aquitanian Romanesque churches.
Roman
Maison Carree, Nimes. France,
20 BCE
Gardner plate 10-30
French Neoclassical
Pierre Vignon, La Madeleine
Paris, France, 1807-1842
➜
The building has a classical shell; however, the interior is covered by a sequence of 3
domes, a feature found in Byzantine and Aquitanian Romanesque churches.
In English architecture, the preference for a simple and commonsensical style led
straight from the authority of the classical Roman architect, Vitruvius, to
Palladio’s work and on to Chiswick house. This style was called “Neo-Palladian”
Andrea Palladio
Villa Rotonda, c1566.
HIGH ITALIAN
RENAISSANCE/MANNERISM
Richard Boyle (Lord Burlington)and
Kent, Chiswick House, c1729.
ENGLISH NEOCLASSICAL
Gardner plate 28-22
English
Boyle and Kent,
The Chiswick House,
c.1729
Stokstad plate 26-22
The Chiswick House is one of the most glorious examples of 18th
century British Neo-Palladian architecture. Lord Burlington, who
designed this elegant Classical villa as an extension to his existing
house, drew inspiration from his 'grand tours' of Italy. It was
finished in 1729.
It has no bedrooms or kitchen,
and was probably intended as a
purely social space in which to
display collections acquired on
the grand tour.
Villa Rotunda
Chiswick House
Lord Burlington drew
inspiration from the Villa
Rotonda:
•a portico with six columns
fronts a square building
surmounted by a dome.
•Both buildings cover 68
feet square, although
Chiswick House is slightly
smaller because of the
difference in Italian and
British units.
•Burlington followed
Palladio’s desire for
harmony, proportion and
symmetry
Villa Rotunda
Chiswick House
But Burlington deviated in
plan from the Villa Rotonda:
•His rooms are more varied in
terms of shapes, perhaps
reflecting an interest in
Palladio’s reconstruction of
Roman baths.
•At the rear of the principal
floor a central rectangular
room with niched apses at
either end leads to a circular
room on one side and an
octagonal room on the other.
•Chiswick House differs
further from the Villa Rotonda
in terms of its dome, as well
as the positioning of the
portico and windows.
John Wood the Younger, The Royal Crescent
Bath, England, 1769-1775
Gardner plate 28-23
English
The Royal Crescent is a street of 30 terraced houses laid out in a sweeping crescent in the
city of Bath, England.
It is among the greatest examples of Georgian architecture to be found in the United
Kingdom. Although some changes have been made to the various interiors over the years,
the Georgian stone façade remains much as it was when it was first built.
John Wood designed the great curved façade with Ionic columns on a rusticated ground
floor.
The 114 columns are 30 inches in diameter reaching 47 feet, each with an entablature 5 feet
deep. The central house (now the Royal Crescent Hotel) boasts two sets of coupled
columns.
Each original purchaser bought a length of the façade, and then employed their own archite
to build a house behind the façade to their own specifications; hence what can appear to be
two houses is occasionally just one.
This system of town planning is betrayed at the rear and can be seen from the road behind
the Crescent: while the front is uniform and symmetrical, the rear is a mixture of differing ro
heights, juxtapositions and
fenestration. This
architecture, described as
"Queen Anne fronts and
Mary-Anne backs", occurs
repeatedly in Bath.
In front of the Royal Crescent is a Ha-ha, a ditch
on which the inner side is vertical and faced with
stone, with the outer face sloped and turfed,
making an effective but invisible partition between
the lower and upper lawns.
The ha-ha is designed so as not to interrupt the
view from Royal Victoria Park, and to be invisible
until seen from close by. It is not known whether it
was contemporary with the building of the Royal
Crescent, however it is known that when it was
first created it was deeper than it is now.
Thomas Jefferson, Monticello
Charlottesville, VA, 1770-1806
Stokstad plate 26-54
AMERICAN
Thomas Jefferson, the owner and designer of Monticello was attracted to classical architecture.
Jefferson admired Palladio immensely and read the Italians’ Four Books of Architecture.
Later, while the minister to France, Jefferson studied the century classical architecture and city
planning and visited the Maison Caree.
Due to this new knowledge Jefferson completely remodeled Monticello, which he had first designed in
an English Georgian style.
In his remodeling,
he emulated
Palladio’s manner
The final version of
Monticello is
somewhat
reminiscent of the
Villa Rotonda and
of Chiswick House,
but its materials are
local wood and
brick used in
Virginia.
Andrea Palladio, Sketch
Elevation of plan of the
Pantheon
Thomas Jefferson, Elevation of plan
for Univ. of Virginia’s Rotonda
Thomas Jefferson, Rotunda at the University of Virginia
White House, begun in Washington D.C. in 1792
Neoclassical Sculpture
Jean-Antoine Houdon
Neoclassical Sculptor
Houdon was a French
neoclassical sculptor. Houdon is
famous for his portrait busts and
statues of philosophers,
inventors and political figures of
the Enlightenment.
Houdon’s biggest influence was
of the Roman bust, often used to
revere political figures and
statesmen in Ancient Rome.
Houdon’s daughter, Sabine Houdon.
Houdon, Voltaire, 1778, marble, life-size,
Gardner plate 28-1
[actually, the one in Gardner was done 3 years later]
French
Jean-Antoine Houdon
Neoclassical Sculptor
Houdon, Ben Franklin, 1789.
Houdon, Thomas Jefferson, 1789.
Jean-Antoine Houdon
George Washington
1788-92
marble
6 ft. 2 in. high
Stokstad plate 26-51
Antonio Canova, Pauline Borghese as Venus, 1808,lifesize
Gardner plate 28-21
Italian
•Napoleon’s favorite sculptor was Antonio Canova, who somewhat reluctantly left a
successful art career in Italy to settle in Paris and serve the emperor.
•Napoleon liked classical models, in paintings as well as sculpture.
•This is a sculpture of Napoleon’s sister. She insisted on being portrayed as the goddess
of love, or Venus.
•She appears reclining on a divan and gracefully holding the golden apple, a symbol of the
goddess’s triumph in the judgment of Paris.
•Canova derived the figure
from greek art, however the
artwork is not a sensuous
and idealized as might be
expected.
•Drapery suggests a
•commitment to naturalism.
Antonio Canova, Cupid and Psyche, 1786-93.
marble, 6’1” x 6’8”
NEOCLASSICAL
Stokstad plate
26-21
Antonio Canova
Perseus with Head of
Medusa
1804.
Antonio Canova
Venus and Mars
1816-1822.
Horatio Greenough,
George Washington, 1832-1841,
marble,~11’4” high
Gardner plate 28-28
American
Wedgwood and Co.
Vase with Bridal Preparation Scene
black basalt stoneware
1769-1775
18 in. high
•a frieze depicts the toilet of a
bride
•She looks around at Eros, who
flies toward her but is restrained
at the knee by a seated woman.
•copy of an ancient Greek vase
Wedgwood and Co.
Papal Jasper Vase and cover
unglazed jasper ceramic
2003
12 1/2 inches high
•The vase is decorated with borders of
acanthus and vine leaves and with laurel
leaves. The golden lettering 'To
Commemorate The Silver Jubilee of Pope
John Paul II, 16 October 2003' is printed on
the foot of the vase.
•The vase is decorated with white on blue
jasper reliefs. “Jasper” is a kind of hard fine
porcelain invented by Josiah Wedgwood and
used for Wedgwood cameos and other delica
work.
• The front of the vase features John Paul's
coat of arms. Every pope has his own coat o
arms and this one shows a cross and the larg
capital 'M'. The letter 'M' beneath the cross
represents the Virgin Mary under the cross, t
whom he held strong devotion. He even
attributed the fact that he survived the
•The coat of arms is surrounded by the
papal tiara and two keys. The keys - in
the coloured version they are silver and
golden - are representing the power to
bind and loose on earth (silver) and in
heaven (golden). They are referring to
the Apostolic Succession
•The rear of the vase shows the Virgin
as a mother cradling the Christ child.
Both are depicted with halos around
their heads.
Wedgwood and Co.
Papal Jasper Vase and cover
unglazed jasper ceramic
2003
12 1/2 inches high
KEY TERMS
1.divan: a long low sofa without a back or arms, typically placed against a wall.
2.Enlightenment: a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries
emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition. It was heavily influenced by 17thcentury philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Newton, and its prominent exponents include
Kant, Goethe, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith.
3.exemplum virtutis: example or model of virtue.
4.“Grand Manner” or “Grand Style”: an idealized aesthetic style derived from classical art,
and the modern "classic art" of the High Renaissance. In the eighteenth century, British artists
and connoisseurs used the term to describe paintings that incorporated visual metaphors in order
to suggest noble qualities. It was Sir Joshua Reynolds who gave currency to the term through his
Discourses on Art, a series of lectures presented at the Royal Academy from 1769 to 1790, in
which he contended that painters should perceive their subjects through generalization and
idealization, rather than by the careful copy of nature. Originally applied to history painting,
regarded as the highest in the hierarchy of genres, the Grand Manner came thereafter also to be
applied to portrait painting, with sitters depicted life size and full-length, in surroundings that
conveyed the nobility and elite status of the subjects. Common metaphors included the
introduction of classical architecture, signifying cultivation and sophistication, and pastoral
backgrounds, which implied unpretentious sincerity (and large estates).
5.Hogarthian: in the style of Hogarth
6.incubus: a male demon believed to have sexual intercourse with sleeping women.
KEY TERMS
7. Marat: French politician and a leader of the radical Montagnard faction in the French
Revolution. Corday’s motive was to save her country from civil war. She believed Marat’s
influence in the massive violence would lead to the demise of her country, and it was her duty to
sacrifice her life to save France
8. modernity: of or relating to the present or recent times as opposed to the remote past
9. moralizing picture: picture that makes a moral pronouncement.
10. Neo-Palladian: Neo-Palladianism is the term used to describe the style of architecture
developed in Britain in the early eighteenth century, led by Lord Burlington and his circle of
architects. On the whole, it drew on Palladio's villas and palaces, rather than his church
architecture. It also consciously sought to revive the work. It gave rise to the quintessential
eighteenth-century British country house, plus the ordered streetscapes that form the heart of
numerous British cities, punctuated by grandiose civic buildings.
11. odalisque: a female slave or concubine in a harem, esp. one in the seraglio of the sultan of
Turkey.
12. orrery: a mechanical model of the solar system, or of just the sun, earth, and moon, used to
represent their relative positions and motions.
13. sublime: of such excellence, grandeur, or beauty as to inspire great admiration or awe
14. “undraped” construction: not covering up the construction element of a building, i.e. not
“draping” it in a style. For example, a greenhouse or the Crystal Palace.