Mussolini Final Revision Note (Rise)
Intro
Chronology
1870: Incorporation of Rome into Kingdom of Italy.
1896: Major defeat of Italian troops by Abyssinian forces
at Adowa.
1912: Giolitti introduces near universal manhood
suffrage.
1912: Mussolini becomes editor of Avanti
1914 Jul: Outbreak of WW1, Italy originally neutral
1915 May: Italy entered WW1 on Allies side.
1917: Italian suffered major defeat by Austrians at
Caporetto
1919 Mar: At a meeting in Milan Mussolini creates the
first Fascio di Combattimento (Fascist ‘combat groups’).
1919 Sep: Seizure of Fiume by D’Annunzio
1921: Fascist Party won 35 parliamentary seats out of 355
(10%).
1921 Aug: Socialist appeal for general strike put down in
a day by Fascists.
1922 22/10: Fascist March on Rome
1922 29/10: Mussolini in Milan received a request from
King to form on government
1923 Acerbo Law: Changed electoral system so that the
party with a 25% poll would automatically have
2/3 majority in parliament
1924 Apr: Elections, Fascist got 4.5 million votes (64%)
and control over 404 seats
Jun 24: Matteoti stabbed to death by Fascists, body
found 2 months later.
1924: Aventine Secession, socialist deputies withdrew
from parliament as protest
1925: Fundamental law: Mussolini responsible to King,
not legislature.
1926: Mussolini was empowered to govern by decree
Early Career
Originally Mussolini was radically left, not right. He was
a member of PSI (Italian Socialist Party) and became
editor of newspaper Avanti in 1912. In accordance with
revolutionary left hatred of an ‘imperialist war’,
Mussolini protested against Italy’s involvement in WW1
ATQ
Previous Regime
P Era btw Cavour and Mussolini lacked political stability.
Rapid succession of ministries: 22 btw 1860 and 1900
(1.8yrs each), 9 btw ‘00 and ’14 (1.6) and 7 btw ’14 and
’22 (1.1)
Transformismo process: parties were not clearly defined
and government depended on a consensus reached btw diff
political groups. Only maintained by distribution of favours
and offices, a corrupt system which kept political power in
hands of a few
More liberal policies followed until ’14, Giolitti (PM ‘3-5,
6-9, 11-14) tried to reform who process by cooperating
with Church and Socialists and introducing near universal
manhood suffrage in 12.
After war, the two largest parties were the Socialist Party
(PSI) and Italian Popular Party (PPI), a large Catholic
grouping but the division in their demands made ruling by
consensus impossible.
E Massive divide between the north and south. Southern
provinces were backward and poverty stricken. Rate of
illiteracy reduced to 11% in the north but remained as high
as 90% in some parts of the south. Huge budget deficits
and unbalanced trade weakened the economy. Inflation
increased the cost of living in 1919 by 4 times the cost in
’14
S Unemployment increased drastically after WW1; by end
of 1919 it was 2 million. Divide between the desires of
urban and rural working classes and the industrialists and
landowners. Former wanted to prevent any further decline
in standard of living, while the latter were afraid that
demands for increased wages and employment protection
would raise costs and threaten productivity and profits.
C Italy is seen by the rest of Europe as the weakest link. It
was the only European country to not make any gains in
the Scramble for Africa. Suffered major defeat by
Abyssinian troops at Adowa.
I King had enormous power as he was ‘the supreme Head
of State’.
Impact of WW1
Pushed Italy from instability to crisis. Traditional
governing groups were split in attitudes. Giolitti remained
opposed throughout while the wartime prime ministers
Salandra, Boselli and Orlando could neither cooperate with
him nor work without him. Result was parliament’s
in 1914. By 1915 though, he was openly advocating for
Italy to join in the fighting. He was expelled from PSI and
newspaper, so he set up his own paper, Il Popolo d’Italia,
allying with the far right, but still retaining some key
ideas from left. It was this combination of far left and far
right that produced Fascist ideology. His service to war
effort ended in 1917 due to injuries.
Use of propaganda
Mar ’19, Mussolini led meeting in Milan that resulted in
formation of Fascio di Combattimento (Fascists). Fasci
spread to 70 other cities and towns to establish
themselves as a political movement. But, they failed to
win any parliamentary seats in 1919. Mussolini set up
political party, Partito Nazionale Fascista (PNF) and
appealed to large sections of the pop by naming socialism
as the main enemy and warning of the threat of red
revolution. In ’21 elections, they were more successful,
the Fascist Party won 35 seats out of 355. Broadening
their appeal to pop by abandoning the idea of revolution
did not mean black-shirts F were any less violent, they
organized numerous attacks on the left. Aug ’21
Socialists appealed for general strike in protest against
Fascist violence, but as F put it down in a day, it allowed
Mussolini to portray themselves as main protection
against industrial disruption.
inability to do anything. Worsened by Italy’s military
defeat by Austrians at Caporetto in 1917. Total cost of war
was 148,000 million lire, over twice the total expenditure
of all Italian governments from 1861 to 1913.
Government’s inability to govern due to the divisions
between main parties resulted in its increasing reliance on
the Fascist party to keep control
March on Rome
In ’22 very little government stability with both King and
PM (Facta) contemplating disaster. 22/10 50, 000
blackshirts converged on capital while others occupied
important towns in the north.
Facta was mostly in a provisional role, hoping for Giolitti
to resume the PM post, so his main concern was to prevent
Mussolini from stopping this transference of power. Hence
he wanted King to enforce martial law, so force could be
used against the threat.
The King however, was worried that if the army and
Fascists confronted each other, the army might desert or
civil war could ignite – a possibility he wanted to avoid at
all costs. As either possibility would probably result in his
abdication, the King decided to invite Mussolini to join a
coalition government. When Mussolini declined, King then
requested him to form his own government with him as PM
even though he only had 7% of parliament seats 29/10
which he accepted.
Achieved legally by the threat of force, while army and
police stood aside. Regular army would have had little
difficult in resisting disorderly and poorly armed squads,
many whom arrived by train.The March was a massive
bluff which paid off for Mussolini.
Consolidation
In 1922, M was in charge of an emergency gov consisting of two coalitions. He was PM of multi-party cabinet and
Duce (leader) of diff strands of Fascism. By 1929, he had transformed a semi-liberal gov into a one-party dictatorship in
order to keep himself in power. 22, F only had 7% seats in lower chamber and in cabinet there were 4 F and 10 non F,
so he had to be careful because King only gave him emergency powers for 1 yr. However, large no. of candidates from
other parties defected to PNF (F party) – 13 from Poplari and 80 from liberals and conservatives – and this brought M
crucial electoral support. Only thing that prevent his removal from power was a secure F majority in chamber. 23 M
passed Acerbo electoral law to stop gov’s tendency to produce brief and unstable ministries, which stated party with
25% poll would automatically have 2/3 majority in parliament and thus form gov. Italian electorate confirmed M’s
power in Apr 24 elections where F got 64% of votes and 404 seats. This meant M could claim genuine electoral
mandate and thus pursue more radical policies with less opposition.
Conc
ATQ
Quotes
AJP Taylor describing Mussolini “A vain, blundering boaster without either ideas or aims”
Socialist Giacinto Serrati in 1919 “a rabbit; a phenomenal rabbit; he roars. Observers who do
not know him mistake him for a lion”
Mussolini “Peace is absurd: fascism does not believe in it”
AJP Taylor “Fascism was a façade. There was nothing behind it but show and empty rhetoric”
Stephen Lee “His [Mussolini’s] ideological views were built on shifting sands.”
Stephen Lee “Italy had emerged from the war with all the potential for violent confrontation.”
Mussolini stance by June ‘21 “Fascism neither practices nor preaches anti-clericalism.”
Mussolini “Only maniacs never change. New facts can call for new positions.”
Hibbert on Mussolini’s personal attributes “A physical stance not yet devitalized by illness, a
style of oratory, staccato, tautophonic and responsive, not yet ridiculed by caricature and a
personal charm not yet atrophied by adulation”
Stephen Lee “He was able to act his way into power.”
Stephen Lee “They [PM] came to depend on the Fascists – but in a way which was underhand,
unparliamentary and ultimately suicidal”
Mussolini Aug ’21 “For me fascism is not an end in itself. It is the means to re-establish
national equilibrium”