The Empires of Persia
The Persian Empires
 Intro
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The Persian empires arose from arid Iran
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Had been under the shadow of Mesopotamia for centuries
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Also had been absorbing migrations and nomadic invasions from central Asia
During the 6th century bce, rulers of the province of Persia in SW Iran began a series of conquests
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Resulted in the formation of a massive empire
Four more than a millennium, four dynasties maintained imperial rule in most of SW Asia
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The Achaemenids (558-330 bce)
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The Seleucids (323-83 bce)
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The Parthians (247 bce-224 ce)
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The Sasanids (224-651 ce)
 The Achaemenid Empire
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The Medes and the Persians
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Origins of Persian society trace to the late stages of Mesopotamian society
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Before 1000 bce, the Medes and Persians migrated from central Asia to Persia
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Lived loosely subjected to the Babylonian and Assyrian empires
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Spoke Indo-European languages, part of their larger migrations
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Pastoralists w/limited agriculture
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Organized in clans, yet recognized leaders who collected taxes and brought tribute to Mesopotamia
Had considerable military power
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Equestrian skills (same as many Indo-Europeans)
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Expert archers
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Frequently raided their overlords
When the Assyrians and Babylonians weakened in the 6th century bce, the Medes and Persians started their own imperial
venture
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Cyrus’s Conquests
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Cyrus the Achaemenid (ruled 558-530 bce) began the imperial expansion
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Laid the foundation for the Achaemenid empire (his tribe’s name)
In 558 bce, Cyrus became the king of the Persian tribes
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Ruled from the mtn fortress Pasargadae
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553, initiated a rebellion against his Median overlord; defeated within 3 yrs
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548, controlled all of Iran
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546, conquered Lydia in Anatolia
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545-539, conquered parts of central Asia and Bactria
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539, quickly seized Babylonia
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Their vassal states immediately recognized him as their lord
In 20 years, Cyrus went from minor regional king of a tribal people to the ruler of an empire that stretched from India to
Egypt
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Darius
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Cyrus’s empire survived and expanded after him
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His son Cambyses (r.530-522) conquered Egypt in 525 bce
The greatest of the Achaemenid emperors was Darius (r.521-486 bce)
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Pushed into NW India to the Indus river
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Captured Thrace, Macedonia, and the west cost of the Black Sea in SE Europe
By the end of the 6th century, Darius ruled an empire over 3k kilometers large
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Ruled a socially and geographically diverse area
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With 35 million ppl, Darius’s realm was the largest empire the world had ever seen
Darius was much more important as an administrator than conqueror
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Presided over more than 70 distinct ethnic groups
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Needed to create lines of communication with all parts of the realm
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Design institutions to tax and administer their territories
In successfully navigating these issues of ruling such a large empire, Darius and the Achaemenids pioneered administrative
techniques that would influence political life for centuries
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Persepolis
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As soon as he rose to power, Darius began to consolidate his administration
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Around 520 bce he built a new capital at Persepolis near Pasargadae
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Was to be an administration center and monument to the Achaemenids
Served as the center of the empire for 200 years
The Satrapies
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The gov’t of the Achaemenids depended on a balance between central initiative and local administration
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Appointed governors (satraps) to serve as agents of the central admin and oversee affairs in the various regions
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Darius divided the realm into 23 satrapies- administrative and taxation districts governed by the satraps
While most of the satraps were Persians, the empire did not push direct rule on to their subjects
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Local officials filled almost all of the administrative posts below the satrap
Since the satraps were so far away, there was always the worry that they would ally with local groups and become
independent of imperial authority or even threaten the empire
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The Achaemenids relied on two measures to discourage that possibility
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1- the satraps had a contingent of military officers and tax collectors
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Served as a check on the satraps’ power and independence
2- the empire created “the eyes and ears of the king”- imperial spies
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Traveled throughout the empire with their own military
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Conducted surprise audits of accounts and procedures and collected intelligence
These two checks helped the Achaemenids maintain control over a vast empire that would have typically split into its
ethnic groups and formed their own kingdoms
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Taxes, Coins, and Laws
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Darius improved efficiency by:
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Regularizing tax levies
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Standardizing laws
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Cyrus and Cambyses accepted periodic “gifts” of tribute from subject lands and cities
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The gifts were lavish but did not provide consistent and reliable income for rulers to finance a large bureaucracy and
army
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Darius replaced irregular tribute with formal tax levies
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Required each satrapy to pay a set quantity of silver, sometimes along with horses and slaves, that was delivered annually
to Persepolis
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Darius also copied the Lydian king Croesus and issued standardized coins
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Wanted to foster trade
In 520 bce, Darius moved to unify the many legal systems of his empire into something resembling a standard law
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He did not abolish the laws of individual lands or peoples
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Did not impose a uniform law code
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Did direct legal experts to study and codify the laws of his subject people
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Did have to modify them when necessary and at odds with the empire’s laws
Roads and Communication
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The Achaemenids also took measures to knit their realm into a coherent whole
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Built good roads along their realms, notable the Persian Royal Road
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Stretched 1,600 miles with some sections made of stone
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Took 90 days for caravans to travel the road
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Built lodges and kept the route well-policed
The imperial gov’t also created a courier service
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Built 111 postal stations every 25-30 miles along the route
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Each station kept a supply of fresh horses and food for couriers
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Estimated to carry letters across the empire in two weeks’ time
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(The United States Postal Service take their moniker from these imperial servants: “Neither snow nor rain nor heat
nor gloom of night”)
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These roads helped facilitate trade and helped integrate the empire’s various regions into a larger economy
 Decline of the Achaemenid Empire
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The Achaemenid Commonwealth
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The roads and robust administration of the Achaemenids allowed them to govern a vast empire and extend their influence
throughout the territories
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Political stability also made it possible to undertake large public works projects
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Iron metallurgy spread to all parts of the empire
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The qanat, underground canals, to enhance agricultural production and population growth
Became common in all Persian farming areas by the end of the empire
Eventually, difficulties between rulers and subjects undermined the integrity of the Achaemenid empire
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Cyrus and Darius pursued tolerance in administering their vast and diverse empires
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To the Mesopotamians, did not portray themselves as conquerors but legitimate Babylonian rulers
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Darius allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple that had been destroyed by the Babylonians
Xerxes (r.486-465 bce), successor of Darius, had worse relations with the subjects
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Mesopotamia and Egypt especially became heated, frequently rising up in rebellion
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Xerxes harshly repressed rebellions, gaining a reputation for cruelty
The Persian Wars
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The Achaemenids especially had a hard time with their ethnic Greek subjects
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Inhabited many of the cities of Anatolia (esp. Ionia on the Aegean coast)
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Maintained close economic and commercial ties w/their cousins in the Greek peninsula
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In 500 bce, the Ionian cities rebelled, expelling or executing the satraps (who they called “tyrants”), and asserted their
independence
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This rebellion would launch a series of conflicts the Greeks called the Persian Wars (500-479 bce)
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The conflict expanded when the peninsular Greeks sent fleets to aid their Ionian kinsmen
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Darius managed to put down the rebellion, but his successors became entangled in a difficult and ultimately destructive effort
to extend their power to the Greek peninsula
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Darius wanted to end all future problems by conquering the wealthy Greek cities
Though larger and more powerful than the disunited Greek city-states, they had to content with:
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Thin supply lines
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Hostile environment
After early success, the Persians suffered a rout at the battle of Marathon (490 bce), returning home without achieving their
goals
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Xerxes sent another expedition 10 years later, but failed again both on land (Thermopylae) and at sea (Salamis)
For almost 150 years, the Persian empire sparred with the Greeks
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Never again engaged in large-scale campaigns
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The Greeks were too small and disunited to pose a serious challenge
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What if they became unified?
Alexander of Macedon
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The standoff between the Greeks and Persians ended with the rise of Alexander of Macedon
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In 334 bce, Alexander invaded Persia w/48k battle-hardened Macedonians
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Despite being far smaller in numbers, they had heavier arms and employed more sophisticated military tactics
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Advanced almost at will through the empire, and in 331 defeated the Persian army at the battle of Gaugamela
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Within a year, the empire had dissolved
Alexander led his forces to Persepolis, confiscated the wealth of the treasury, and paid his respects at the tomb of Cyrus in
Pasargadae
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Proclaimed himself heir to the Achaemenids
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Ignited a blaze that destroyed Persepolis
While the empire had crumbled, the Achaemenid legacy continued on
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Alexander retained the administrative structure
Alexander died in 323 bce, but the states that succeed him continued to employ the same administrative structure
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The Seleucids, Parthians, and Sasanids
 The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanid Empires
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The Seleucids
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After the death of Alexander, his generals fought over who would take over the realms
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In Persia, Seleucus took over and ruled (r.305-281 bce)
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The Seleucids created new cities throughout the realm and attracted Greek colonists
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The establishment of new cities stmulated trade and economic development
As foreigners, the Seleucids faced opposition from native Persians and especially their ruling classes
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The satraps often revolted against the Seleucids
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Soon lost their holdings in Northern India
The semi-nomadic Parthians slowly took over Iran during the 3 rd century bce
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Retained the Achaemenid admin structure, taxation, imperial roads and postal services
The Seleucids ruled a smaller empire until 83 bce, when the Romans ended their empire
The Parthians
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The Parthians established themselves as rulers of a powerful empire in Iran
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Extended to wealthy Mesopotamia
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Retained many of the customs and traditions of nomadic peoples from the central Asian steppes
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Did not have a centralized gov’t, but organized themselves politically through a federation of leaders who met in
councils to jointly decide policy for all groups
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Skillful warriors, accustomed to defending themselves from the nomads in the east
As they settled and turned to farming, the Parthians created an effective means to resist the eastern nomads
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The nomads allowed their horses to graze on the steppes for winter, since they had no access to feed grains
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The Parthians figured out that if they fed their horses alfalfa sprouts during the winter, their animals would grow much
larger and stronger than the small horses of the steppes
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Few existing forces could stand up to the Parthian cavalry
Parthian Conquests
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As early as the 3rd century bce, the Parthians began to wrest their independence from the Seleucids
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These larger animals could support heavily armed warriors with metal armor
The Parthian satrap revolted against the Seleucids in 238 bce and gradually enlarged their holdings
Mithridates I, the Parthians greatest conqueror, came to the throne about 171 bce
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Transformed his state into a mighty empire
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By 155 bce, had consolidated their hold on Iran and extended Parthian rule to Mesopotamia
Parthian Government
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The Parthians portrayed themselves as the enemies of the foreign Seleucids and the restorers of rule in the Persian tradition
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As they expanded, they largely followed the Achaemenid tradition of gov’t
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Used satraps, employed their taxation, built a capital city at Ctesiphon on the Euphrates
They also retained many aspects of steppe traditions
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Not nearly as centralized as the Achaemenids
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Put a great deal of authority into their clan leaders
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Often served as satraps and worked to build independent bases of power in their regions
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Frequently mounted rebellions with little success
Had a powerful empire for about three centuries from India to the Med
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Beginning in the 1st century bce, they faced pressure from the west from the Roman empire
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Never were in danger of falling to them, but on three occasions Ctesiphon was captured by the Romans
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Combined with internal difficulties due to the rebellious satraps, the Roman pressure weakened the Parthians
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During the early 3rd century ce, internal rebellion brought it down
The Sasanids
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The tradition of imperial rule would continue under the Sasanids
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Came from Persia and claimed direct descent from the Achaemenids
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Toppled the Parthians un 224 ce, ruling until 651 ce
Ruling from Ctesiphon, the Sasanid kings provided strong rule
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Rebuilt the elaborate admin system
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Founded or rebuilt several cities
Sasanid merchants traded actively east and west
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Introduced new crops to Iran (rice, sugarcane, citrus fruits, eggplant, cotton)
During the reign of Shapur I (r.239-272 ce), the Sasanids stabilized the western frontier and created buffer states between
them and Rome
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Even defeated several Roman armies
After Shapur, the Sasanids did not expand but entered into a standoff relationship with the Kushans to the east and the
Romans/Byzantines to the west
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None of these empires was strong enough to overcome the other
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Engaged in lengthy and bitter disputes, sapping the energies of all those involved
These continual conflicts seriously weakened the Sasanids empire in particular
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The empire ended in 651 ce under the heel of Arab warriors
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Was incorporated into the rapidly expanding Islamic empire
The administrative history of the Persians was so strong that the Arab conquerors would adopt them to use in building a new
Islamic society
Imperial Society and Economy
 Intro
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During the classical era, public life and social structure became more complicated than previously
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Centralized imperial gov’ts needed large numbers of administrators
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Stable empires enabled many ppl to engage in trade or other specializations
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Artisans, craftsmen, or professionals of any kind
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Some of them accumulated vast wealth, leading to tensions between rich and poor
Slavery became more common
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Led to the emergence of an educated class of bureaucrats
Due partly to the expansion of the imperial states, but it also reflected the increasing gulf between rich and poor
All of this had implications on the social structure of classical societies
 Social Development in Classical Persia
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For centuries before their development into an empire, the Medes and Persians maintained steppe traditions
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Social structure was similar to that of the Aryans w/warriors, priests, and peasants
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Family and clan relationships were important
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Male warriors headed the clans
Imperial Bureaucrats
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The creation of a cosmopolitan empire brought considerable complexity to Persian society
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The creation of a new class of educated bureaucrats undermined the old warrior elite
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Even though they didn’t directly challenge the patriarchal warriors, their role in the setup of the gov’t gave them
importance
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Free Classes
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The bulk of Persian society was free individuals who had little of the privileges the bureaucrats and clan leaders had
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Included artisans, craftsmen, merchants, and low-level bureaucrats in the cities
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Also included priests and priestesses
Free classes participated in religious services and could share in the income that temples generated from the agricultural
operations and craft industries of the temple
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In the country, free classes included peasants who owned land and landless cultivators
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Free residents of rural areas could marry and migrate as they wished
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Could seek better opportunities in the city or the military
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Rural work included cultivation and the building and maintaining of irrigation systems due to the arid climate
Most impressive of these was the qanat, underground canals
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Allowed cultivators to distribute water to fields w/out losing a lot to evaporation
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Extreme scarcity motivated the development
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Free labor contribute much of the work to the building of the qanat
Slaves
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Slavery came about in two main ways
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Most were prisoners of war who were slaves for their survival
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Usually from the military, but sometimes civilians who resisted or rebelled
Others came from the free ranks who accumulated debts they could not satisfy
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Failure to repay led these borrowers to forfeit property, sell children, spouses, or themselves into slavery
 Economic Foundations of Classical Persia
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Farming was the economic foundation of Persia
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Needed to support their large military and bureaucracy as well as the specialists in the cities
Agricultural Production
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In most years farming production exceeded the needs of the farmers, creating sizable surpluses for sale in the city or
distribution to the state servants
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The state owned land cultivated by slaves or leased out for a portion of the harvest
Satraps even benefited although not as much as the emperor
Standardized Coins
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While farming was the base, empire often encouraged the development of trade and rapid economic development
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With political stability and an elaborate road network, Achaemenid rulers laid a foundation for economic prosperity and
secure transportation of goods
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Trade also benefited from the invention of standardized coins
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First appeared in Lydia around 640 bce
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Was much simpler for merchants to exchange standardized coins than to weight metals
When Cyrus invaded Lydia and absorbed the kingdom of King Croesus, he brought standardized coinage to his empire
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Markets were found in all of the large cities and the largest had banks and companies that invested in commercial ventures
Trade
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Long-distance trade grew rapidly during the Persian empires, linking Egypt to India
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Trade traveled over land routes, such as the Persian Royal Road
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Over sea routes, such as the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea
Each part of the Persian Empire contributed to trade
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India- gold, ivory, aromatics
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Iran/Central Asia- lapis lazuli, turquoise
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Mesopotamia- Textiles, mirrors, jewelry (finished products)
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Anatolia- goal, silver, iron, copper, tin
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Phoenicia- Glass, cedar, timber, dyed woolen fabrics
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Egypt- grain, linen textiles, papyrus, gold, ebony, ivory
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Greece- Oil, wine, and ceramics
Long-distance trade was especially prominent during Alexander and the Seleucids
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Greek migrants facilitated cultural and commercial exchanges by encouraging the mixing of religious faiths, art styles,
and philosophical speculation
Religions of Salvation in Classical Persia Society
 Intro
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Cross-cultural influences were especially evident in Persian religion
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Their earliest religion resembled that of the Aryans of India
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During the classical era, the new faith of Zoroastrianism emerged, becoming widely popular in Iran
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Would later influence the beliefs and values of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
During the late centuries of the classical era, three missionary religions- Christianity, Buddhism, and Manichaeism- found
their way into the empire
 Zarathustra and his Faith
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The earliest religions in Persia were cults of the elements and earthly features
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Recognized many of the gods as the Aryans w/similar sacrificial ceremonies
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Glorified strength and martial virtues
Zarathustra
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During the classical era, Persian religion changed dramatically
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Moral and religious thinkers attempted to adapt their messages to the circumstances of a complex, cosmopolitan society
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One result was the appearance of Zoroastrianism
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Bred from the teachings of Zarathustra
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When he was about 20, Zarathustra left home and traveled in search of wisdom
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After 10 years, he experienced a series of visions
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Became convinced the supreme god Ahura Mazda had chosen him as his prophet to spread the message
The Gathas
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Many of the teachings have perished because the priests ( magi) at first transmitted them orally
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Only during the Seleucids did they begin to preserve them in writing
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Compiled the Avesta under the Sasanids
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Known as the Gathas, hymns that Zarathustra composed in honor of the various deities he recognized
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The arrival of Islam in the 7th century ce meant the loss of many of the Zoroastrian works
Zoroastrian teachings
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Zoroastrians recognize Ahura Mazda as a supreme deity, the creator of all good things
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There are six lesser deities
Zarathustra also believed Ahura Mazda was in a cosmic conflict with an independent adversary
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The evil spirit Angra Mainyu
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Believed Mazda would prevail after a 12,000 year battle
At that time, individual human souls would undergo judgment and would experience rewards or punishments according to
their holiness
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Good people would enter into a heavenly paradise, bad people would be cast into a hellish realm of pain and suffering
Popularity of Zoroastrianism
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Did not call for ascetic renunciation of the world
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Considered the material world a blessing of the benevolent Ahura Mazda
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Could enjoy the pleasures of the world as long as they did so in moderation and behaved modestly towards each other
His teachings began to attract large numbers of followers in the 6 th century bce
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Esp among Persian aristocrats and ruling elites
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Wealthy patrons donated land and established endowments for the support of Zoroastrian temples
Achaemenid era saw a rise of a sizable priesthood, who conducted religious rituals, maintained a calendar, taught Zoroastrian
values, and preserved the doctrine
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Cyrus and Cambyses likely observed Zoroastrian rites
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With Darius, the Achaemenids closely associated themselves with the religion
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He did not attempt to suppress other gods or religions
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Claimed divine sanction of their rule
Tolerated the established faiths in his empire despite personally regarded Ahura Mazda as superior
W/imperial sponsorship, Zoroastrian temples cropped up throughout the Achaemenid realm
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Was most popular in Iran, but had followings elsewhere
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No organized effort to spread, yet it spread
Officially Sponsored Zoroastrianism
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The arrival of Alexander hurt Zoroastrianism
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They burned many temples and killed many magi
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Since it was still told orally, many hymns and holy verses disappeared
The Parthians cultivated Zoroastrianism to rally support against the Seleucids
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The Parthians observed the rituals, thought they did not support the faith so enthusiastically
During the Sasanids, the religion saw a revival
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They identified closely w/the religion as the self-proclaimed heirs to the Achaemenids
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Often persecuted other faiths if it was becoming too popular
With imperial backing, the faith and magi flourished
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Prepared written versions of the holy texts, collecting them in the Avesta
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The faith faced severe difficulties in the 7th century ce when Islamic conquerors defeated the Sasanids
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They did not outlaw the religion, but they placed political and financial pressure on the magis and temples
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Some fled to India where their descendants (Parsis) continue to observe the traditions
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Many stuck around and eventually converted to Islam
Zoroastrian numbers progressively dwindled
Influence of Zoroastrianism
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The cosmopolitan nature of the Persian empires allowed Zoroastrianism to affect many different faiths
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Jews living in the Persian empire adopted several specific teachings of Zarathustra, which later found their way into the faiths
of Christianity and Islam as well
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Idea of an omnipotent and beneficent deity that was responsible for all creation
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A purely evil being against the creator god
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Conviction that evil will ultimately be defeated by the forces of good
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Idea that human beings must strive to observe the highest moral standards
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Idea that humans will undergo judgment where the good will go to heaven and the bad will go to hell