Mata kuliah
Dosen Pembuat
Tahun
: J0754 - Pengelolaan Organisasi Entrepreneurial
: D3122 - Rudy Aryanto
: 2009
Aplikasi Sistem Penghargaan
Chapter 8
Learning Objectives
– Explain reward programs found in
high-performance organizations
– Understand the strengths and weaknesses of nontraditional
reward programs
Performance Analysis Questions
• Antecedent
–
–
–
–
Do employees know what is expected?
Are the standards clear?
Have they been communicated?
Are they realistic?
• Behavior
– Can the behavior be performed?
– Could employees do it if their lives depended on it?
– Does something prevent its occurrence?
Performance Analysis Questions
• Consequence
– Are consequences weighted in favor of performance?
– Are improvements being reinforced?
– Are improvements noted, even when the
employee is below company standards?
– Is reinforcement specific?
Applied Behavior Modification
Manager’s Step-by-Step Procedure
Pinpoint
specific
behavior
Measure,
count, and
formulate
baseline
point
for critical
behaviors
Perform the
ABC analysis
• Antecedent
• Behavior
• Consequence
Form action
plan, strategies
• Positive
reinforcement
• Negative
reinforcement
• Extinction
• Punishment
Feedback to make changes
Evaluate
critical behavior
Compare
baseline vs.
after-action
behaviors
ABC Analysis - Absenteeism Problem
A
ANTECEDENT(S)
B
BEHAVIOR(S)
C
CONSEQUENCE(S)
Family problems
Personal health
Illness
Jury duty
No transportation
Company policies
Group norm
Friends visiting
Injured on way to work
Hangover
No child care facilities
Lack of proper tools/clothing
Staying home
Shopping
Oversleeping
Getting up late
Attending sporting event
Working at home
Visiting
Serving on jury
In emergency room
At doctor’s office
Public reprimand
Private reprimand
Written record & reprimand
Reduction in pay
Suspension
Firing
Social isolation from group
Reinforcement Theory
• Research results
– Strong evidence that OBM makes a positive contribution to
organizational behavior
– Absenteeism rates, quality of production, and employee safety
behaviors improve
Reinforcement Theory
• Criticisms
– Bribery, not a real change in behavior
– Reinforcements not linked to beliefs, values, or mental
processes
– Self-reinforcement ignored
– Behavior becomes too dependent on
the reinforcer and won’t occur without it
– Perceptual differences in utilization of positive reinforcement
Reinforcement Theory
• When expressing appreciation and reinforcing good
behavior
– Describe the desired behavior in
specific terms, not generalization
– Explain why the behavior is good
for the organization
– Include a personal
expression of thanks
Behavioral Self-Management (BSM)
• Facing response alternatives that have different
consequences
• Selecting or modifying behavior by managing
– Cognitive processes
– Causes
– Consequences
Kafner’s Self-Regulation Model
Stage 1
Self-monitoring
“A new boss - I
wonder whether
my performance
will be good
enough. I hope so.”
Stage 2
Self-evaluation
“I was considered an
excellent performer
by Tony (previous
boss). He knew my
quantity and quality
of output were
excellent. I need to
find out what the new
boss considers
excellent in terms of
quantity and quality.”
Stage 3
Self-reinforcement
“I really did an
outstanding job. The
boss smiled when we
were talking about my
performance. He’s
really a lot like Tony
(previous boss).”
Goal-Setting Theory: Key Concepts
• Goal setting
– The process of establishing goals
• Conscious goals
– Goals that a person is trying to achieve and is aware of when
directing behavior
• Goal specificity
– Level of performance required to achieve the goal
Goal-Setting Theory: Key Concepts
• Goal difficulty
– Level of performance required to achieve a goal
• Goal intensity
– Process of setting a goal or determining how to reach it
• Goal commitment
– Amount of effort used to achieve a goal
Goal Setting: Core Steps
Goal-Setting
Attributes
1. Specificity
2. Difficulty
3. Intensity
4. Commitment
Final
Review
Anticipated
Results
1. Discussion
2. Analysis
3. Development
4. Recycling
Improved
motivation to
• Perform
• Plan
• Organize
• Control
Intermediate
Review
1. Frequency
2. Exchange
of ideas
3. Modifications
Feedback
Goal Setting Research
• Locke and associates found that…
– Specific goals lead to higher output than do vague goals
– Achieving goals provides workers with a sense of achievement,
recognition, and commitment
– Having a goal allows workers to compare their performance with
that of others
Goal Difficulty-Performance Relationship
• Need achievement
Job performance
High
Low
Easy
Moderate
Goal difficulty
Hard
Goal Difficulty-Performance Relationship
• Expectancy theory
Job performance
High
Low
Easy
Moderate
Hard
Goal Difficulty-Performance Relationship
• Goal-setting theory
B
Job performance
High
C
A = Performance
of committed
person with ability
B = Performance
of committed
person working at
full capacity
A
C = Performance
of person lacking
commitment
Low
Easy
Moderate
Goal difficulty
Hard
Participation Factor
• Conflicting theories
– Latham… when goal difficulty is held constant, there is no
difference in goal commitment or performance, whether the goal
is assigned or set participatively
– Erez… participation in goal setting is crucial to goal commitment
• Findings of experiments
– Participation had no effect on goal commitment or performance
Individual Differences
• Participation in goal setting may increase job
performance
– Social factor of group discussion
– Motivational factor of being involved in the goal-setting process
– Cognitive factor of information sharing
Individual Differences
• Social and motivational factors increase
–
–
–
–
–
Performance quantity
Learning the task
Goal acceptance
Group commitment
Satisfaction
• Conflicting goals
– Can lead to decreased performance, regardless of goal
commitment, goal importance, or strategies used
Criticisms of Goal Setting
• Goal setting
–
–
–
–
Complex and difficult to sustain
Works well for simple jobs, but not for complex jobs
Encourages game playing.
Is used as another check on employees
• Goal accomplishment
– Can become an obsession
Motivation Theory: Key Conclusions
• Managers
– Can influence employee motivation
– Must remember that ability, competence, and opportunity all
affect motivation
– Must continually monitor employees’ needs, abilities, goals,
preferences
– Must channel self-motivated behavior
into productive results
Motivation Theory: Key Conclusions
• Managers
–
–
–
–
Are role models who influence employee motivation
Must provide incentives for employees
Should establish moderately difficult goals to direct behavior
Should provide jobs that offer equity, task challenge, diversity,
need satisfaction
– Must energize, sustain, and direct motivation
Organizational Reward Systems
• Main objectives of reward programs
– Getting qualified people to join the organization
– Keeping employees
coming to work
– Motivating employees
to achieve high levels
of performance
The Reward Process
Intrinsic
rewards
Ability
and skill
Performance
results:
individual
Motivation to
exert effort
Experience
Performance
evaluation
Satisfaction
Extrinsic
rewards
Feedback
Lawler’s Conclusions
• Reward satisfaction is influenced by…
– How much is received and how much
the person feels should be received
– Comparisons with others
• People differ in the…
– Rewards they desire
– The importance they place on them
• Some rewards are satisfying because they lead to other
rewards
Reward Packages
• Any reward package should be…
– Sufficient to satisfy basic needs
– Considered equitable
– Individually oriented
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards
• Extrinsic Rewards
– Salary, wages, fringe benefits
– Interpersonal rewards
– Recognition and promotions
• Intrinsic Rewards
–
–
–
–
Completion
Achievement
Personal growth
Autonomy
Rewards, Turnover, Absenteeism
• Managers can…
– Influence employee attendance behavior
– Punish, establish bonuses, and allow employee participation in
developing plans
• Absenteeism reduction is determined by…
– The perceived value of the rewards
– The amount of the rewards
– Whether employees see a relationship between attendance and
rewards
Rewards and Job Performance
• Key points
– Each person has different needs and perceptions, so outcomes
have different values
– Managers must consider individual differences when choosing
rewards
– Valued rewards can result in the exertion of effort and high levels
of performance
Commitment Attitudes
• Commitment to an organization involves...
– A sense of identification with
the organization’s goals
– Involvement in organizational
duties
– A feeling of loyalty for the
organization
Organizational Commitment
• Use intrinsic rewards to develop organizational
commitment
– Provide achievement opportunities
– Recognize achievement when it occurs
– Develop intrinsic reward systems that focus on personal
importance or self-esteem
Reward Systems & High Performance
• New, innovative, but untested reward systems
–
–
–
–
Cafeteria-style fringe benefits
Banking time off
Skill-based pay
Gainsharing
Reward Criticisms
• According to Kohn, rewards…
–
–
–
–
–
Injure relationships
Are really punishment
Have a Skinner bias
Ignore reason
Discourage risk taking