GENDER AND SEXUALITY Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Gender Comparisons and Classification Gender Development through the Life Span Exploring Sexuality Sexuality through the Life Span Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender GENDER AND SEX Gender- Characteristics of being female or male. Gender role: set of expectations prescribing how females and males should act, feel, and think. Gender typing: process by which children acquire thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally appropriate for their gender. Sex- Designates the biological aspects of being female or male. Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES Chromosomes — 23rd pair with X and Y Hormones: Estrogens Influences development of female physical sex characteristics and helps regulate menstrual cycle Androgens Testosterone promotes development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex hormones early in development: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) Androgen-insensitive males Pelvic field defect Failed sex reassignment Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY VIEW OF GENDER Differing roles in reproduction placed different pressures on males and females Key gender differences in sexual attitudes and sexual behaviors Males — competition, violence, risk-taking Females — parenting effort, selection of successful mate Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender SOCIAL INFLUENCES Differences due to social experiences: Social role theory: gender differences result from contrasting roles of men and women Psychoanalytic theory of gender: claims child identifies with samesex parent by age 5 or 6 Many disagree, claiming gender learned much earlier (even in absence of same-sex parent) Social cognitive theory of gender: gender development results from observation and imitation, use of rewards and punishments for genderappropriate behaviors Mothers’ socialization strategies Fathers’ socialization strategies Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender COGNITIVE INFLUENCES Cognitive development theory of gender: Children’s gender typing occurs after they think of themselves as boys and girls; gender constancy must be achieved first. Once consistently conceived as male or female, children prefer activities, objects, and attitudes consistent with this label. Gender schema theory: Gender typing emerges gradually in gender schemas of what is culturally gender-appropriate and inappropriate Gender-typed behavior can occur before children develop gender constancy Schema: cognitive structure Gender schema: organizes world in terms of male and female Gender Comparisons and Classification GENDER STEREOTYPING Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males: Traditional masculinity and femininity Males – instrumental traits Females - expressive traits Roles and traits – unequal social status, power Stereotyping varies with culture Stereotyping of occupations Gender Comparisons and Classification Young Children’s Judgments about Competency in Stereotyped Occupations Gender Comparisons and Classification GENDER SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES Physical differences: Females have longer life expectancy less likely to develop mental or physical disorders Resistant to infections, more elastic blood vessels Female brains are smaller, have more folds. Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show more activity in females. Males Higher levels of stress hormones causing faster clotting and higher blood pressure. Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus is larger in men. Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial skills is larger in males Gender Comparisons and Classification COGNITIVE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES National standardized tests Boys slightly better at math and science Girls better at reading and writing Overall, girls superior students to boys Gender Comparisons and Classification SOCIOEMOTIONAL SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES Aggression: Males more physically aggressive in all cultures Females more verbally aggressive; use relational aggression more than men Self-Regulation: Males show less self-regulation, can lead to behavioral problems Controversies over psychological differences Overall meta analysis: Gender differences: small to nonexistent Physical aggression differences were moderate Largest difference in motor skills favoring males Males more sexually active than females Gender Comparisons and Classification SOCIOEMOTIONAL SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES Gender in context: Gender varies across contexts Males more likely to help in perceived danger Females more likely to volunteer to help with child Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys Males more likely to show anger towards strangers and turn anger into aggression Cultural backgrounds influence socialization Gender Comparisons and Classification MASCULINITY, FEMININITY, AND ANDROGYNY Androgyny — presence of masculine and feminine characteristics in same individual Bem Sex-Role Inventory: Instrumental, expressive traits Context influencing gender role is adaptive Gender-role transcendence — people should be evaluated as persons, not in terms of femininity, masculinity, or androgyny Gender Development through the Life-Span GENDER DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD Children form many ideas about what the sexes are like from about 1½ to 3 years of age Boys receive earlier and more intense gender socialization (e.g.: ‘boy code’) Children show clear preference for same-sex peers Gender Development through the Life-Span GENDER DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Transition point; changes in puberty Gender-intensification hypothesis: Psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence Increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional gender roles Mixed messages and special problems Gender Development through the Life-Span COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN Rapport talk Language of conversation, a way to establish connections and negotiate relationships Preferred by women Report talk Language designed to give information, including public speaking Preferred by men Gender Development through the Life-Span ADULTHOOD AND AGING Women’s Gender Development: Women often try to actively participate in others’ development Emotionally Intellectually Socially Women maintain competency, self-motivation, and self-determination in relationships Men’s gender development: Male roles are contradictory and inconsistent Can cause role-strain in Health Male-female relationships Male-male relationships Gender Development through the Life-Span GENDER AND AGING Parental imperative: Mothers and fathers adopt different gender roles so they can raise children more effectively Older women face double jeopardy of ageism and sexism Older men become more feminine, less active, and more sensitive in relationships Exploring Sexuality BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS Biological: Sexual behavior is influenced by sex hormones Sexual behavior is so individualized in humans that it is difficult to specify hormonal effects Sexual motivation also influenced by cultural factors Cultural factors: Range of sexual values across cultures is substantial Sexual scripts — stereotyped expectancy patterns for how people should behave sexually Traditional religious script — sex is accepted only within marriage; sex is for reproduction and sometimes affection Romantic script — sex synonymous with love Exploring Sexuality THE 1994 SEX IN AMERICA SURVEY Noncohabiting Men Cohabiting (married) Men 1% Never A few times a year Women Women 3% A few times a month 2 to 3 times a week 4 or more times a week Exploring Sexuality SEXUAL ORIENTATION Heterosexual attitudes and behavior: Different categories for frequency of sex Married couples have sex more often Most couples enjoy traditional sex Adultery is exception, not the rule Men think about sex more than women Most lead conservative sexual lives Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males: Bisexual: sexually attracted to both sexes Research on biological and hormonal differences on sexual preferences unclear Area of hypothalamus governing sexual behavior 2x larger in heterosexual males Exploring Sexuality THE CONTINUUM OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION 0 1 3 3 4 5 6 Exclusively heterosexual behavior Largely heterosexual but incidental homosexual behavior Largely heterosexual but more than incidental homosexual behavior Equal amounts of heterosexual and homosexual behavior Largely homosexual but more than incidental heterosexual behavior Largely homosexual but incidental heterosexual behavior Exclusively homosexual behavior Exploring Sexuality SEXUAL ORIENTATION Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males: Gender differences appearing in heterosexual relationships also occurs in homosexual relationships Gay and lesbians experience life as minorities in dominant culture, with bicultural identity Exploring Sexuality SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS Gonorrhea Syphilis Chlamydia Genital Herpes HPV – causes genital warts AIDS – sexually-transmitted disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Protecting against STI’s: Education and development of effective drug treatments Only safe behavior is abstinence Know your and your partner’s risk status Obtain screening tests for STIs Have protected, not unprotected, sex Don’t have sex with multiple partners Exploring Sexuality FORCIBLE SEXUAL BEHAVIOR Rape: Forcible sexual intercourse without consent; legal definitions vary by state Victims reluctant to report rape; stats vary 5% of rape victims are males Date or acquaintance rape: coercive sexual activity with acquaintance or better known, a concern for colleges Sexual Harassment: Ranging from remarks to physical contact, blatant propositions to sexual assaults Most victims are women in educational and workplace settings Has serious psychological effects on victim One person’s manifestation of power over another Exploring Sexuality RAPE VICTIM-OFFENDER RELATIONSHIPS 50 Percentage of sample 40 30 20 10 0 Classmate Friend Boyfriend/ Acquaintance ex-boyfriend Offender Other Sexuality through the Life-Span CHILD SEXUALITY Majority of children engage in some sex play: Usually with friends or siblings Exhibiting or inspecting the genitals Most motivated by curiosity Sex play declines, but sexual interest remains high in elementary school years Sexuality through the Life-Span ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY Time of sexual exploration, experimentation, fantasies, and incorporating sexuality into one’s identity Most have insatiable curiosity about sex Majority develop mature sexual identity; most have times of vulnerability and confusion Societies vary in response to adolescent sexuality Sexuality through the Life-Span DEVELOPING A SEXUAL IDENTITY Multifaceted, lengthy challenge to manage new feelings, develop identity and self-regulation Great variety in orientations, interest levels, anxiety levels, activity, and reasons for choices in activity Gay or lesbian identity: coming-out Homosexual behavior in adolescence may not continue into adulthood Sexuality through the Life-Span ADOLESCENT SEXUAL BEHAVIORS U.S. survey of sexual behavior: Most have sex after age 15, 80% by age 19 First voluntary partner for girls is about same age Trend: adolescents waiting longer to have sex Casual oral sex is common, increasing; believed to be safer and not really ‘having sex’ Risk Factors, Youth Assets, and Sexual Problems: Ineffective or lack of use of contraceptives Early maturation linked to early sexual initiation; varies by ethnic group and SES Lack of self-regulation Sexuality through the Life-Span OTHER RISKS Sexually transmitted infections: 3 million U.S. adolescents acquire STIs annually Africa: girls infected with HIV by adult men Adolescent pregnancy: U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates decreasing; but one of highest rates in developed world Negative consequences for teen mother and child Cross-cultural studies on sexual active adolescents Sexuality through the Life-Span CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS OF PREGNANCY 80 60 40 20 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 Year 1990 1995 2000 Sexuality through the Life-Span CONSEQUENCES OF ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY Health risks for mother and child: Low birth rate in newborns linked to infant mortality, neurological problems, childhood illness Young mothers more likely to: Drop out of school; were low achievers in school Have history of conduct problems Come from low-income backgrounds Live in poverty Sexuality through the Life-Span SEXUALITY AND AGING Emerging adulthood: Time frame for sexual activity and singlehood Most limit sex partners to 1 or two persons annually Casual sex more common in ‘hooking up’ The earlier the age of first sex, the more sexual activity in emerging adulthood Religious adults have fewer sexual partners Sexuality through the Life-Span SEXUALITY AND AGING Middle adulthood: Climacteric: midlife transition, fertility ends/declines Women: Menopause late forties or early fifties; Perimenopausal is transitional time Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) Men — less testosterone, less desire, possible erectile dysfunction (Viagra) Late adulthood: Men experience more changes than women Orgasm less frequent More direct stimulation needed Erection problems more likely after 65 Sexuality can be lifelong Two-thirds of older adults satisfied