Why Does the National Park
System Develop a Split
Personality
Jekyll – Good of Preservation
Hyde – Evil of Consumption
• The end of the 19th century is a period of
tremendous growth and therefore of
environmental exploitation
– the first world is expanding (RR expansion eg)
– domination and taming of wilderness
– disappearance of wilderness
• J A Macdonald “doctrine of usefulness” - if
it works do it
• Manifest destiny - might is right
– ie railway workers as sod busters
EXTINCTION - EXPECTED
• Extinction is a natural
process
• Question
NOTICEABLE EXTINCTION
• Passenger Pigeon
– Most numerous bird
on the planet
– estimated pop. 5
billion
THE SENSE OF LOSS
• Passenger pigeons were so numerous that
flocks flying overhead would blot out the
sun for hours
• branches of trees would break under the
weight of the birds landing on them
• villages would have competitions with
small cannons - who could kill the most
• in one year 1867 in Wisconsin 1 billion
killed
LAST PASSENGER PIGEON
DIED IN 1916 IN A ZOO
• The last sighting in Canada was in 1902
• Why massive and quick extinction?
BISON IN N. AMERICA
• Similar timing to the passenger pigeon
• In 1800 about 60 million animals and an
interlinked population of 300,000 Plains
Natives
• By 1879 few animals and many tribes were
starving
SIMILARITY OF REASONS
SUMMARY
• Writers such as Thoreau arguing for
preservation
• James Audobon publishing Birds of
America
• The US Department of the Interior
established in 1849 - eventually responsible
for parks in 20th century
• The evident disappearance of species
• The writings of George Marsh and the
concept that human action does modify the
environment
• The establishment of “preserved” areas by
law
– first national reserve in the world is Yosemite
in 1862
– Yellowstone in 1872
– Banff is established as a reserve in 1885
– Algonquin is established as a provincial park in
1893
FIRST CONSERVATION
MOVEMENT - 1890’S
• Important as a concept because this is
developed not for emotional reasons but for
rational, utilitarian motivations
1. RESOURCE SCARCITY
• The unending frontier of American
development was shutting down
• No new pioneers as “uncivilized” land is
used up
• Therefore orderly development was the next
step
– still exploitation, but more efficient and rational
management (can include game animals in this
list)
2. DETRIMENTAL IMPACTS
FROM DEVELOPMENT
• Marsh had pointed out that America was
squandering its heritage
• Realization that human activities could have
negative impacts on the environment
• More importantly these impacts could affect
the ability of the economy to grow and
develop
3. SOCIAL REFORM
MOVEMENTS
• Rising education levels and progressive
attitudes towards wise use of resources
• Attitudes against trusts and combines
4. SCIENTIFIC RATIONALITY
• Government leading in the sense of
management of resources - government
agencies and policies
• Professional and sound management in all
areas, including the environment
CONCLUSION
• THE PRIMARY PUSH IS ONE OF
ECONOMIC MOTIVATION
• ONE HAS TO PROVIDE A
MOTIVATION THAT IS MORE
CONCRETE THAN GENERAL THEORY
– INTEREST OF HUNTERS (RESOURCE
USERS) AND GOVERNMENT
– LOCAL SUPPORT (EMPLOYMENT)
PRESERVATION OR
CONSERVATION ?
• Original movement puts emphasis on
preservation
– greater contrast to outright exploitation
• preservation implies no development
– Problems
• Implication that resources are being
withdrawn from all use
• Distrust in selected use and difficult to see
the return of ‘non-use’
• Self-interest tends to be a higher motivator
(T. Roosevelt as an example)
FIRST CONSERVATION
MOVEMENT
• Marked by an emphasis on government
action and agencies
• emphasis - Canadian Commission of
Conservation 1909 - “forests, waters, lands,
minerals, and wildlife are to be developed,
used and conserved
– note the order and emphasis of the statement
– quote 1917 “conservation means economy and
development at the same time”
CONSERVATION
• Conservation implies use - specific use
• The greatest good for the greatest number for
the greatest period of time
– this is more of a utilitarian approach
• The battle between the two philosophies is
still with us today
– The Sierra Club is an example of a
preservationist group
• The other tendency out of this period is for
the Canadian system to lag behind the U.S.
– the establishment of parks
– in 1905 the U.S. forest service established and
by 1906 the first “Canadian Forestry
Conference”
CONCEPT OF UTILITY
• In both societies the concept of utility (use)
takes priority over the concept of virgin
preservation
– important for later developments such as long
term forestry leases in parks
• benefit of arguing for wise use in a rational
economic sense
– use the same arguments as the opposition
• “to conserve human and natural resources
means not only to prevent waste but also to
plan and develop future growth
END OF THE PERIOD
• WWI creates a push for development that
takes precedence over the ideas of
preservation and conservation
• accented by a post-war recession and
recovery
– conflicts with developers and between
government departments
– an end to certain restrictions and a period in the
20’s of unconstrained exploitation
• In the 20”s
– Park boundaries shrink to allow for resource
development
– the amount of agricultural land increases by
25%
– the amount of land allowed for development of
Ontario and Quebec Hydro increases by 140%
• The commission is dissolved in 1921 - no
watchdog (even one without teeth)
SUMMARY OF THE 20’S
1 Government watchdogs are reduced
2 Resource oriented businesses expand and
lobby for increased access to resources
3 Crown land and national park space is
reduced or leased (long term agreements)
– Link to Lands for Life in 90’s Ontario
•Pressure (war and recession in this case)
produces movement away from protection
•The ‘greatest good’ changes
SECOND CONSERVATION
MOVEMENT
• The 1930’s produce 2 different pressures
1 Economic Depression
• Extreme pressure to broaden the resource base
(employment)
• A common perception that this should be
monitored
• This size of effort should be started and coordinated by government
These people
had just sold
their tent in
order to buy
food. Most of
the 2,500 people
in this camp
were destitute.
By the end of
the decade there
were still 4
million migrants
on the road.
GOVERNMENT DIRECTION
• Canadian and USA governments
encouraged to act
• Agencies to foster soil improvement, soil
conservation, water conservation and
erosion control
• Similar solutions - large works and
employment
AGENCIES
• CANADA
• 1935 Prairie Farm
rehabilitation scheme
• USA
• 1933 Tennessee
Valley Authority
• 1940’s integration of
agencies such as
Bureau of Fisheries
and Agriculture into
US Fish and Wildlife
Service
SUMMARY
• Emphasis in N. Am. On economic rationale
• Pragmatic arguments for environmental
management
– in best interest to avoid calamities or excessive
exploitation
– greater cost in the long run by avoiding
management
• Humans are members of the environment
not conquerors of the land
Emphasis
• In the park system the emphasis swings
towards:
• Protection and preservation (success here
leads to pressure to ‘harvest’ resources
• Recreational use
40’S AND 50’S
• First factor is WWII
– Necessity of production (food and raw
materials)
– supply system needs ahead of degradation of
the environment
• Boom of the late 40’s and 50’s
PROGRESS?
• Mindset that industrial growth for consumer
products is necessary to our well-being
– “progress is our most important product”
• Expansion of the system
–
–
–
–
Trans-Canada Highway (personal automobile)
St Lawrence Seaway
Urban expansion (Niagara fruit belt)
Development of the park system
The start of the Third
Conservation Movement
Ecological Ethics
Sustainable Earth
• Major changes in the 70’s
• Policy that all Canadians should have
access to a National Park (live withing 500
K of a National Park)
– Response to overuse of present parks
– Desire of a federal government to get
credit for a park system during election
periods
• Recognition that preservation of ‘unique’
features is not necessarily a sound basis for
a unified park system
• The park system should represent and
preserve all of Canada’s natural regions.
• 38 National Parks (and National park
reserves) currently in the system as the
process of expansion starts (2% of Canada)
– still 17 parks needed (+1%)
• Still have the quandary
– Use versus protection
Are Parks to be used, maximized in an
economic sense
use is linked to ownership – citizens
Or do environmental concerns take
priority?