Energy Systems
EE 5003
Chapter 1: Introduction:
Energy
•Energy – Ability to do work, is a property of objects,
transferable among them through fundamental
interactions, which can be converted into different
forms but can neither be created nor destroyed.
•The Joul is the SI unit of energy, based on the amount
transferred to an object by mechanical work of moving
it 1 meter against a force of 1 newton.
•Work and heat are two categories of processes or
mechanisms that can transfer a given amount of
energy.
Energy Cont…
• The second law of thermodynamics limits the amount of
work that can be performed by energy that is obtained
via a heating process—some energy is always lost as
waste heat. The maximum amount that can go into work
is called the available energy.
• Systems such as machines and living things often require
available energy, not just any energy. Mechanical and
other forms of energy can be transformed in the other
direction into thermal energy without such limitations.
• To generate electricity from a steam cycle (carnot
efficiency) is generally about 35% but electricity can be
transformed to heat energy at 100% efficiency.
Forms of Energy
Common energy forms include :
- the kinetic energy of a moving object,
- the radiant energy carried by light and
other electromagnetic radiation,
- the potential energy stored by virtue of the position
of an object in a force field such as
a gravitational, electric or magnetic field,
- the thermal energy comprising the microscopic
kinetic and potential energies of the disordered
motions of the particles making up matter.
Some specific forms of potential energy include elastic
energy due to the stretching or deformation of solid
objects and chemical energy such as is released when a
fuel burns or food is digested.
Forms of Energy Cont…
Forms of Energy
Mass – Energy Equivalence
• All forms of energy (not just rest energy
E=mc2) exhibit mass.
• Adding 25 kilowatt-hours (90 megajoules) of
energy to an object in the form of heat (or any
other form) increases its mass by 1 microgram
• Our Sun transforms nuclear potential
energy to other forms of energy and its mass
decrease when the energy escapes out to its
surroundings, largely as radiant energy
living organisms require available energy to stay
alive; humans get such energy from food along
with the oxygen needed to metabolize it
• We eat food but if we do a workout or even
simply exists we dissipate energy and the mass
of food we consumed is converted into energy
and dissipates. Why do we put on weight
because we do not dissipate as much energy
as we take in. Food contains Carbohydrates,
lipids and proteins.
1.1 Energy Sources
Energy Sources are basically divided into two
categories:
•Non Renewable energy Sources and
•Renewable Energy Sources.
Some of these sources are further classified as
conventional or non conventional.
Non Renewable Energy Sources :
mainly defined as conventional ( they have been using
these sources for over a century ) derived in
conventional conversion processes to produce useful
energy such as in power plants, refineries, Internal
Combustion Engines, external combustion engines etc.
Examples : Coal, Fossil Fuel based (Petroleum based)
oil and Gas products, Nuclear, etc.
Why do we call these sources non-Renewable? They
are not replenished in a reasonable time span may be
to renew these sources it may take millions of years.
Nuclear is an exception, where it can never be
replenished even after millions of years.
SOLID FUELS
• Hard coal – Coal that has a high degree of coalification with a gross calorific
value above 23,865 KJ/kg (5,700 kcal/kg) on an ash-free but moist basis,
There are two sub-categories of hard coal: (i) Coking coal is a hard coal used
in the production of coke in a blast furnace charge. (ii) Bituminous coal and
Anthracite (also known as steam coal) is used for steam raising and space
heating purposes and includes all anthracite coals and bituminous coals not
classified as coking coal.
• Lignite – One of the two sub-categories of brown coal. Brown coal is coal
with a low degree of coalification which retained the anatomical structure
of the vegetable matter from which it was formed. It has a gross calorific
value (on a moist ash free basis) is less than 23,865 KJ/kg (5,700 kcal/kg).
Brown coal comprises: (i) lignite - with a gross calorific value less than
17,435 KJ/kg (4,165 kcal/kg) and greater than 31 per cent volatile matter on
a dry basis and (ii) sub-bituminous coal - with a gross calorific value
between 17,435 KJ/kg (4,165 kcal/kg) and 23,865 KJ/kg (5,700 kcal/kg)
containing more than 31 per cent volatile matter on a dry basis.
• Peat – A solid fuel formed from the partial decomposition of dead
vegetation under conditions of high humidity and limited air access (initial
stage of coalification). Its principal use is as a household fuel.
• Oil shale – A sedimentary rock containing a high proportion of organic
matter (kerogen), which can be converted to crude oil or gas by heating.
LIQUID FUELS
• Crude oil – A mineral oil consisting of a mixture of
hydrocarbons of natural origin, yellow to black in color, of
variable density and viscosity. Can be extracted by Oil wells
or extracted from bituminous minerals such as shales and
bituminous sand, and oils from coal liquefaction.
• Petroleum products – Comprise the liquid fuels, lubricant
oils and solid and semi-solid products obtained by
distillation and cracking of crude petroleum, shale oil, or
semi-refined and unfinished petroleum products. These
may include but not limited to Aviation Gasoline, Motor
Gasoline, Diesel, Jet Fuel, Kerosene, Naphtha, Furnace Oil,
Residual Oil, Bitumen, LPG ( Propane and Butane mainly)
GASEOUS FUELS
Natural gas – Gases consisting mainly of
methane occurring naturally in underground
deposits. It includes both non-associated gas
(originating from fields producing only
hydrocarbons in gaseous form) and associated
gas (originating from fields producing both liquid
and gaseous hydrocarbons), as well as methane
recovered from coal mines.
Renewable Energy Sources :
most of the time these sources are defined as
non- conventional sources except Major
Hydro sources as they have been rediscovered
as sources to be converted to useful energy by
using age old principles but using modern
technologies. Examples: Conventional
Renewable sources - Major Hydro,
Non-Conventional Renewable sources – small
and mini Hydro,
Non-Conventional Renewable
sources
-Solar both pV and thermal ,
-wind, biomass,
-small and mini hydro,
-geothermal ( Is it renewable? again a misnomer but classified under renewable) etc.
- Ocean related sources such as Tidal, wave,
OTEC etc.,
- Dendro Thermal
Bio-mass derived non-conventional
energy sources
• Biogasoline – Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and methanol (methyl alcohol) for
use as a fuel. Ethanol can be produced from sugar, starch and cellulose
and is used mainly in transport (on its own or blended with gasolene).
Methanol can be produced from wood, crop residues, grass, and the like
and can be used in internal combustion engines.
• Biodiesel – It refers to oil derived from biological sources and modified
chemically so that it can be used as fuel in compression ignition (diesel)
internal combustion engines, or for heating. Biological sources of biodiesel
include, but are not limited to, vegetable oils. Very often Biodiesel is used
in combination with Petroleum Diesel.
Biogas – By-product of the fermentation(anaerobic digestion) of biomass,
principally animal wastes, by bacteria. It consists mainly of methane gas
and carbon dioxide
Other Traditional Fuels
Fuel wood, harvested or grown
Baggasse, - waste from sugar industry
Charcoal, - derived from wood or other crop
residues
Animal Waste, used in some countries such as
in India common form dung cakes.
Vegetable Waste,
Municipal Waste,
Industrial Waste, etc.
1.2 Classification of Forms of Energy
1.2.1 Primary energy – is an energy form found in nature that has not been subjected
to any conversion or transformation process. It is energy contained in raw fuels,
and other forms of energy (say solar or hydro) received as input to a system.
Primary energy can be non-renewable or renewable All forms of energy that occur
naturally and can be used directly to do some useful work - capable of obtaining
useful energy or used as primary inputs to obtain secondary forms of energy, such
as electricity, heat, motive energy etc. Examples: Water at an elevation, Solar
energy , wind, biomass, Coal, Crude Oil , Natural Gas, Uranium etc.
1.2.2 Secondary Energy – Primary energy sources are transformed in energy
conversion processes to more convenient forms of energy (that can directly be
used by society), such as electrical energy , refined fuels, or synthetic fuels such
as hydrogen fuels. These forms are also called energy carriers and correspond to
the concept of "secondary energy"
1.2 Classification of Forms of Energy
Cont…
1.2.3 Primary electricity – refers to electrical energy of
geothermal, hydro, nuclear, tide, wind, wave/ocean and
solar origin. Its production is assessed at the heat value of
electricity (3.6 TJ/million kWh).
1.2.4 Secondary electricity –is defined as thermal electricity,
which comprises conventional thermal plants of all types,
whether or not equipped for the combined generation of
heat and electric energy. Accordingly, they include steamoperated generating plants, with condensation and plants
using internal combustion engines or gas turbines whether
or not these are equipped for heat recovery.
Representation of Electricity in
tradeable energy units
A unit of primary electricity may be equated theoretically with the amount
of coal or oil required to produce an equivalent unit of thermal electricity.
In the case of hydro-electricity, the ideal condition (assuming 100%
efficiency), is taken to be 3.6 TJ per million kWh which corresponds to
0.086 tons of oil equivalent per 1,000 kWh. (or 0.123 tons of coal
equivalent )
In the case of nuclear and geothermal electricity, the average condition is
assumed (33 and 10% efficiency respectively) and is taken to be 10.909
and 36 TJ per million kWh which corresponds to 0.372 and 1.228 tons of
coal equivalent or 0.261 and 0.860 tons of oil equivalent per 1,000 kWh.
One TOE is defined as 10.0 x 106 kcal or 0.041868 TJ (1 calorie =4.1868
joules).
Primary energy sources
Nonrenewable
sources
Fossil Fuels
Mineral
fuels
Renewable sources
Energy
systems
Secondary Energy
or
Energy
Carriers(main)
Oil (or crude
oil)
Oil Refinery
Fuel Oil and other
petroleum products
Coal
or
natural gas
Fossil
Fuel
Power Station
Enthalpy, Mechanical
work or Electricity
Natural
Uranium
Solar Energy
Wind Energy
Falling
and
flowing water,
tidal
Biomass
sources
Geothermal
Energy
Converted
by
Nuclear
Power Plant
(Thermonucle
ar fission)
Photovoltaic
power plant
Solar Power
Tower / Solar
Furnace
Wind Farm
Hydro power
plant,
wave,
Tidal
Power Station
Biomass
power station
Geothermal
Power Station
Electricity
to
Electricity
Enthalpy
Mechanical work or
electricity
Mechanical work or
electricity
Enthalpy or electricity
Enthalpy or electricity
1.3 Global Energy Situation
• Tradable ( Commercial Energy) – Oil , Coal ,
Natural Gas, Electricity
• Non – Tradable ( Non Commercial Energy) –
Animal Power, Traditional Sources such as fuel
wood,
please note though most indigenous renewable
sources (includes hydro power and others)
nuclear and geothermal are non tradable they
assume tradable status as it replaces tradable
forms – hence they are often replaced by tradable
equivalents such as oil or coal equivalent.
Table 1.3.1 Production and
consumption of commercial energy
Apart from the UN statistical Office (UNSO), The
Department of Energy (DOE) of the USA and World
Energy Council (WEC) collects global energy statistics
and publishes periodic reports giving their own
analysis of the global energy issues. These
publications give insights to the world energy
scenarios and also an indication of the world energy
outlook in the years to come. These reports assist
the world economies to forecast and plan their
energy production and consumption patterns to suit
the future energy outlook. The more recent global
environmental impacts have had a significant
bearing on the energy plans for the future.
Year
Primary
Energy
Production Consumption
Thousand metric tons of oil equivalent
kilograms per capita
Total
Solids
Liquids
Gas
Electricity*
Per Capita Total
Solids
Liquids
Gas
Electricity
2008
10940354 3422619
4082704
2893280
541751
1498
10114239 3355555
3343015
2874125
541545
2009
10837694 3473055
3998677
2815956
550006
1469
10038443 3358399
3309847
2819963
550235
2010
11379332 3693812
4083090
3023157
579273
1523
10532449 3533686
3374421
3044571
579771
2011
11684148 3843962
4130416
3133620
576150
1547
10822618 3752027
3383896
3109553
577142
Figure 1.3.3 Total Primary Energy Supply
Evolution
Table 1.3.2: Key Global Energy indicators for
1993, 2011 and 2020
Energy Source
1993
2013
2020
Percentage
incresefrom 1993 to
2020
TPES* Mtoe
9 532
14 092
17 208
48%
Coal Mt
4 474
7 520
10 108
68%
Oil Mt
3 179
3 973
4 594
25%
Natural Gas bcm
2 176
3 518
4 049
62%
Nuclear TWh
2 106
2 386
3 761
13%
Hydro Power TWh
2 286
2 767
3 826
21%
Biomass Mtoe
Other renewable**
TWh
1 036
44
1 277
515
1 323
1 999
23%
n/a
Global Energy Reserves , Production Rates and
Reserves to Production Ratios
• Global Energy Reserves depend on a variety of factors, there is the
notion of probable reserves also known as Estimated additional
amount in place( for oil and gas > 50% probability), then there is the
notion of possible energy reserves also known as Proved recoverable
reserves ( for oil and gas > 10% probability), and proven reserves also
known as Proved amount in place.
• Proved amount in place is the resource remaining in known deposits
that has been carefully measured and assessed as exploitable under
present and expected local economic conditions with existing available
technology
• Proved recoverable reserves are the reserves within the proved
amount in place that can be recovered in the future under present and
expected local economic conditions with existing available technology
• Estimated additional amount in place is the indicated and inferred
reserves additional to the proved amount in place that is of
foreseeable economic interest. It includes estimates of amounts which
could exist in unexplored extensions of known deposits or in
undiscovered deposits in known fossil fuel -bearing areas, as well as
amounts inferred through knowledge of favourable geological
conditions. Speculative amounts are not included.
Table 1.3.4 Global Energy Reserves , Production
Rates and Reserves to Production Ratios
RPR = (amount of known resource) / (amount used per year)
Source
Reserves
Production
R/P years
2011
1993
2011
1993
Coal (Mt)
891,530
1,031,610
7,520
4,474
> 100
Oil (Mt)
223,454
140,676
3,973
3,179
56
Natural
(bcm)
Gas 209,742
141,335
3,518
2,176
55
Table 1.3.5 Global Installed Capacity and
Annual Production of Nuclear and Renewable
Energy Sources
Source
Installed Capacity (MW)
Actual Generation (GWh)
2011
1993
2011
1993
Nuclear
364,078
340,295
2,385,903
2,106 000
Hydro Power
946,182
609,264
2,767,118
2,285,960
Wind
238,049
n/a
377,613
n/a
Solar PV
68,850
n/a
52 878
n/a
1.3.1 Types of Energy
Resources
Coal as an Energy Source:
• Coal is an important source of Energy , because it is widely available, safe,
reliable and relatively low cost - However it has poor environmental credentials.
• Coal remains a crucial contributor to energy supply in many countries.
-Coal is the most wide-spread fossil fuel around the world, and more than 75
countries have coal deposits.
-The current share of coal in global power generation is over 40%,
-Countries in Europe, and North America, are trying to shift their consumption
to alternative sources of energy,
- However in Asia, use of Coal is increasing, China alone now uses as much coal
as the rest of the world.
• There is continuing popularity of coal. While the global reserves of coal have
decreased by 14% between 1993 and 2011, the production has gone up by 68%
over the same time period.
• Compared to the 2010 survey, the most recent data shows that the proved coal
reserves have increased by 1% and production by 16%.
• The future of coal depends on the advance of clean coal technologies to
mitigate environmental risk factors, - CO2 emissions.
• Coal will play a major role in supporting the development of base-load
electricity where it is most needed. Coal-fired electricity will be fed into
national grids and it will bring energy access to millions, thus facilitating
economic growth in the developing world.
Figure 1.3.4 World Coal Reserves
Oil as an Energy Source:
• The oil crisis in the 1970s and 1980s resulted in sky-rocketing price of oil.
• Since then there have been, heated discussions about “peak oil” based
on the expectation of the world running out of oil within a few decades.
• Global oil reserves are almost 60% larger today than 20 years ago, and
production of oil has gone up by 25%. If the unconventional oil resources,
including oil shale, oil sands, extra heavy oil and natural bitumen are
taken into account, the global oil reserves will be four times larger than
the current conventional reserves.
• Oil still remains the premier energy resource with a wide range of
possible applications. Its main use however, will be shifting towards
transport and the petrochemical sector. In future oil’s position will face a
challenge from other fuels such as natural gas.
• The oil resource assessments have increased steadily between 2000 and
2009,.Compared to the 2010 survey, the proved oil reserves increased by
37% and production by 1%. Oil is a mature global industry but a number
of countries, for political reasons, have limited access to international
companies.
Figure 1.3.5 World Oil Reserves
Natural Gas as an Energy Source:
• Natural gas will continue making significant contribution to the world
energy economy. The cleanest of all fossil-based fuels, natural gas is
plentiful and flexible.
• It is increasingly used in the most efficient power generation technologies,
such as, Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) with conversion efficiencies of
about 60%.
• The reserves of conventional natural gas have grown by 36% over the past
two decades and its production by 61%. Compared to the 2010 survey, the
proved natural gas reserves have grown by 3% and production by 15%.
• The exploration, development and transport of gas usually requires
significant upfront investment. Close coordination between investment in
the gas and power infrastructure is necessary.
• In its search for secure, sustainable and affordable supplies of energy, the
world is turning its attention to unconventional energy resources. Shale gas
is one of them. It has turned upside down the North American gas markets,
and is making significant strides in other regions. The emergence of shale
gas as a potentially major energy source can have serious strategic
implications for geopolitics and the energy industry.
Figure 1.3.6 Natural Gas Reserves
Uranium and Nuclear as an Energy Source:
• The first nuclear reactor was commissioned in 1954. Uranium is the main source of
fuel for nuclear reactors. Worldwide output of uranium has recently been on the
rise after a long period of declining production due to oversupply following nuclear
disarmament.
• The total identified uranium resources have grown by 12.5% since 2008 and they
are sufficient for over 100 years of supply based on current requirements.
• Total nuclear electricity production has been growing during the past two decades
and reached an annual output of about 2 600TWh by the mid-2000s.T
• The three major nuclear accidents have slowed down or even reversed its growth
in some countries. The nuclear share of total global electricity production reached
its peak of 17% by the late 1980s, but since then it has been falling and dropped to
13.5% in 2012. its relative share in power generation has decreased, mainly due to
Fukushima nuclear accident.
• Japan used to be one of the countries with a high share of nuclear (30%) in its
electricity mix and high production volumes. Today, Japan has only two of its 54
reactors in operation.
• The rising costs of nuclear installations and lengthy approval times required for
new construction have had an impact on the nuclear industry. The slowdown has
not been global, as new countries, primarily in the rapidly developing economies in
the Middle East and Asia, are going ahead with their plans to establish nuclear
industries.
Hydro Power as an Energy Source:
• Hydro power provides a significant amount of energy throughout the
world and is present in more than 100 countries, contributing
approximately 15% of the global electricity production. The top 5 largest
markets for hydro power in terms of capacity are Brazil, Canada, China,
Russia and the United States of America.
• China significantly exceeds the others, representing 24% of global installed
capacity. In several other countries, hydro power accounts for over 50% of
all electricity generation, including Iceland, Nepal and Mozambique for
example. During 2012, an estimated 27–30GW of new hydro power and 2–
3GW of pumped storage capacity was commissioned.
• In many cases, the growth in hydro power was facilitated by the lavish
renewable energy support policies and CO2 penalties. Over the past two
decades the total global installed hydro power capacity has increased by
55%, while the actual generation by 21%. The global installed hydro power
capacity has increased by 8%, but the total electricity produced dropped
by 14%, mainly due to water shortages.
Wind Power as an Energy Source:
• Wind is available virtually everywhere on earth, although there are wide variations
in wind strengths. The total resource is vast; estimated to be around a million GW
‘for total land coverage’. If only 1% of this area was utilised, and allowance made
for the lower load factors of wind plants (15–40%, compared with 75–90% for
thermal plants) that would still correspond, roughly, to the total worldwide
capacity of all electricity-generating plants in operation today.
• World wind energy capacity has been doubling about every three and a half years
since 1990. Total capacity at the end of 2011 was over 238GW and annual
electricity generation around 377TWh, roughly equal to Australia’s annual
electricity consumption. China, with about 62GW, has the highest installed capacity
while Denmark, with over 3GW, has the highest level per capita. Wind accounts for
about 20% of Denmark’s electricity production. It is difficult to compare today’s
numbers with those two decades ago, as measuring methodologies and tools are
different.
• As governments begin to cut their subsidies to renewable energy, the business
environment becomes less attractive to potential investors. Lower subsidies and
growing costs of material input will have a negative impact on the wind industry in
recent years.
Solar PV as an Energy Source:
• Solar energy is the most abundant energy resource and it is available for
use in its direct (solar radiation) and indirect (wind, biomass, hydro,
ocean etc.) forms. About 60% of the total energy emitted by the sun
reaches the Earth’s surface. Even if only 0.1% of this energy could be
converted at an efficiency of 10%, it would be four times larger than the
total world’s electricity generating capacity of about 5,000GW. The
statistics about solar PV installations are patchy and inconsistent.
• The use of solar energy is growing strongly around the world, in part
due to the rapidly declining solar panel manufacturing costs. For
instance, between 2008–2011 PV capacity has increased in the USA
from 1 168MW to 5 171MW, and in Germany from 5 877MW to 25
039MW. The anticipated changes in national and regional legislation
regarding support for renewables is likely to moderate this growth.
Bio-energy and Waste as an Energy
Source:
• Bioenergy is a broad category of energy fuels manufactured from a
variety of feedstocks of biological origin and by numerous conversion
technologies to generate heat, power, liquid biofuels and gaseous
biofuels. The term “traditional biomass” mainly refers to fuelwood,
charcoal, and agricultural residues used for household cooking, lighting
and space-heating in developing countries. The industrial use of raw
materials for production of pulp, paper, tobacco, pig iron so on,
generates byproducts such as bark, wood chips, black liquor,
agricultural residues, which can be converted to bioenergy.
• The share of bioenergy in TPES has been estimated at about 10% in
1990. Between 1990 and 2010 bioenergy supply has increased from 38
to 52EJ as a result of growing energy demand. New policies to increase
the share of renewable energy and indigenous energy resources are
also driving demand. However, it is difficult to make accurate
comparisons with earlier figures because of poor availability and low
level of standardisation of data.
1.3.2 The World Energy Outlook in the
past 20 years
• sharp increase in the price of oil since 2001 after 15 years of moderate oil
prices
• financial crisis and slow economic growth with drastic reduction in energy
consumption in large economies
• shale gas in North America
• Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident
• The volatile political situation in the energy supplying countries in the
Middle East and North Africa, “The Arab Spring”
• lack of global agreement on climate change mitigation
• collapse of CO2 prices in the European Emissions Trading System
exponential growth in renewables, in particular in Europe due to generous
subsidies for producers which can become a problem instead of an
opportunity deployment of ‘smart’ technologies
• energy efficiency potential still remaining untapped
• growing public concerns about new infrastructure projects, including energy
projects and their impact on political decision-making process
The above Outlook has resulted in:
• The changes in the energy industry over the past 20 years have been significant.
The growth in energy consumption has been higher than anticipated even in the
high-growth scenarios. The energy industry has been able to meet this growth
globally assisted by continuous increases in reserves’ assessments and improving
energy production and consumption technologies. The results of the 2013 WEC
World Energy Resources survey show that there are more energy resources in the
world today than 20 years ago, or ever before.
• It is obvious that moving away from fossil fuels will take years and decades, as coal,
oil and gas will remain the main energy resources in many countries. Fuel-switching
does not happen overnight. The leading world economies are powered by coal:
about 40% of electricity in the United States and 79% of the electricity in China is
generated in coal fired thermal plants. These plants will continue to run for
decades. The main issue for coal is the CO2 penalty.
• Contrary to the expectations of the world running out of oil within a few decades,
the so called notion of ‘peak oil’ which prevailed 20 years ago, has almost been
forgotten. The global crude oil reserves are almost 60% larger today than in 1993
and the production of oil has gone up by 20%. If the unconventional oil resources
such as oil shale, oil sands, extra heavy oil and natural bitumen are taken into
account, the oil endowment of the world could be quadrupled. An increasing share
of oil will be consumed in the rapidly growing transport sector, where it will remain
the principal fuel.
The above Outlook has resulted in:
• Natural gas is expected to continue its growth spurred by falling or stable prices,
and thanks to the growing contribution of unconventional gas, such as shale gas. In
addition to power generation, natural gas is expected to play an increasing role as a
transport fuel.
• The future of nuclear energy is uncertain. While some countries, mainly in Europe,
are making plans to withdraw from nuclear, other countries are looking to establish
nuclear power generation.
• The development of renewables, excluding large hydro, has been considerably
slowerthan expected 20 years ago. Despite the exponential growth of renewable
resources in percentage terms, in particular wind power and solar PV, renewable
energy still accounts for a small percentage of TPES in most countries. Their
contribution to energy supply is not expected to change dramatically in the coming
years. The continuing growth of renewables strongly depends on subsidies and
other support provided by governments. Integration of intermittent renewables in
the electricity grids also remains an issue, as it results in additional balancing costs
for the system and thus higher electricity bills.
• Energy efficiency helps address the “energy trilemma” and provides an immediate
opportunity to decrease energy intensity. This will achieve energy savings and
reduce the environmental impacts of energy production and use.
1.3.3 In Summary :
• Finally, demand for energy will continue to grow. Even if global
energy resources seem to be abundant today, there are other
constraints facing the energy sector, above all, significant capital
investment in developing and developed economies is needed.
The environment and climate, in particular, pose an additional
challenge. Clean technologies will require adequate financing, and
consumers all over the world should be prepared to pay higher
prices for their energy than today. Energy is global and to make
the right choices, decision makers should look at the global picture
and base their decisions on a thorough life cycle analysis and
reliable energy information.
• One of the major challenges facing the world at present is that
approximately 1.2 billion people live without any access to modern
energy services.Access to energy is fundamental pre-requisite for
modern life and a key tool in eradicating extreme poverty across
the globe
1.4 Sri Lanka Energy Situation
1.4.1 Energy Resources Used in Sri
Lanka
Both indigenous resources available in
the country such as biomass and hydro
power and imported fossil fuels are the
main resources used in the country to
fulfill its energy needs.
Indigenous Energy Resources
Available in Sri Lanka
Due to geo-climatic settings, Sri Lanka is blessed with several types of
renewable energy resources. Some of them are widely used and
developed to supply the energy requirements of the country. Others have
the potential for development when the technologies become mature
and economically feasible for use.
• Following are the main renewable resources available in Sri Lanka.
- Biomass
- Hydro Power
- Solar
- Wind
the availability of petroleum within Sri Lankan territory is being
investigated.
and some Peat resources in the Muthurajawela swamp, there are no
known commercially tradable energy resources in the country.
Biomass
Large quantities of firewood and other
biomass resources are used for cooking in
rural households and to a lesser extent, in
urban households.
A large portion of energy needs of the rural
population is fulfilled by firewood.
There are other uses of biomass for energy in
the country, especially for thermal energy
supply in the industrial sector.
Hydro
Hydro power is a key energy source used for electricity
generation in Sri Lanka. A large share of the major
hydro potential has already been developed and
delivers valuable low cost electricity to the country.
Currently, hydro power stations are operated to supply
both peaking, intermediate and base load electricity
generation requirements.
A substantial number of small hydro power plants
operate under the Standardised Power Purchase
Agreement (SPPA) and many more are expected to join
the fleet during the next few years.
Solar
• Solar Power was first introduced to Sri Lanka in 1976 at the Ruralk
Energy Centre – Patiyapola
• More than 100,000 Solar Home Systems were installed during
several attempts to introduce stand alone systems to provide
basic lighting and TV applications in rural households
commencing from 1983.
• Two solar power plants at the Hambantota Solar Park, are
operated at a relatively low level, with annual plant factors of
16.01% from the 737 kW plant and 15.04% from the 500 kW.
• Approval has been granted for three 10 MW Solar PV plants and
several more solar based power plants with storage capability.
• These efforts have given way to solar roof top units spurred by
high cost of grid electricity to households in the high consuming
categories through Net-metering scheme which was introduced
in 2010. More than 3 MW of roof top PV systems are conectedto
the national grid as at end 2013.
Wind
• Wind development was first initiated as a wind driven water pumping
systems for irrigation purposes. This initiative supported by the
Government of Netherlands in late 1970’s.
• In early 80’s a detailed wind resource data collection was initiated in the
South Eastern, Norh Western and central regions of the country This was
the first step towards introduction of wind for power generation., The first
pilot scale 3MW wind power project was installed with world Bank
assistance in the early 1990’s.
• wind resources in the entire country was conducted with assistance of the
USAID.
• Sri Lanka was identified as a high wind resource country. With this
revelation and the Small Power Purchase Agreement spurred the
installation of several 10MW wind power projects mainly in the North
Western Putalam area now with about 75 MW installed in the country.
• Mannar Island is now identified as an area with very high wind potential.
Oil/Gas Exploration
Cairn Lanka (Pvt) Ltd (CLPL) has completed its
work commitment for the first phase
successfully, which resulted in two successive
gas and condensate discoveries in two of the
three exploration wells drilled in 2011 and a
fourth well in 2013. in Mannar
Indigenous Energy Resources in Sri Lanka and their Applications
Imported Energy Resources used in Sri
Lanka and their Applications
1.4.2 Energy Supply in Sri Lanka
The four main sources of Energy Supply in the
country are:
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•
•
•
Biomass
Petroleum (Imported)
Coal (Imported)
Electricity (Generated from both indigenous and
imported sources)
Primary Energy Supply by Source
Sources of Production of Biomass
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•
•
•
Biomass comes in different forms. Following
are the most common forms of biomass
available in Sri Lanka.
Fuel wood
Municipal Waste
Industrial Waste
Agricultural Waste
Traditional Energy Resources and their Conversions
Energy Supply from Petroleum
Sri Lanka totally depends on petroleum imports,
both in the form of crude oil and as finished
products. The importation of crude oil and
finished petroleum products has increased over
time. In 2013 however, the imported quantity of
crude oil increased by 6.7%, while finished
product imports decreased by 32.4%. This
decrease is visible nearly in all fuels used in
transport, power generation and industries.
Crude Oil and Petroleum product imports
Energy Supply from Coal
The demand for coal continued to rise in 2013
as well, owing to the operation of the coalfired power plant. With the commissioning of
the entire Coal Power plant in 2014, of 900
MW this coal importation is expected to
increase up to 2.5 Mt per year.
Coal Imports in ‘000t
Solid and Liquid Fuel Imports to the Country
Supply from Major Hydro
• The topography of the country provides an excellent opportunity to harness
the energy stored in river
• hydro resource for direct motive power was common in yesteryears, mainly
to provide motive power to over 600 tea factories in the central hill country
in the later part of the 19th century.
• The first technical paper on the use of Hydro power was presented by Eng.
D J Wimalausurendra in 1922.
• The major hydropower development commenced with the Kehelgamu Oya
– Maskeli Oya Project popularly known as the Laxapana Project.
Subsequently with the launching of the Multipurpose Mahaweli Project and
later other hydro power projects total installed capacity of hydro power
stands at 1200 MW.
• Electricity production has become the sole use of the hydro as an energy
resource in recent times apart from its strategic use in irrigation and
drinking water . The contribution of hydro as an energy supply source is
always through its secondary form, which is electricity.
• There are two other large scale hydro power stations, namely
Samanalawewa on Walawe basin and Kukule Ganga on Kalu ganga basin,
while small scale power plants such as Inginiyagala and Uda Walawa are
also generating hydropower using their respective irrigation reservoir
storages owned and operated by CEB.
Laxapana Complex
Laxapana Complex is a result of Kehelgamu –
Maskeli Oya development project. The five
power stations in the Laxapana Complex are
situated along Kehelgamu oya and Maskeli
Oya. The main reservoir at the top of
Kehelgamu oya is Castlereagh reservoir.
Main reservoir associated with Maskeli oya is
Maussakelle reservoir.
Laxapana Complex
Mahaweli Complex
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•
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The first reservoir in Mahaweli complex is the Kotmale reservoir which gets water after
generation of power in the run-of-the river power plant at Upper Kotmale power station
generating 150 MW. At Kotmale power station 3x67MW turbine generator units operate.
Water released after operations at Kotmale PS flow along the river into the Polgolla
barrage. From Polgolla barrage, water is diverted to North Central province for irrigation and
other purposes. This is done by carrying the water through a long tunnel to Ukuwela power
station to operate two 20 MW machines.
Water released after operating these 02 units flow to Bowatenna reservoir. Water is sent to
Anuradhapura district direct from Bowatenna reservoir, and water used to operate the 40
MW machine at Bowatenna power station is sent to Elahera anicut, again to distribute water
for irrigation.
When water spills over the Polgolla barrage, it flows along the Mahaweli river to the large
Victoria reservoir. The three 70 MW hydro units at Victoria power station operates using
water from Victoria reservoir. Water released after operations at Victoria power station
flows to Randenigala reservoir, which is the largest reservoir in Mahaweli complex. Water at
Randenigala reservoir is used to operate the two 60 MW machines at Randenigala power
station and then released to Rantambe reservoir. Water at Rantambe pond is taken to
operate 2x 25 MW machines at Rantambe power station. The discharged water from
Rantambe power station is sent to Minipe anicut. This water is then distributed for
downstream irrigation and other purposes.
The primary objective of the Multi Purpose Mahaweli system is to provide water for
irrigation and other uses. Power generation is the secondary purpose.
Mahaweli Complex
Total Installed Capacity in the Country
The total installed capacities by type of power plant.
Installed Capacities and Generation of NRE Power
Plants by end 2013
Gross Generation of Grid Connected Power Plants
Gross Generation by sources
1.4.4 Energy Demand in Sri Lanka
• Energy is a vital building block for economic growth
• Energy demand arises owing to energy needs of
households, industries, commercial buildings, etc.
According to the needs of the user, the supply of
energy has to take different forms. For example, the
energy demand for cooking is in the form of biomass in
rural areas, while it is in the form of either LP gas or
electricity in urban areas. Therefore, not only the
quantity of energy, even the quality and the form it is
delivered, is determined by the demand.
The Growth in System Capacity and Demand
Development of System Load Factor, Reserve Margin
and Peak Demand
Demand for Different Petroleum Products
Demand for Coal and Biomass
Total Energy Demand by Energy Source
Total Energy Demand by Energy Source
Total Energy Demand by Sector
Total Energy Demand by Sector
Energy Balance in PJ
Energy Flow Diagram for 2013