Chapter 4
Socialization Over
the Life Course
Chapter Outline
Nature vs. Nurture Debate
 Socialization
 Theoretical Perspectives and
Socialization
 Psychology and Life Course Theories
 Socialization and the Life Course
 Socialization and the Mass Media
 Functionalist and Conflict Theories
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Questions for Consideration
Who were the early proponents of
each side of the debate?
 Which do you feel is more influential
in development, nature or nurture?
Why?
 Do you think individuals can have
a sense of self without interaction
with others?
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Socialization
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Socialization – life long process of
learning to participate in group life
through the acquisition of culture.
Learning what the expectations of
behavior are in order to adjust and adapt.
The nature of humans is shaped by
socialization.
Nearly all human behavior considered
normal and natural is learned.
Socialization and
Personality
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Important learning occurs in early
childhood.
The cases highlighted in the video
demonstrate that, without early
prolonged and intensive social contact,
children do not learn basic
developmental skills.
Without socialization, human infants’
personality is also not able to develop.
Importance of Socialization
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Harlow’s experiments show negative effects
of social isolation among rhesus monkeys.
Infant monkeys need intimacy, warmth,
physical contact, and comfort.
Babies denied close human contact
usually have difficulty forming emotional
ties with others.
Touching, holding, stroking, and
communicating appear to be essential to
normal human development.
Social Isolation Among
Humans
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Histories provided of three children – Anna,
Isabelle, and Genie – who were socially and
emotionally neglected or abused.
Anna: was confined to an attic-like room in a
farmhouse. Kept alive on milk until age of 5.
When found, was extremely emaciated and
undernourished. No signs of intelligence were
shown and she could not walk or talk. Died at
age 10.
At time of her death she could carry out
instructions, identify a few colors, wash her
hands, brush her hair, and try to help others.
Social Isolation Among
Humans – Cont.
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Isabelle: child of a deaf-mute mother. Both she
and her mother stayed in a dark room, secluded
from the rest of the family. Isabelle was found at
age 6 ½, was physically ill from inadequate diet
and lack of sunshine. She was unable to talk.
Communicated with her mother through
gestures. Reacted with fear and hostility toward
strangers.
After two years of an intensive rehabilitation
program, she acquired the skills mastered by a
6-year-old.
Social Isolation Among
Humans – Cont.
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Genie: from the age of 2 was kept isolated by
her father in a locked room. Was found at age of
13, much of her behavior was “subhuman”. She
was completely silent, did not cry or sob. Could
not chew as she had not been given solid food.
Social behavior was primitive.
Attempts to socialize her over a 4 year period
were unsuccessful. She could not read, only
speak in short phrases, and had begun to control
some of her feelings.
Symbolic Interactionism
and Socialization
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Charles Horton Cooley and George
Herbert Mead challenged the prominent
belief in their day, that human nature is
biologically determined.
Human nature is a social product
according to Cooley, Mead, and Smith.
Key concepts include: self-concept, the
looking-glass self, significant others, role
taking, and the generalized other.
Looking-glass Self Theory
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This theory was developed by Cooley.
Cooley defined self-concept – an image
of oneself as an entity separate from
other people.
Looking-glass self – a self-concept
based on our perception of others’
judgments of us.
The looking-glass self is the product of a
three stage process that is constantly
taking place.
Looking-glass Self Theory –
Cont.
1.
2.
3.
We imagine how we appear to others.
We imagine the reaction of others to our
imagined appearance.
We evaluate ourselves according to how
we imagine others have judged us.
Mead’s Theory of
Development of Self
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Mead furthered Cooley’s theory of looking-glass
self. He stated that some people are more
important to us than others.
Significant others – those people whose
judgments are most important to our selfconcept (mother, father, grandparents,
playmates, etc.)
Role taking – the process which allows us to
take the viewpoint of another individual and
then respond to ourselves from that imagined
viewpoint. A cognitive process that permits us to
play out scenes in our mind.
Ability to Role Take - Mead
1.
2.
3.
Imitation Stage – begins around 1 ½ to 2
years of age. The child imitates the physical
and verbal behavior of a significant other.
Play Stage – children take on roles of others
(significant others) one at a time (e.g., playing
house).
Game Stage – children learn to engage in
more sophisticated role taking. Can consider
roles of several people simultaneously (e.g.,
able to truly play soccer). Able to incorporate
the generalized other – an integrated
conception of norms, values, & beliefs of one’s
community/society
Psychology and Life Course
Theories
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Socialization involves our entire life
course.
Development of personality is part of that
life course.
Consideration of psychologically-oriented
life course theories can provide further
context for understanding the process of
socialization.
Sigmund Freud –
Psychoanalytical Development
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The personality has three parts:
 Id - made up of biologically inherited
urges and impulses; selfish and irrational;
ruled by pleasure principle.
 Ego - the conscious, rational part of the
personality; balances the Id and the
Superego; ruled by reality principle.
 Superego - the conscience; contains all
the “right” and “wrong” ideas we have
learned; all the “shoulds” we have learned
from society.
Erik Erikson - Psychosocial
Development
Described developmental stages
that occur from infancy to old age.
 Each stage is accompanied by a
psychosocial crisis, or developmental
task.
 Socialization and personality
development are lifelong processes.
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Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Age
Crisis
First year Trust vs.
mistrust
2 to 3
4 to 5
Favorable Outcome
Faith in the
environment and
others
Autonomy Feelings of selfvs. shame control and adequacy
Initiative
Ability to begin one’s
vs. guilt
own activities
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Age
6 to 12
12 to 18
18 to 35
Crisis
Favorable
Outcome
Industry vs.
Confidence in
inferiority
productive skills
Identity vs.
Image of oneself
role confusion as a unique
person
Intimacy vs. Ability to form
isolation
bonds of love and
friendship
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Age
Crisis
Favorable
Outcome
35 to 60 Generativity
Concern for
vs. stagnation family, society,
and future
generations
Over age Integrity vs.
Sense of dignity
60
despair
and fulfillment;
willingness to face
death
Jean Piaget – Cognitive
Development
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Ability to think, know, and reason develops
through interaction with others.
Each of us must pass through 4 stages in the
proper developmental sequence:
 Sensorimotor stage (0 – 24 mo.)
 Preoperational stage (2 – 7 yrs.)
 Concrete operational stage (7 – 11 yrs.)
 Formal operational stage (after age 11)
Questions for Consideration
What are the agents (agencies) of
socialization identified in the video?
 Can you identify any additional
agents of socialization?
 Which agency/agent is considered
the primary one?
 What is the purpose of schools in
the socialization process?
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Agencies of Socialization
Family
 School
 Church
 Peer groups
 Mass media
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Goffman’s Total Institutions
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Total institution – places in which residents
are separated from the rest of society (e.g.,
prisons, mental health institutions, military).
Desocialization – process of relinquishing
old norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors.
Resocialization – process of learning to
adopt to new norms, values, attitudes, and
behaviors.
These concepts were developed by Goffman
to analyze processes in extreme situation,
but they apply to other social settings.
Questions for Consideration
How culturally universal are the
various life stage development
theories relative to how people learn
the rules of a society?
 Are life cycle stages defined by
biology, psychology, or sociology?
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Socialization & Family
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Family is the child’s first exposure to
the world.
Through members of the family we learn to
think and speak; internalize norms, beliefs,
and values; form basic attitudes; develop
capacity for intimate and personal
relationships; and acquire a self-image.
Impact of family reaches far beyond direct
effects on the personal and social
development of the child.
Impacts of the Family
Our family of birth largely
determines our place in society.
 Social class significantly affects how
others treat us and what we think of
ourselves. Our social class is initially
determined by our family.
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What other areas relative to social
location does the family impact?
Schools and Socialization
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Agency of socialization controlled by
nonrelatives.
Exposes children to objective standards of
performance.
Encourages them to develop loyalties beyond
their own families.
Trains children to be disciplined, orderly,
cooperative, and conforming.
Hidden curriculum – informal and unofficial
aspects of culture that children are taught as
preparation for life in larger society.
Peer Groups and
Socialization
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Agency of socialization not controlled
by adults.
Provides young people with experiences they
cannot easily obtain elsewhere.
Teaches young people to deal with others
as equals.
Children learn to be different from their
parents in ways that contribute to selfsufficiency.
Helps them gain experience in self-direction
and establish independence from adults.
Mass Media and
Socialization
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Mass Media – means of communication
designed to reach the general population.
Sociologists agree that mass media are
powerful socializing agencies (e.g.,
television, radio, magazines, movies, books,
the Internet, tapes, CDs).
Children learn behavior expected of
individuals in certain social statuses.
The media display role models for children
to imitate.
Television and Socialization
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99% of all U.S. households have at least one
television set.
Average U.S. household watches over 6 hrs.
of television daily.
Therefore TV contributes significantly to the
socialization process.
By elementary school completion a child has
seen 8,000 murders.
At age 18, that child will have witnessed
200,000 violent acts.
TV and Socialization – Cont.
Television effects are usually hidden,
subtle, and long term.
 Researchers generally agree that at
times the effect of TV is direct,
concrete, and dramatic.
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Availability of Television
Questions for Consideration
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What geographical factor(s) might
contribute to the density of TV
households in South America?
Do you think members of societies with
few televisions are as well socialized as
members of societies with more sets?
Why/why not?
What other questions might you pose
after looking at this map?
Stages of Adult
Development
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Early Adulthood (18 to late 30s)
 Involves a move beyond adolescence and
a preliminary step into adulthood.
 Interest in achieving occupational success,
contributing to society, and establishing a
solid family life are central here.
 Ends when the individual has made a life
within the adult world.
Stages of Adult
Development – Cont.
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Middle Adulthood (late 30s to mid 60s)
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New questions about one’s place in the
world arise.
Choices are made to either continue the path
already taken or establish a different life path.
Usually subtle changes take place.
Acceptance of one’s level of achievement
occurs at the end of this stage.
Emphasis of success is replaced by concern
with personal relationships and small
pleasures in life.
Stages of Adult
Development – Cont.
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Late Adulthood (Mid 60s until death)
 Major challenge is the withdrawal from
participation in certain major aspects of
social life.
 Roles are lost because statuses are lost.
 Expected to retire from work.
 Generally face the loss of a spouse.
Periods in the Eras of Early
and Middle Adulthood
Questions for Consideration
Does this model of development
apply to both men and women?
 Does the model apply across
different cultures and subcultures?
 What are socialization experiences
unique to women? Unique to men?
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Functions of the media
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Provides valuable information.
Promotes social continuity and
integration.
Supplies entertainment.
Explains and interprets meanings
of events and information.
Mobilizes society when necessary.
Dysfunctions of
the mass media
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Increases social conformity.
Legitimates the status quo.
Impedes social change while promoting
social continuity and integration.
Diverts the public from serious issues
through trivial entertainment.
Shapes views through editorializing as
they “interpret” events and information.
Creates violence via public mobilization.
Conflict Theory and the
Media: Marxian View
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Workers are exploited by being paid less
than they deserve.
Consumers are overcharged.
Ruling class receives excessive profits.
The media are a tool of manipulation
by which the ruling class maintains
its power.
Conflict Theory and the
Media: Power Elite (Dye)
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Evidence that the media is
controlled by the ruling class:
 Concentration of power in
the media
 Agenda-setting power of
the media
 Media’s ability to socialize
the population
Questions for Consideration
Who do you think has more
influence on people’s behavior –
friends or family? Explain.
 As a college student have you
undergone desocialization,
resocialization, anticipatory
socialization? Explain.
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