语言知识教学
绵阳市教育科学研究所
袁伦高
yuanlungao@163.com
What’s language knowledge
Could be anything about the target
language
Grammar
Vocabulary
the characteristic features of particular text
types
Culture
understanding of how the language works in the
context
Implicit and explicit
Implicit knowledge
acquire and use unconsciously
Pick up on the way of exposing to the language
Explicit knowledge
 requires conscious teaching and learning
Implication
Don’t have to teach everything
Heavy heritage
Renowned for the explicit teaching of
language knowledge
In class, we used to teach nothing but language
knowledge
Much is said, but little is done to translate
language knowledge into the ability to use the
language as a tool
Cramming and rote learning are the most often
used method to teach language knowledge
How language knowledge
comes into being?
Language in its natural form
Flow of sounds
System of written symbols
Language in linguists’ eyes
discourse
paragraphs
sentences
phrases
words
Morphemes
Relationship
phonemes
Below included in above
Unreliable illusion
Progressive process
approximation
Acquaintance
acquisition
accuracy
Effective way of obtaining knowledge
scaffold students’ learning of specific
language forms by setting well-constructed
communicative tasks that naturally lead
them to notice and reproduce those forms
so that they gain implicit knowledge of
them
make this knowledge explicit, for example
by discussing the language forms
incidentally
Meaning-based v.s. form-based
 Research has shown that language learners
benefit when their attention is drawn to the forms
of words, grammatical structures, and texts
incidentally, in the context of real messages with
meaningful content. Teaching grammatical rules
explicitly and expecting students to memorize
them is less effective. An important part of a
language teacher’s repertoire is knowing how to
teach language forms in meaningful and
effective ways.
Meaning, form and use
Meaning---sugar coat
Form---the medicine
Use---the directions
Restrained teacher talk
A Wise Old Owl
by Edward Hersey Richards
A wise old owl sat on an oak.
The more he saw the less he
spoke;
The less he spoke the more
he heard.
Why aren’t we like that wise
old bird?
Keep the explanations brief
A simple comment that the past tense
refers to events in the past serves as an
adequate explanation. The same holds
true of a few comments on the past perfect,
or any other structure. A visual diagram
and several examples also further
highlight the target language.
Limit the explanation to the
task/lesson at hand
There may be several exceptions to the
rule. There may be times when the
language isn't used for some situation or
with some medium. Yet this is all
extraneous information. The teacher wants
to provide just enough explanation for the
students to practice the language correctly
and purposefully.
Consider devoting several lessons to a
specific grammar or language point
This allows the teacher to address and
practice the rules and exceptions, yet not
overwhelm the class with too much
information. The teacher can also practice
different skills/mediums, yet return to the
same language point.
Address grammar and vocabulary
again and again.
 The teacher should provide several
opportunities to acquire the target language
during a course of study. Just because students
have studied the target material once doesn't
mean they can use it well. By revisiting the
target structures, then students who grasped the
form have a second chance to grasp the
meaning and use of the target structure.
Students who grasped the meaning have a
second chance for the form and use.
Vocabulary
Formulaic expressions
expressions that can be used meaningfully
in a consistent form in a specific context
(without reference to how it might be
adapted for other uses )
Vocabulary
Where vocabulary is introduced and
practised in communicative contexts
(rather than in lists), students are likely to
see the relevance of learning words and
phrases and to be sufficiently interested
and motivated to remember them
From receptive to productive
A effective tool to help remember words
Mind Maps!
Mind Maps!
Related Category
Related word
Related word
Related word
Related Category
Related word
Related word
Related word
Related Category
Related word
Related word
Word or Phrase Related word
Related Category
Related word
Related word
Related word
Mind Maps!
Features:
•Fast
•Little preparation-time
•Pictures as prompts
•Different colors
•Can be used for any topic
•Pre-teach vocabulary
Is it easier to remember
words in “mind maps”
compared to lists?
or
Word Lists vs. Mind Maps
Memorize these words in 60 seconds
NO WRITING!!!
active
alive
bicycle
boat
bread
build
call
different
foot
invite
jeans
kilometer
match
shower
tennis
Theater
Thirsty
woman
Write as many words as you can
remember!
Look at the mind map for 60 seconds!
happy
sad
Sounds
soft
piano
guitar
loud
Music
Types
classical
rock
Instruments
pop
drums
People
Singer
Pianist
Guitarist
Write as many words as you can
remember… use a mind map!
Grammar
Historically, grammar has been considered to
be (Hinkel & Fotos 2002):
-nouns
-verbs
-participles
-articles
-pronouns
-prepositions
-adverbs
-conjunctions
The advent of other approaches:
-Direct approaches (audio-lingualism)
-Functional approaches
-Communicative approaches
The Audiolingual Method
The audiolingual method focuses on the
comprehension of language at a largely
mechanical level (Davidson, 1978).
Examples of mechanically structured
activities might include repetition or
substitution. The teacher is in control of the
lesson, and students can often successfully
participate without any understanding of
meaning (Davidson, 1978).
Functional Approaches
 These are usually based on situational
language needs (Hinkel & Fotos, 2002).
 According to Skehan, these activities often
follow a “presentation, practice, and
production” protocol (cited in Hinkel &
Fotos, 2002).
Communicative/Humanistic Approaches
These methods mimic a natural acquisition
of language, for example, how a child
acquires L1 (Hinkel & Fotos, 2002).
Language is acquired using meaningful
input, with no formal grammatical
instruction. It is assumed that ELLs will
naturally acquire the forms of language
when this approach is used (Hinkel & Fotos,
2002).
Myth: Grammar structures are meaningless
forms (Larsen-Freeman, 1995)
- Learning a structure in grammar, is not
complete unless its function is explored at
the same time (Wagner-Gough, 1975).
- There are 3 dimensions to grammar
instruction: form, meaning and function/use
(Larsen-Freeman, 1995).
- Grammar instruction should include the
answers to when and why to use any given
structure (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).
Myth: Grammar acquisition consists of
arbitrary rules (Larsen-Freeman, 1995)
-Interlanguages (ILs) appear to follow rules,
and are systematic (Larsen-Freeman,
1995).
This does not mean that an ELL would be
using a grammatical structure as a NS
would from first exposure, but that they are
still moving toward its proper use while
forming rules in his/her IL.
-Though systematic, this development
through an IL may not be linear (LarsenFreeman, 1995).
Myth: Grammar structures are learned
one at a time (Larsen-Freeman, 1995)
-The acquisition of some structures may
depend on the acquisition of others. A
simple accumulation of structures, one at
time, can lead to a phenomenon known as
backsliding. When backsliding occurs, it is
because certain elements become omitted
in order to make room for new elements
(Larsen-Freeman, 1995).
Myth: Grammar is acquired naturally, and
doesn’t have to be taught (LarsenFreeman, 1995)
- In French immersion programs, where the focus is
on meaning alone, students have demonstrated a
less than expected understanding of grammar in
the language (Harley & Swain, 1984).
- Students may develop the ability to convey
meaning, without developing proper grammar.
Selective form-focused instruction may therefore be
necessary to ensure that as language develops, so
does grammar (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).
Lightbrown and Spada (1990)research
(cited in Larsen-Freeman, 1995):
-This study looked at 4 (primarily communicative)
French immersion classes, each of which
incorporated a varying level of form-based
instruction in grammar.
-Their results demonstrated that the class that
never focused on grammatical form performed
the worst according to the assessment used.
- Part of the reason for this, according to LarsenFreeman (1995), is that focusing student
evidence might be unnecessary when
instructing grammar (Larsen-Freeman,
1995)
-If errors are not corrected, then
overgeneralizations in language tend to
occur (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).
-Negative evidence might be part of the
input that ELLs need, though they may not
have needed it to the same extent for their
L1 (Larsen-Freeman, 1995).
Myth: All grammatical structures are
learned in the same way (Larsen-Freeman,
1995)
“Any claim to the effect that all acquisition is
the product of habit formation or of rule
formation, or today, of setting/resetting
parameters or the strengthening of
connections in complex neural networks, is
an obvious oversimplification of a complex
process” (Larsen-Freeman, 1995, p. 141).
3 options in language teaching:
Focus on Forms
Focus on meaning
Focus on form
Focus on Forms:
“Parts of the language are taught
separately and step by step so that the
acquisition is a process of gradual
accumulation of parts until the whole
structure of language has been built up…At
any one time the learner is being exposed to
a deliberate limited sample of language”
(Wilkins, 1976, p. 2).
Focus on Meaning:
The essential claim is that people of all ages
learn language best, inside or outside the
classroom, not by treating the languages as
the object of study, but by experiencing them
as a medium of communication… “language
is organized in terms of the purpose for
which people are learning language and the
kinds of language performance that are
necessary to meet those purposes” (Wilkins,
1976, p. 13).
Focus on Form:
“Overtly draws students’ attention to linguistic
elements as they arise incidentally in lessons
whose overriding focus is on meaning or
communication”
(Long, 1991, pp. 45-46).
“Often consists of an occasional shift of attention
to linguistic code features– by the teacher and/or
one or more of the students– triggered by
perceived problems with comprehension or
production”
(Long & Robinson, 1999, p. 23).
Advantage of Focus on Form:
“The learner’s attention is drawn
precisely to a linguistic feature as
necessitated by a communicative demand”
(Doughty & Williams, 1999, p. 3).
Arguments against Grammar
Instruction:
The study of grammar promotes knowledge about
language not how to use the language (Krashen,
1983, p. 10).
We acquire our first language without any explicit
knowledge of grammar (Krashen, 1983, p. 10).
The natural order (Krashen, 1983, pp. 12-36) in
which languages are learned precludes the
influence of instruction.
If communicative competence is the goal, then
classroom time is better spent engaging in
language use (Krashen, 1983, p. 37).
Arguments for Grammar Instruction:
Without explicit instruction learners’ interlanguage
often fossilizes.
Grammar instruction may act as an advanced
organizer helping learners to notice features of
language when they are ready.
Learning finite rules can help to simplify an
otherwise daunting and complex task by organizing
it into neat categories.
Older students’ expectation about language
learning often includes grammar instruction.
Learning grammar structures allows for more
creative applications of language.
(Lightbown & Spada, 1990, pp. 429-448)
Teaching Grammar:
Teachers need to consider how to present
grammar to their students (approach), what
options for dealing with the grammar should
be used, and which area they will focus on
during practice (accuracy, fluency, or
restructuring).
Approaches
Deductive– teaching through rules (the rule
is provided followed by the provision of
examples in which the rule is applied).
Inductive– teaching through examples
(students are provided with several
examples from which a rule is inferred).
Sources of inductive instruction:
Realia / Actions
Worksheets (can often be structured to
inductively lead students to a grammar rule)
Authentic texts (after listening to a dialogue
or reading a text, students can answer
questions to highlight certain grammatical
structures– these may then be used to derive
rules)
Dialogues
Recorded Conversations
Options:
Teaching through practice:
Drills: activities that are structured to allow
only one correct answer
Exercises: Open-ended grammar activities
Practice leads to the creation of a continuum
ranging from text manipulation activities to
text creation activities.
Practice:
Text manipulation activities: Provide
students with sentences that they will be
required to operate on in some limited
manner such as: fill-in-the blank, make a
choice from items provided, substitute
another item, or transform into another
pattern.
Practice:
Text creation activities: Require learners to
produce language creatively using the target
structure (these activities are not truly
communicative because the students are
aware that the purpose of the activity is to
practice a specific structure).
Communicative grammar tasks:
Provide students with genuine opportunities to
communicate using language that is known.
These tasks differ from text creation activities in
that the students are not restricted in the language
that is used.
As a result, because students are not focused on
the use of a particular structure, tasks must be
designed to ensure that the desired structure is
utilized.
Refer to Penny Ur’s Grammar Practice Activities,
1988.
(Lightbown & Spada, 1993)
Integrative Grammar Teaching
Combines a form-based with a meaning-based
focus.
 “form focused instruction and corrective
feedback provided within the context of
communicative interaction can contribute
positively to a second language development in
both the short and long term” (Lightbown &
Spada, 1993, p. 205).
Students should be able to learn explicit
grammar rules as well as have a chance to
practice them in communication in the authentic
or simulated tasks (Musumeci, 1997).
PPP
Presentation / Practice/ Production
based on the Grammar-Translation Method
in which grammar explanations are followed
by exercises.
follows the premise that knowledge
becomes skill through successive practice
and that language is learned in small chunks
leading to the whole.
views accuracy as a precursor to fluency.
PPP- Stage 1
In the first stage of the sequence the
teacher introduces the language and forms
to be studied.
PPP- Stage 2
 In the second stage students practice
using the language and grammar
introduced by the teacher. This stage is
often characterized by decontextualized
drills.
The focus of this stage is the accurate use
of language.
PPP- Stage 3
After students have demonstrated that
they can accurately use the language and
forms introduced, fluency is developed by
providing opportunities for students to use
what they have learned in a less controlled
environment.
Criticism of PPP:
SLA research demonstrates that practice
does not lead to perfection (Lightbown,
1985).
Language learning does not occur in a linear
fashion influenced directly by the instruction
that takes place (Ellis 1993; Skehan, 1996).
Relies heavily on the use of
decontextualized and meaningless drills
(Wong & Van Pattten, 2003).
Task Based Language Teaching
Accuracy and fluency are addressed in
TBLT with a linguistic focus supporting the
task or emerging out of difficulties
experienced during the task.
This maintains the focus on communication
rather than learning particular forms and
promotes the relevancy of grammatical
instruction.
Willis’ (1996) Model
Pre-Task: lexicon is introduced and learners
are engaged in brief activities to activate
their schemata about a particular topic or to
equip them to participate in the main task.
Task: learners are actively engaged in
completing a communicative task.
Language Focus: learners’ errors are
highlighted and specific activities are utilized
to allow them to practice using the correct
language forms.
Accuracy Addressed Through
Focused Tasks
Focused tasks are tasks that are likely to
require the use of a particular form.
For example, writing a recipe will require the
use of the imperative and decorating a room
will require the use of prepositions.
Willis’ TBLT Framework
Willis (1996) advocated addressing
accuracy through the structure of lessons:
a) Pre-task
b) Task
c) Post-task (language focus)
Pre-task Phase
In this phase the teacher will:
1) Introduce and define the topic
2) Use activities to help students recall or
learn vocabulary and phrases
3) Provide examples of how the task may
be completed
4) Provide instructions for completing the
task
Task Phase
 During this stage the students complete the
central task of the cycle individually (in pairs or
groups).
 While the students work, the teacher ensures
students understand the task and are being
productive.
 The teacher monitors time closely and observes
how groups are functioning. This information
may be relayed to students to promote effective
group functioning or may be used in formulating
future groups.
Language focus phase
In this phase students move from a focus
on meaning to a focus on form.
The purpose of this phase is to develop
accuracy by directing students’ attention to
particular language forms and usage.
Tasks to Promote Negotiation
Negotiation contributes to language
acquisition by making input more
comprehensible (Long, 1985) and by
providing opportunities to attend to form
(Pica, 1994).
Types of Tasks – Willis (1996)
1) Listing – brainstorming, fact-finding
2) Ordering and Sorting – sequencing,
ranking, categorizing, classifying
3) Comparing – matching, finding
differences and similarities
4) Problem Solving
5) Sharing Personal Experiences
6) Creative Tasks
Types of Tasks – Pica, Kanagy, Falodun
(1993)
1) Jigsaw – learners combine different pieces of
information to create a whole
2) Information-Gap – learners have different information.
They negotiate to find the other individual’s information
3) Problem-Solving – students must find a solution for a
problem (typically there is one resolution)
4) Decision-Making – students solve an open-ended
problem by discussing multiple options and choosing
the best
5) Opinion Exchange – learners exchange ideas without
needing to come to a consensus
Some benefits of TBLT
Current educational research outlines that
learners engage in the learning process
using a variety of styles and intelligences.
TBLT provides an inductive approach to
instruction and addresses different learning
styles than PPP.
TBLT encourages more meaningful learning
experiences that are relevant to students.
Some benefits of TBLT (Willis,
1996)
PPP is a form of the “banking model” of
education whereas TBLT is a studentcentered approach that provides a voice to
students (content and language usage).
Principles of democracy are more reflective
of a TBLT classroom.
Comparison
PPP
Textbook language
Official content
valuable
Views students as
“unknowing”
Learning content not
problematic
Power difference
inherent
TBLT
Communicative
language
Process valuable
Students are valuable
contributors
Learning opportunities
Students are given a
voice
Social Rationale
TBLT empowers learners by giving them
agency and recognizing the value of their
language (non-standard forms of English).
A sample lesson--- Party time
 Work in pairs or small groups and discuss the
questions below.
Today's article is about a man who spent $17.5 million
on a party.
What kind of party do you think it was?
What do you think he bought for the party?
The man in today's article is Britain's second richest
man and has about $6.5 billion.
What kind of car do you think he drives?
What kind of watch do you think he wears?
 Now share your ideas with your classmates.
Matching
use a dictionary, or through peer cooperation
fortune
concert
luxury liner
generosity
Prediction
According to the information we get from the
previous activities and the four words we
discussed just now, what do you think
today's article is about?
Tell your partner.
Read for gist(skimming)
Find the answers to the following
questions in the article as quickly as you
can. Do NOT use your dictionary.
What did Hans Rausing spend $17.5 million on?
600 guests on a luxury liner for a week and exclusive entertainment including a concert by Elton John.
What kind of car does Rausing drive?
A modest Morris Minor car.
 What kind of watch does Rausing wear?
A cheap Timex watch.
Scanning---Vocabulary
Find words in today's article that match the
meanings below.
the packages that are used to contain food
(Paragraph 2)
food packaging
 a person who receives money or goods when
someone dies (Paragraph 2)
heir
 something happened or came before
(Paragraph 3) previously
 not expensive (Paragraph 3) cheap / modest
Read for detail
 Read the following statements. Write T if you
think a statement is true or F if you think it is
false, according to the article.
 Hans Rausing is the richest man in Britain.
F
 Hans Rausing is usually very careful with his money.
T
 Hans Rausing works for his brother.
F
 Hans Rausing is 76 years old.
T
 Hans Rausing had 700 guests at his party.
F
Elton John gave a concert at his party.
T
Hans Rausing had a party because it was his birthday.F
Language focus
"Hans Rausing spent $17.5 million on a
party for 600 guests on a luxury liner..."
spent
who
How much money
on
what
Decoding
Gabrielle's parents spent $10,000 on her
wedding.
What was the money spent on?
Her wedding
Who spent the money?
Gabrielle's parents
How much was spent?
$10,000
Language focus
"Rausing sold his stake in Sweden-based
Tetra-Pak to his brother..."
sold
Who
to
What
Who
Decoding
Shay sold his toys to his brother.
What was sold?
Toys
Who sold them?
Shay
Who bought them?
Shay's brother
Exercises
Christine spent $20 on a new Elton John CD.
What was the money spent on?
Who spent the money?
a new Elton John CD
How much money was spent?
Christine
$20
Exercises
1. Mark spent $50,000 on a new car.
What was the money spent on?
a new car
Who spent the money?
Mark
How much money did he spend?
$50,000
Exercises
Karen sold her car to Pete.
What was sold?
her car
Who sold it?
Karen
Who bought it?
Pete
Exercises
Douglas sold his television to his friends
Kate and Pete.
What was sold?
television
Who sold it?
Douglas
Who bought it?
Kate and Pete
Encoding
Look at the prompts below and write
sentences on a sheet of paper using the
two patterns
 Ron / desk / Troy
 Bob / $3,000 / painting
 Harry / television / Andrea
 Joan / $200 / tennis racket
Post-reading activities
Crossword
A writing task
Go to the internet to find more about old
age pension in UK and be ready to report
your findings to the class next time
Work in pairs on the crossword puzzle
Clues Across
2. when somebody spends more money
than is necessary
3. great comfort in beautiful and
expensive surroundings
7. things that give people pleasure such
as music, dance, and theater
8. a musical performance
9. a large ship
Clues Down
1. when somebody gives others gifts,
time, or kindness freely
4. a very large amount of money
5. the different types of shares and
investments an investor has
6. somebody who inherits something
from his or her family
Answers to crossword
Across:
2. extravagant 3. luxury
7. entertainment 8. concert 9. Liner
Down:
1. generosity 4. fortune 5. portfolio 6. heir
Writing task
 You are having a party soon. Write a party
invitation that you can send to your friends. You
can spend as much as you like! In your party
invitation be sure to include the following
information:
When the party is.
Where the party is.
The kind of entertainment that will be at the party.
 You can include more information too. Use your
imagination and have fun!
Prompts for reflection
How is it different from a routine reading
class in our classroom, and the pros and
cons of each?
Is it practical in my own class?
How vocabulary and language points were
coped with in the class?
Can this way of teaching ensure students’
good performance in the TEST?
Teacher v.s. student
Confidence in students
Have the God-given potential to learn a
foreign language well
With your support
But not your swapping your role with your
students
DIY advocated
vocab. →Dictionaries
Gram. →induction
Learn by doing
There is really only one way to learn how to do something and that is
to do it. If you want to learn to throw a football, drive a car, build a
mousetrap, design a building, cook a stir-fry, or be a management
consultant, you must have a go at doing it. Throughout history,
youths have been apprenticed to masters in order to learn a trade.
We understand that learning a skill means eventually trying your
hand at the skill. When there is no real harm in simply trying we
allow novices to "give it a shot."
Parents usually teach children in this way. They don't give a series of
lectures to their children to prepare them to walk, talk, climb, run,
play a game, or learn how to behave. They just let their children do
these things. We hand a child a ball to teach him to throw. If he
throws poorly, he simply tries again. Parents tolerate sitting in the
passenger seat while their teenager tries out the driver's seat for the
first time. It's nerve-wracking, but parents put up with it, because
they know there's no better way.