Political Institutions of Iran
A theocracy at work
Political Parties
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Constitution legalized political parties, but they were not allowed until
Muhammad Khatami’s election (1997)
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The Iranian Militant Clerics Society – left wing reform party led by
Muhammad Khatami.
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Khatami president from 1997-2005
Several prominent politicians belong to this party including former Majlis speaker,
and a vice-president
Candidate in 2005, Mehdi Karroubi, came in third
The Islamic Iran Participation Front – reformist party led by
Khatami’s brother, Muhammad Reza Khatami
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Founded in 1998, motto “Iran for all Iranians”
Did well in 2000 Majlis elections
Guardian Council barred many members from running in 2004 so membership
declined
Political Parties II
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Executives of Construction Party – founded by several
former cabinet members of President Akbar Hashemi
Rafsanjani
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Important supporter of Rafsanjani and his political platform
Rafsanjani lost election runoff to Ahmadinejad by a large margin
The Islamic Society of Engineers – member of the
conservative alliance, party of current president Mahmoud
Ahmadinejad, who secured office in presidential election of
2005
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The “society” however did not support Ahmadinejad in the election,
their candidate was Ali Larijani, who lost in first round
Reformist Parties
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Khordad Front (Alliance between Iranian Militant Clerics Society & Islamic
Iran Participation Front) – the alliance helped win reelection for
Khatami in 2000.
The Second Khordad Front did not survive in 2004 elections
as Guardian Council banned many reformist candidates from
Majlis elections
Liberation Movement – Moderate party, party founded by
Mehdi Bazargan (Khomeini’s PM), in 1961 it was banned in
2002 as subversive organization
National Front – headed by Mossadeq in 1950, it was
banned in late 1980s
Exile parties – Mojahedin (guerrilla group fought the shah); Fedayin (Marxist
guerrillas modeled after Che Guevara); Tudeh (communist party)
Elections
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Citizens over 15 may vote
National elections held for the following:
 Assembly of Religious Experts
 Representative to the Majlis
 President
Elections to Majlis and President are by plurality, winner-take all
 Elections are done over two rounds
 First round narrows field down to 2 candidates
Elections II
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Majlis Election of 2004
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Feb. 20, 2004
Council of Guardians banned
thousands of candidates from
mostly reformist parties
Looking for loyalty to the
“guardianship of the jurist”
and ability to win
Out of a possible 285 seats
(5 reserved for religious
minorities) reformist could
only introduce 191
candidates
51% - Official voter turnout
Conservative candidates won
70% of seats
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Presidential Election of 2005
 Khatami steps down after
serving two terms
 Guardian Council disqualifies
about 1000 candidates
 Only 7 candidates run
 Akbar Hasemi Rafsanjani and
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
 Rafsanjani received 21% of the
vote compared to Ahmadinejad’s
19% in the first round
 In second round runoff
Ahmadinejad won with 62% of
the vote
 Rafsanjani suffered from being
unable to organize reformist
vote behind him
Interest Groups
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It is difficult to distinguish between parties and
interest groups in Iran
Most exile parties have members in Iran that work
for their benefit
Interest Groups
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Islamic Association of Women
Green Coalition
Workers’ House
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Interest group for factory workers, have a political party as well,
Islamic Labor Party
Hold a May Day rally every year, turned into protest in 1999 against
conservative policies to water-down labor laws
Mass Media
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During and shortly after revolution 27 newspapers in total were shut down
In 1981 Majlis passed law making it illegal to use “pen and speech” against
the government
Some restrictions have been lifted
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Rafsanjani government allowed for debate in press on some controversial issues
Khatami administration issued permits to new publications in attempt to
establish independent press
Many newspapers and magazines privately owned
Mass Media II
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Freedom of Press still a major issue between conservatives
and reformists
 In 2002, some 60 pro-reform newspapers were shut down
 Iran’s elite are well-educated, and private media cater to
their needs and interests
Radio & TV are government-run, Islamic Republic of Iran
Broadcasting (IRIB) (Supreme Leader is head)
Government Institutions
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Jurist’s Guardianship
Supreme Leader
Guardian Council
Assembly of Religious Experts
Expediency Council
President & Cabinet
Majlis
Judicial Branch
Military
Velayat-e faqih (Jurist’s
guardianship)
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The principle instituted by Khomeini of overarching authority
for different government institutions:
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Supreme Leader
Guardian Council
Assembly of Religious Experts
Expediency Council
This authority is all-encompassing and is over whole
community based on their ability to understand shari’a and
their commitment to champion the rights of the people
Supreme Leader
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Position created for Khomeini, currently held by Ali Khameini
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Powers of Supreme Leader:
 Elimination of presidential candidates
 Dismissal of the president
 Command armed forces
 Declares war & peace
 Appointment and removal of major administrators and judges
 Nominates six members of Guardian Council
 Appoints many non-governmental directors, such as radio/TV and semi-public
foundations
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Responsibilities of Supreme Leader:
 faqih – he is the leading Islamic jurist to interpret shari’a and religious documents
 Links three branches of government together
 “Determining the interests of Islam”
Guardian Council
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12 members
All Male
6 members appointed by Supreme Leader
6 members nominated by chief judge, approved by Majlis
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Responsibilities
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They represent theocratic principles within the government
Review bills passed by Majlis to ensure they conform with shari’a
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Guardian Council and Supreme Leader together exercise principle of jurist’s
guardianship (Make sure all democratic bodies adhere to Islamic laws & beliefs)
Power to decide who can compete in elections
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In 2004 & 2005 disqualified thousands of candidates for both Majlis and
presidential elections
Assembly of Religious Experts
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Expanded in 1989 to an 86 man house
Directly elected by the people
4 year terms
Members originally required to have seminary degree
equivalent to a master’s, 1998 revision now allows non-clerics
to stand for Assembly – candidates still subject to approval by
Council of Guardians
Responsibilities
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Broad constitutional interpretation
Elected Khomeini’s successor (Khamenei)
Reserve right to remove supreme leader
Expediency Council
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Created by Khomeini
Main purpose to “referee” disputes between the Guardian Council and the
Majlis
Began as a 13-member group including: president, chief judge, speaker of
Majlis, and six jurists from the Guardian Council
1989, Expediency Council passes some bills, and is institutionalized by
constitutional amendments
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Currently consists of 32 members
It may originate its own legislation
Not all members are clerics
Still appointed by Supreme Leader
Collectively most powerful men in Iran
President & the Cabinet
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Iran is not a presidential system, therefore the executive branch does not
have the same authority as presidents in presidential systems such as U.S.,
Mexico, and Nigeria
President does represent highest official representing democratic principles
in Iran
Chief executive, highest state official after Supreme Leader
Directly elected every 4 years
Constitution still requires the president to be a Shi’ite and uphold Islamic
principles
All six presidents of the Islamic Republic have been clerics except for AbolHasan Bani-Sadr who was ousted in 1981 for criticizing the regime as a
dictatorship
President’s Power
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Devising the Budget
Supervising economic matters
Proposing legislation to the Majlis
Executing policies
Signing of treaties, laws, and agreements
Chairing the National Security Council
Selecting vice presidents and cabinet ministers
Appointing provincial governors, town mayors, and
ambassadors
Cabinet’s Power
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Conducts the day-to-day work of governance
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Most new laws and the budget are initiated and devised
by cabinet members
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Then submitted to parliament for approval, modification, or
rejection
Bureaucracy
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President heads up the bureaucracy that has doubled since 1979
Provides jobs for high school and college graduates
Clergy dominates the bureaucracy, head ministers all clerics (Intelligence,
Interior, Justice, Culture & Islamic Guidance)
Agencies
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Culture and Islamic Guidance – censures media
Intelligence – chief security organization
Heavy Industry – manages factories
Reconstruction – expands social services and sees that Islam extends
to countryside
Semipublic Institutions
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Theoretically autonomous
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In reality they are directed by clerics appointed by the Supreme Leader
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Usually called “foundations” (bonyads)
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Foundation of the Oppressed
Martyrs Foundation
Foundation for the Publication of Imam Khomeini’s Works
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Foundations are tax exempt
Reputed to have a great deal of wealth
Most property they supervise was confiscated from pre-1979
elite
Legislature:
MAJLIS
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Unicameral legislature
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Assembly of Religious Experts has served similar to an upper house
since 1989 (Both groups are elected representatives)
Created by Constitution of 1906, however
Constitution of 1979 and 1989 amendments
weakened the Majlis power
290 seats
All directly elected through single member districts
by citizens over 15 years old
Majlis Authority
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Powers of Majlis
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Enacting or Changing Laws (with approval of Guardian
Council)
Interpretation of legislation (as long as it does not
contradict judicial authorities)
Appointment of 6 of 12 Guardian Council members from
list made by chief judge
Investigation of the cabinet ministers and public
complaints against the executive and judiciary
Removal of cabinet ministers, but not the president
Approval of budget, cabinet appointments, treaties, & loans
Majlis elections
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Election of 2000
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Reformists fill seats through
coalition of reformist
parties (Khordad Front)
Reformists win 80% of the
vote, most secular voters
whose parties were banned
supported the reformists.
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Election of 2004
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Guardian Council bans
thousands of reformist
candidates
Overwhelming victory for
conservatives
Control of the Majlis flips
from the reformists to the
conservative faction
Judiciary
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Distinction between two types of law: shari’a & qanun
Judicial review does not exist in Iran
Principle of jurist’s guardianship means that the Supreme
Leader, the Guardian Council, and the Assembly of Religious
Experts have final say regarding interpretation of law
Ultimate legal authority does not rest in the constitution, but
in shari’a law itself
Because interpreting shari’a is difficult it has been applied in
different ways at various times
Because of Ayatollah Khomeini interpretation of shari’a came
to be the standard that would influence all succeeding Iranian
leaders
Judiciary II
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Islamic Republic
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Islamicized the judiciary code to interpret shari’a strictly
Retribution Law
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Permitted families to demand “blood money” – compensation to the
victim’s family from those responsible for someone’s death
Mandated the death penalty for actions such as adultery,
homosexuality, drug dealing and alcoholism
Set up unequal treatment between men & women, and Muslims &
non-Muslims
Banned interest rates on loans, viewed as usury, which means lenders
take advantage of people seeking loans
Law
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Shari 'a
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Islamic law
Considered to be foundation of
all Islamic civilization
Embodies a vision of a
community in which all Muslims
are brothers and sisters
subscribe to the same moral
values
Shari’a supersedes all other law
in Iranian society
Supreme leaders authority and
the jurist’s guardianship based
on importance of shari’a
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Qunan
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No sacred basis
Statutes passed by Majlis
“the People’s Law”
Can never contradict shari’a
Guardian Council & Supreme
Leader must make sure all laws
apply interpretations of shari’a
Law & Justice
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Khomeini realized that despite the influence of shari’a judges,
the regime did need a centralized judicial system to tend to
matters of justice in an orderly manner
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The interpretation of shari’a was broadened so that the harsh
penalties of the Retribution Law are rarely carried out
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Modern methods of punishment are more common than harsh public
retribution
Regime retained the shah’s court structure
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Appeals system
Hierarchy of state courts
Central government’s right to appoint and dismiss judges
Military
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Revolutionary Guard – established by Khomeini after the revolution, a parallel military
force to the shah’s traditional armed forces that were the 5th largest at the time
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Commanders of the Revolutionary Guard are appointed by the Supreme Leader
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According to the constitution, the regular army defends the borders, the Revolutionary Guard
protects the republic
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Both were greatly strained during the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980’s
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Basij – volunteer militia of those to young to serve created during Iran-Iraq War.
 Martyred by Khomeini against the invading Iraqi troops
 After the war they became the Supreme Leader’s private militia
 Currently serve as the Islamic Republic’s “morality police” (Comparable to Hitler Nazi
Youth)
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Iran’s armed forces currently have over 500,000 active troops making it the 8 th largest military
in the world
Theocratic & Democratic Elements of
Iran’s Government Structure
Structure
Theocratic
Characteristics
•Supreme
Leader
•Jurist
•Guardian
Council
•Jurist
guardianship;
interpreter of shari’a; six
member selected by the
Supreme Leader
•Six
•Assembly
of Religious
•Jurist
•Directly
Experts
Democratic
Characteristics
guardianship;
ultimate interpreter of
shari’a; appointed for life
guardianship;
interpreter of shari’a
members selected
by the Majlis; which is
popularly elected,
indirect democratic tie
people
elected by the
Theocratic & Democratic Elements of
Iran’s Government Structure
Structure
Theocratic
Characteristics
Democratic
Characteristics
•Appointed
by the
Supreme Leader; most
members are clerics
•Some
•Majlis
•Responsibility
•Directly
•Judiciary
•Courts
•Expediency
Council
shari’a
to uphold
held to shari’a
law; subject to the
judicial judgments of the
Supreme Leader,
Guardian Council
clerics
members are not
elected by the
people; pass qanun
(statutes)
•Court
structure similar
to those in democracies;
“modern” penalties, such
as fines and
imprisonment
Public Policy:
Policy-Making Factions
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Conservatives
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Created by often contradictory
influences of theocracy &
democracy
Conservatives uphold principles of
regime established in 1979
Against modernization because it
threatens Shi’ism
Wary of western influence
Political & religious decision should
be synonymous
Support right of clerics to run the
political system
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Reformists
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Believe political system needs
reform (but disagree on what
reforms)
Advocate some degree of
international involvement with
western countries
Believe Shi’ism is important
basis of Iranian society
Support idea that political
leaders do not have to be clerics
Public Policy:
Policy-Making Factions II
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Statists
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Government should take active
role in the economy
Not necessarily communists
Policy goals include:
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Redistribute land
Redistribute wealth
Eliminate unemployment
Finance Social Welfare Programs
Price restrictions on Consumer
goods
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Free-marketers
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Similar market principles to the
US, but in a
theocratic/democratic state
Liberal Economic Policies
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Remove price controls
Lower business taxes
Encourage private enterprise
Balance the budget
Public Policy
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Majority of policy issues among factions stem from the
“theocratic vs. democratic” debate
Policy issues have recently led to a drain of the “best &
brightest” from Iran do to frustration with government
Policy-making factional disagreements over relationship
with US & Economic issues
US Relations
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Reformists & Conservatives constantly disagree regarding
diplomatic relations with the US
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Ex: Following 9-11-01, President Khatami immediately offered his
condolences to American people, but Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei
forbid public debate about improving relations with US, and implied
Americans brought the situation on themselves
Nuclear Weapons
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For energy or defense?
Economic Policy
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Oil creates vertical divide among elites in Iran
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Instability of Oil prices effects the economy of this rentier state
Attitudes toward supranational organizations (WTO, UN, World Bank) are
mixed. Iran’s application for admittance to the WTO in 1996 rejected
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Elites with close ties to the oil state
vs.
Traditional sector of the clergy
Based on difficulties in making foreign investments in the country
US opposed Iran’s entry into WTO
Economic policy characterized by internal bickering
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Ex: Bill drafted in 2002 by Majlis would have allowed foreigners to own as much
as 100% of any firm in the country (up from 48%). The bill came from reformists,
the bill was not approved by Guardian Council. Conservatives worry about
influence of secular prosperity on Shi’ism