1
Revolutionary America was a time of turmoil, excitement, and patriotism for the
colonists who became involved in the fight for independence. The Revolutionary War aimed not
only to win America’s independence from Great Britain, but also to ensure that its citizens were
cared for by a government that protected their rights. Leaders like George Washington and John
Adams were among the patriots, and are often the ones associated with the American Revolution
and the victories that resulted. However, it is important to note that the successes of the
American rebels could not have occurred without the help of colonial women and wives, who did
what they could for the war effort. These women, often referred to as “Republican Mothers,”1
were extremely vital to the independence movement and helped make the rebel cause a success
both at home and on the battlefield as well. Colonial women participated in and helped initiate
the economic boycotts, endangered themselves by acting as spies, and some even disguised
themselves as men in order to join the Continental Army.
While men were away fighting in the war or overseeing revolutionary politics, their
wives, sisters, and daughters remained at home and found other ways to help the patriot cause.
The most common way these women fulfilled their patriotic duties was by managing businesses,
farms, and households while the men were away.2 By taking care of the family and aspects of
home life, these women allowed their husbands, brothers, and sons to focus on the war rather
than worry about what was going on at home. This action was the most passive that colonial
women could take, since it was seen as a duty they had to fulfill. They were still showing their
patriotism, but those who were extremely conscious of the independence movement took this
responsibility further.
1
This idea taken from a common term describing women of this era, as well as from passages found in a
Carol Berkin work. Carol Berkin. Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America’s Independence
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005).
2
Paula Baker. “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 17801920.” The American Historical Review 89 no. 3 (June 1984), 624.
2
Many women participated in the economic boycotts as a sign of their dedication to the
patriot effort and their commitment to republican ideals. Although these boycotts were put into
place by the male leaders, these men were hardly home during the war period and even if they
were, they were not in charge of household purchases.3 It was up to the women in the family to
choose which goods to buy; therefore, when the boycotts were instituted, women were the ones
who actively participated. They decided to forgo imported goods and resolved to make things
themselves rather than help the British economy.4 Women in the economic boycotts took
initiative and encouraged their friends and neighbors to do the same, thus boosting the boycotts
to success, especially in regard to imported items such as tea and silk.5
Other women helped the war effort at home by voicing their opinions through their
writing, either in letters, newspaper articles, or poetry. In doing so, they encouraged everyone to
partake in the rebel cause, but these women mainly focused on getting their fellow female
citizens involved. Such literary ladies as Mercy Otis Warren, Jane Franklin Mecom, Esther de
Berdt Reed, Phyllis Wheatley, and Abigail Adams are prime examples of how women went
beyond the gender-constricting roles of society in order to help the fight for independence.6 For
instance, Mercy Otis Warren became a correspondent and adviser to such political leaders such
as Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, and particularly John Adams because of her close
friendships with women like Martha Washington and Abigail Adams. Her writings showed that
women could play significant roles and be influential on their male counterparts.7 Similarly, as
Benjamin Franklin’s sister, Jane Franklin Mecom continuously wrote to her brother throughout
3
Timothy Breen. The Marketplace of Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 280.
Linda K. Kerber. Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (New York:
W. W. Norton and Company, 1980), 38.
5
Kerber, 39.
6
Paul Engle. Women in the American Revolution (Chicago: Follet Publicshing Company, 1976), 29.
7
Carol Berkin. First Generations (New York: Hill and Wang, 1996), 172.
4
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her life and no doubt corresponded with him over issues of independence from Great Britain as
well as from tyranny of all men.8 Esther de Berdt Reed not only wrote publications concerning
independence and American women, but she helped organize and lead the Ladies Association of
Philadelphia which provided over $7,000 in support of the troops during the war.9 She used her
influence as a literary lady to gain support from other women and reach out to them in ways
others could not have. When she died unexpectedly in 1780, Benjamin Franklin’s daughter
Sarah Franklin Bache took over and led the association until the end of the war.10
Sarah Franklin Bache in her own right was also quite an influential woman living during
this time. Like her aunt, Sarah kept in close correspondence with Benjamin Franklin, her father,
throughout the Revolution and his time in France. Her work in the Ladies Association of
Philadelphia earned her the praise of her father and his colleagues, and she soon became known
for her personal work and not just that of her family.11 She even took part in encouraging her
father to include women in the patriot effort and, later, in the newly independent nation, much
like how Abigail Adams persuaded her husband John.
One of the most famous of these women authors was Phyllis Wheatley, a slave woman
who was freed during the Revolutionary War. Because of the training she received from the
family that owned her, as well as her own keenness for learning, Phyllis quickly learned to recite
passages from readings and eventually to write on her own.12 Although she wrote many poems
with religious connotations due to her admiration for the Bible, she did focus many of her works
on the freedom movement, both against slavery and against the tyranny of the British
government. Wheatley wrote a poem to George Washington, receiving his praise for both her
8
Engle, 71-92.
Engle, 31-44.
10
Katharine Baetjer. “Benjamin Franklin’s Daughter.” Metropolitan Museum Journal 38 (2003), 170.
11
Engle, 237.
12
Engle, 96.
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poetic talent and the message it contained. Her poem, which concludes “Proceed, great chief,
with virtue on thy side/Thy ev'ry action let the goddess guide/A crown, a mansion, and a throne
that shine/With gold unfading, Washington be thine,” both flattered General Washington and
encouraged him to continue his fight for freedom with the help of “Columbia,”13 in this case
likely referring to “liberty” or “independence” or some other form of this idea. This poem was
Wheatley’s last taste of fame because shortly after writing it her mistress died, leaving her as a
free woman but in a poor and desolate state. Nonetheless, Phyllis Wheatley is often remembered
for her poetry and the tones of freedom that they evoked.
An early advocate for women’s rights and author in her own right was the famed Abigail
Adams, the wife of John Adams who not only ran the home and business while he was away
organizing the independence movement, but was also on the forefront of the early feminist
movement. Abigail did well on her own, helping the family prosper financially in the five years
that she was away from her husband. In her famous letter “Remember the Ladies” written to
John in 1776, she advises him to remember women and their rights, which were just as important
as those of men in this era of independence and freedom. At one point she wrote “I long to hear
that you have declared an independency…remember that all men would be tyrants if they
could,”14 indicating that if America were to forget about women despite gaining independence,
the republic would find itself in a similar situation to the tyranny of Great Britain. She did not
demand anything, just warned her husband against a government that would repeat the wrongs
that were committed against the colonies. Because of her fame as the wife of John Adams,
Donald R. McClarey, “George Washington and Phyllis Wheatley,” The American Catholic, http://theamerican-catholic.com/2010/04/06/george-washington-and-phillis-wheatley/ (accessed April 2, 2012). This quote is
from an excerpt of the original poem written by Phyllis Wheatley to George Washington, and it was found in this
article.
14
The History Channel Website, “This Day in History: Abigail Adams urges husband to ‘remember the
ladies,’” http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/abigail-adams-urges-husband-to-remember-the-ladies (accessed
March 31, 2012). This is an excerpt from the original letter that Abigail Adams wrote to John Adams in 1776, and it
was found in this article.
13
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Abigail was able to use her influence in society to encourage revolutionary women to stand up
for themselves and the patriot cause.
Other women who had much invested in the war effort or who had nothing to lose
became involved in even more dangerous ways. Lydia Darragh inadvertently became a spy for
the Continental Army when British troops occupied her house, listening in on their private
conversations while she was supposed to be asleep.15 She was able to remain very discreet about
her actions so as not to raise suspicion from the British, and was able to pass the information on
to the American forces when she bumped into a soldier on her way into town one day. Even
though she endangered herself, Darragh’s success at keeping herself and her family safe while
still acting as a spy allowed the American troops to prepare for a surprise attack by the British
that resulted in victory for the patriots and the returning of the family home to Darragh.
Some women became “camp followers” and joined the Continental Army as they
traveled from battle to battle.16 These women and children often took part in the upkeep,
cleaning, and cooking for the camps in exchange for protection and somewhere to live while the
war waged on. At first, these women and children were looked down upon by the soldiers as
being a nuisance, but even General Washington came to acknowledge their presence as helpful
for the troops. Most often poor women, they eventually created for themselves a kind of
symbiotic relationship with the troops in a time of dire need. Unlike camp followers of the Civil
War, most of these women were not prostitutes; they simply followed troops around because
they had nowhere else to go, and some even did so to be closer to their husbands who were
fighting in the war. These women became a staple of camps throughout the Revolutionary War,
and some women even did more than what was required of them. For instance, Molly Pitcher,
15
16
1994), 54.
Engle, 11-16.
Walter Hart Blumenthal. Women Camp Followers of the American Revolution (Salem, N. H.: Ayer Co.,
6
who may or may not have been a real woman, was a camp follower so that she could be near her
husband while he was fighting; when he fell in battle, she joined the fight herself.17 She took up
his duty of bringing water to soldiers and proceeded to assimilate even more into camp culture.
Although she was most likely fictional, she became a symbol as the courageous and patriotic
woman of the era and encouraged other women to join the independence cause, similar to Rosie
the Riveter during World War II.
As if spying for the patriots or helping on the battlefields were not dangerous or risky
enough, some women took the desire for independence a step further and joined the Continental
Army as soldiers. These courageous women disguised themselves as men and left the comfort of
their homes and families for battlefields and dark, cold nights. Though most women who
participated directly in the war effort by means of fighting were caught and discharged, fined,
and possibly sent to jail, this did little to deter others from deciding to follow in their footsteps.
For many women, this was the ultimate sacrifice for independence not only from Great Britain
but also from the gender-constricted social norms of colonial society. By participating in a role
only meant for males, women soldiers challenged the gender dynamics and encouraged other
women to do the same. Independence was important to colonial women for reasons not only of
country but also of self.
The most famous of female soldiers during the American Revolution was Deborah
Sampson, who not only served the longest before her discovery, but was the first to be honorably
discharged and also received a pension for her service. Sampson served for seventeen months
before she was discovered, from May 20, 1782 until October 25, 1783.18 She enlisted in the
army for employment but mostly for nationalistic purposes and as a chance to rebel against the
17
18
2004), 5.
Engle, xvi.
Alfred F. Young. Masquerade: Life and Times of Deborah Sampson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
7
gender constrictions of her society. Deborah Sampson is remembered for her determination for
independence and equality both during and after her service, and she continued to protest gender
constrictions after her military service and became an early advocate for women’s rights.19
Whenever war breaks out, it is inevitable that there are social and cultural ramifications
which affect the home as well as the battlefield. In the American Revolution, this meant that
women were affected by what their husbands did in the war or in politics. These women took it
upon themselves as their patriotic duty to help the independence movement however they could,
whether it be by taking care of family and home, participating in economic boycotts, or the more
extreme and dangerous spying and enlisting in the Continental Army. In the varying ways that
women chose to participate in the rebel cause, their efforts were significant and allowed the
Revolution to occur the way it did. Without these women and their assistance, enthusiasm for
the war effort at home would not have existed and neither would political results such as the
economic boycotts. These “Republican Mothers” set an example for their friends and neighbors
and allowed the American Revolution to be successful both on and off the battlefield.
19
Hiltner, Judith. “She Bled in Secret”: Deborah Sampson, Herman Mann and “The Female Review.”
(Early American Literature 34 no. 2, 1999), 201.
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Works Cited Bibliography
Baetjer, Katharine. “Benjamin Franklin’s Daughter.” Metropolitan Museum Journal 38 (2003),
169-180.
Baker, Paula. “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 17801920.” The American Historical Review 89 no. 3 (June 1984), 620-647.
Berkin, Carol. First Generations. New York: Hill and Wang, 1996.
________. Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America’s Independence. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005.
Blumenthal, Walter Hart. Women Camp Followers of the American Revolution. Salem, N. H.:
Ayer Co., 1994.
Breen, Timothy. The Marketplace of Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Engle, Paul. Women in the American Revolution. Chicago: Follet Publishing Company, 1976.
Hiltner, Judith. “She Bled in Secret”: Deborah Sampson, Herman Mann and “The Female
Review.” Early American Literature 34 no. 2 (1999), 190-220.
Kerber, Linda K. Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America.
New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1980.
McClarey, Donald R. “George Washington and Phyllis Wheatley.” The American Catholic.
http://the-american-catholic.com/2010/04/06/george-washington-and-phillis-wheatley/
(accessed April 2, 2012).
The History Channel Website. “This Day in History: Abigail Adams urges husband to
‘remember the ladies.’” http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/abigail-adams-urgeshusband-to-remember-the-ladies (accessed March 31, 2012).
Young, Alfred E. Masquerade: Life and Times of Deborah Sampson. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 2004.
9
Works Consulted Bibliography
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Baetjer, Katharine. “Benjamin Franklin’s Daughter.” Metropolitan Museum Journal 38 (2003),
169-180.
Baker, Paula. “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 17801920.” The American Historical Review 89 no. 3 (June 1984), 620-647.
Berkin, Carol. First Generations. New York: Hill and Wang, 1996.
________. Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America’s Independence. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005.
________. Women in the American Revolution. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1975.
Blumenthal, Walter Hart. Women Camp Followers of the American Revolution. Salem, N. H.:
Ayer Co., 1994.
Breen, Timothy. The Marketplace of Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Countryman, Edward. The American Revolution. New York: Hill and Wang, 1985.
Engle, Paul. Women in the American Revolution. Chicago: Follet Publishing Company, 1976.
Furbee, Mary R. Women of the American Revolution. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1999.
Hiltner, Judith. “She Bled in Secret”: Deborah Sampson, Herman Mann and “The Female
Review.” Early American Literature 34 no. 2 (1999), 190-220.
Kerber, Linda K. Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America.
New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1980.
Lewis, Jan. “Women and the American Revolution.” OAH Magazine of History 8 no. 4
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McClarey, Donald R. “George Washington and Phyllis Wheatley.” The American Catholic.
http://the-american-catholic.com/2010/04/06/george-washington-and-phillis-wheatley/
(accessed April 2, 2012).
Norton, Mary Beth. Liberty’s Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women,
1750-1800. Boston-Toronto: Little Brown and Company, 1980.
10
Roberts, Cokie. Founding Mothers: The Women who Raised Our Nation. New York: William
Morrow, 2004.
The History Channel Website. “This Day in History: Abigail Adams urges husband to
‘remember the ladies.’” http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/abigail-adams-urgeshusband-to-remember-the-ladies (accessed March 31, 2012).
Wilson, Joan Hoff. “The Illusion of Change: Women and the American Revolution.” The
American Revolution: Explorations in the History of American Revolution. Dekalb:
Northern Illinois University Press, 1976.
Wood, Gordon S. The American Revolution: A History. New York: Random House, 2002.
Young, Alfred F. Liberty Tree: Ordinary People and the American Revolution. New York:
New York University Press, 2006.
________. Masquerade: Life and Times of Deborah Sampson. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
2004.
________ and Gregory H. Nobles. Whose America Was It?: Historians Interpret the Founding.
New York: New York University Press, 2011.