Edwards, Wattenberg, and Lineberry
Government in America: People, Politics, and Policy
Fourteenth Edition
Chapter 11
Interest Groups
The Role of Interest Groups
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Interest group
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An organization of people with shared policy goals entering
the policy process at several points to try to achieve those
goals
Interest groups pursue their goals in many arenas.
Interest groups and political parties promote U.S. democracy
by linking citizens to the political process. Interest groups are
distinct from parties.
Political parties fight election battles; interest groups do not
field candidates for office but may choose sides.
Interest groups are policy specialists; political parties are
policy generalists.
Theories of Interest Group
Politics
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Pluralism and Group Theory
Groups provide a key link between the people and
the government.
 Groups compete and no one group will become too
dominant.
 Groups play by the “rules of the game.”
 Groups weak in one resource may use another.
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i.e. all legitimate groups can affect public policy.
Lobbying is open to all so is not a problem.
Theories of Interest Group
Politics: Pluralism
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Elites and the Denial of Pluralism
Real power is held by the relatively few.
 The largest corporations hold the most power.
 Elite power is fortified by a system of interlocking
and concentrated power centers of these
corporations and other institutions.
 Groups are unequal in power because elites prevail
when it comes to big policy decisions.
 Lobbying is a problem because it benefits the few at
the expense of the many.
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Theories of Interest Group
Politics: Elitism
Theories of Interest Group
Politics: Hyperpluralism
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Subgovernments
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Networks of groups that exercise a great deal of control over
specific policy areas.
Consist of interest groups, government agency, and
congressional committees that handle particular policies
Also known as iron triangles
The hyperpluralist critique
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Groups have become too powerful as the government tries
to appease every interest.
Trying to please every group results in contradictory policies.
Why Join?
1.
Solitary incentives—enjoyment, companionship
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2.
Material incentives—money, things, services
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3.
Solitary incentives require organizations to structure themselves as coalitions of
small local units
Facilitated by the importance of local governments in the U.S.
Examples: League of Women Voters (LWV), NAACP, Rotary, Parent-Teacher
Association, American Legion
Organization may also influence how laws are administered to bring benefits to
members
Examples: farm organizations, AARP
Purposive incentives—goal/purpose of the organization itself
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Though this group also benefits nonmembers, people join because:
They are passionate about the goal(s) of the organization
They have a strong sense of civic duty
Cost of joining is minimal
Fundamental Goals of Interest
Groups
1.
2.
3.
Influence public policy
Influence Congress/government
Change laws
What Makes an Interest
Group Successful?
What Makes an Interest
Group Successful?
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The Surprising Ineffectiveness of Large Groups
Potential group: all the people who might be
interest group members because they share a
common interest
 Actual group: the part of the potential group
consisting of members who actually join
 Collective good: something of value that cannot be
withheld from a group member
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Example?
What Makes an Interest
Group Successful?
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Free-Rider Problem
Some people don’t join interest groups because they
benefit from the group’s activities without officially
joining.
 Bigger the group, larger the problem
 Large groups are difficult to organize
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What Makes an Interest
Group Successful?
1.
Small groups are better organized and more focused
on the group’s goals.
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Multinational corporations are successful because there are
few of them and, therefore, have an easier time organizing
for political action.
Consumer groups have a difficult time getting significant
policy gains because the benefits are spread over the entire
population.
Public interest lobbies seek “a collective good, the
achievement of which will not selectively and materially
benefit the membership activities of the organization.”
What Makes an Interest
Group Successful?
What Makes an Interest
Group Successful?
2.
Intensity
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Single-Issue groups: groups that focus on a narrow
interest, dislike compromise, and often draw
membership from people new to politics
Groups may focus on an emotional issue,
providing them with a psychological advantage.
Intensity encourages non-conventional means of
participation, i.e.—protests
What Makes an Interest
Group Successful?
3.
Financial Resources
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Not all groups have equal amounts of money.
Monetary donations usually translate into access to
the politicians, such as a phone call, meeting, or
support for policy.
Wealthier groups have more resources— and
presumably more access—but they do not always
win on policy.
How Groups Try to Shape Policy
1.
Lobbying
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“communication by someone other than a citizen
acting on his own behalf, directed to a
governmental decisionmaker with the hope of
influencing his decision”
Two basic types of lobbyists:
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Regular, paid employees of a group
Temporary hires
An obvious question…
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Where are most interest groups located?
Washington D.C.
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Examples: environmentalists, nurses,
automobile manufacturers, automobile
assembly-line workers
How Groups Try to Shape Policy
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Lobbyists:
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are a source of information
help politicians plan political strategies for
legislation
help politicians plan political strategies for
reelection campaigns
are a source of ideas and innovations.
How Groups Try to Shape Policy
Campaign Contributions
Otherwise known as “electioneering”
2.
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Groups can recruit/endorse candidates that will support their positions to run
for public office
In many ways, groups speak for those who need representation or buy
candidate support.
Provide testimony, and get members to work for candidates; some form PACs
Political Action Committee (PAC): Political funding vehicles created by
1974 campaign finance reforms, PACs are used by interest groups to
donate money to candidates.
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PACs help pay the bill for increasing campaign costs.
Most PAC money goes to incumbents.
PAC spending makes up a higher percentage of congressional campaign funds than
of presidential campaign funds.
The amount of money that PAC’s can contribute directly to a candidate is limited by
law.
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“The Misplaced Obsession With
Political Action Committees” by
Sabato
PAC’s are often the source of funding to provide a
means of increasing the flow of information
Facts and Myths
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Myth- PAC’s are often portrayed as evil and corrupt.
Fact- Many contributions before the 1970’s were more
“disturbing and unsavory”
Fact- Independents and Political Parties contributed 3/5 in
the House and ¾ in the Senate.
Myth- PAC’s have a bias towards the incumbent.
Fact- Bias is the same in ALL contributions
“The Misplaced Obsession With
Political Action Committees” by
Sabato
Myth- PAC’s “buy” the votes of the legislature.
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2.
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Conditions necessary for this to happen:
Issue must be less visible
PAC’s are more influential when issue narrow, specialized, and unopposed by
other PAC’s
Fact- The most important factors for determining a representative’s vote
is party, ideology, and constituents.
The goal of PAC’s are to elect candidates. Members aren’t likely
to go against their district and will often forego PAC money if
their vote is perceived as being “bought.”
Madison thought that competing interest groups (factions)
would preserve liberty assuming there are two checks:
1.
2.
Free elections with general suffrage
Political Parties
How Groups Try to Shape Policy
3.
Litigation
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If an interest group fails in one arena, the courts may be
able to provide a remedy.
Interest groups can file amicus curiae briefs to influence a
court’s decision.
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amicus curiae: briefs submitted by a “friend of the court” to raise
additional points of view and present information not contained in
the briefs of the formal parties
Class Action lawsuits permit a small number of people to
sue on behalf of all other people similar situated.
How Groups Try to Shape Policy
4.
Grassroots lobbying/Mass Mobilization
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Because public opinion makes its way to
policymakers, groups primarily use the media:
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cultivate a good public image to build a reservoir of
goodwill with the public
use marketing strategies to influence public opinion of
the group and its issues
advertise to motivate and inform the public about an
issue
Narrowing it down…
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1.
2.
The two major ways interest groups achieve
their goals is through:
Access to/influence policymakers
Have like-minded people/policy advocated in
office.
The Interest Group Explosion
Periods of Rapid Growth
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70 percent of Washington-based groups have
established their D.C. office since the 1960s.
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1770s—independence groups
1830s, 1840s—religious associations, antislavery movement
1860s—trade unions, Grange, fraternal organizations
1880s, 1890s—business associations
1900–1920—business and professional associations,
charitable organizations
1960s—environmental, consumer, political reform
organizations
Types of Interest Groups
1.
Economic Interests
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2.
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4.
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Labor
Agriculture
Business
Environmental Interests
Equality Interests
Consumer and Public Interest Lobbies
Many interest groups are…ideological interest
groups—appeal of coherent and, often, controversial
principles
A few rules of thumb to keep in
mind…
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Movement may spawn many organizations
Those in power will not inspire nearly as much
participation as those out of power.
More extreme organizations will be smaller and
more activist
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Examples?
More moderate organizations will be larger and
less activist
Understanding Interest Groups
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Interest Groups and Democracy
 In The Federalist Papers, Madison expressed the view
that factions are undesirable but inevitable in a free
society.
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James Madison’s solution to the problems posed by interest
groups was to create a wide-open system in which groups
compete.
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Pluralists believe that the public interest would prevail from this
competition.
Elite theorists point to the proliferation of business PACs as evidence
of interest group corruption.
Hyperpluralists maintain that group influence has led to policy
gridlock.
Understanding Interest Groups

Interest Groups and the Scope of Government
Interest groups seek to maintain policies and
programs that benefit them.
 Interest groups continue to pressure government to
do more things.
 As the government does more, does this cause the
formation of more groups?
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ABSOLUTELY…The more activities government
undertakes, the more interest groups form as a response
to those activities. (1960’s)
Summary
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Group theories: pluralism, elitism, and
hyperpluralism
A number of factors influence a group’s success,
i.e., being small
Interest groups affect policy process through
lobbying, electioneering, litigation, and going
public.