TODAY
• Questions from last time?
• Origins of Agriculture continued
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Africa
Americas
Movement of agriculture and
domesticates
© T. M. Whitmore
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Africa
(VI on the map)
Agricultural origins:
after 9000 BP (more likely 5000-6000 BP)
regions & crops uncertain (Ethiopia &
Sahael), general diffusion west
© T. M. Whitmore
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African Domesticates
Cereals: African rice, several millets, sorghum,
tef
Pulses: cowpea, groundnuts (similar to but not
peanuts)
Roots & tubers: African (true) yam
Oil crops: oil palm, castor bean
Fruits & nuts: baobab, watermelon, other
melons
Vegetables & spices: okra
Stimulants: coffee
Animals: Common ass & guinea fowl
© T. M. Whitmore
History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University
The Americas
• Mega-fauna become extinct around
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9000 BP => increased use of wild plants
later to become cultivated staples
First domestications in the Americas
about 10,000 BP
Very different cultivation technology vs
European/SW Asia traditions
No animals or plows
Digging sticks
Individual planting vs Old World
broadcast sowing
© T. M. Whitmore
American Agricultural origin areas
• North America (minor)
• South Central Mexico and highland C
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America (Mesoamerica)
South America
© T. M. Whitmore
North America
• Roots & tubers: Jerusalem artichoke
• Oilcrops: Sunflower
• Fruits: strawberry, grape (concord
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types), cranberry, pecan
Stimulant: tobacco
• Remarkably short list!
© T. M. Whitmore
Mesoamerica & South America
• Possible cross “fertilization” of
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domesticates between regions
But some particular to one or the
other
Long and important list
© T. M. Whitmore
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Major American plant domesticates I
Maize (Zea mays)
Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) (SA)
Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas)
Manioc (yuca, cassava) (Manihot esculenta and M.
Dulcis) (SA)
Beans (Phaseolus spp.) (lima, pinto, kidney, etc.)
Squashes (Cucurbita spp) Summer squashes
(zucchini, pattypan and yellow crookneck); Winter
squashes (butternut, Hubbard, buttercup, acorn,
spaghetti squash/vegetable spaghetti and
pumpkin)
Chilies (Capsicum spp.) “peppers”
Avocado (Persea americana)
© T. M. Whitmore
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicon)
Major Amerindian plant domesticates II
• Pineapple (Ananas comosus) and
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hundreds of other fruits
Chocolate (Theobroma cacao) (literally
food of the gods)
Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) – all major
industrial cottons from New World
Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea)
And hundreds more
© T. M. Whitmore
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Potato (Solanum tuberosum)
A perennial plant of the Solanaceae, or nightshade,
family
Originated in Peru:
 Peruvians cultivate around 200 different kinds of
potatoes.
Domesticated at least by 4000 bp but likely far
earlier in Peru
Fourth largest yielding crop plant, behind wheat, rice,
and maize (most important non-grain)
Five billion pounds of potatoes are made into fries
every year!
Grows in a wide variety of eco-zones
Tolerates high altitudes, poor and even acidic soils,
short growing seasons
Only wheat is more important in temperate zone ag
© T. M. Whitmore
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)
• Often we call these tubers “yams” but
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they are NOT true yams
Domestication in Peru about 8-10,000 BP
Propagated by stem or root cuttings
3-4 x the yield of rice or other grains
per ha
Drought and poor soil resistant
98% of world sweet potato production
occurred in developing countries
China alone made up 84% of the
harvest
M. Whitmore
North Carolina is largest producer© T.of
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Manioc/cassava
(Manihot esculenta and M. Dulcis)
Domestication in NE SA about 4-5000 BP
Perennial woody shrub requires little or no
fertilization yet will maintain a steady production
Status of a cultigen with no wild forms
Roots can be stored in the ground for 24 + months
Drought resistant (and can tolerate wet locations)
Tolerates acid (i.e., poor) soils better than most any
other food plant
Very pest resistant (due to alkaloids)
It is the principal source of nutrition for about 500
million people
3rd most important food in 3rd world
In the US mostly as tapioca (but rise of Hispanics and
Hispanic food culture => more available raw in© T. M. Whitmore
groceries
Major Amerindian Animal domesticates
• Turkey (Meleagris spp.)
• Dog – food and companion (Canis lupus
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familiaris)
Bee - only source of sweetness (Apoidea
spp)
Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus)
Llama (Lama pacos)
Alpaca (Lama Glama)
Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) (cuy)
• Short list isn’t it!
© T. M. Whitmore
Movement of plants- pre-1500
• Diffusion and deliberate introduction –
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role for commerce, colonialism, &
conquest
Modifications in landscapes (and plants)
to suit new locations
Post antiquity to about 1500 AD
After the fall of Rome; movement
slowed
Role of the Arabs/Islamic empires
Post 200 AD (Han dynasty) China
imported wheat, barley, peas… © T. M. Whitmore
Movement of plants post-1500
• Movement greatly accelerated;
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beginnings of “globalization” of
agriculture
Europe in 1500 (had crops only from SW
Asia or SE Asia) – by 1800 had complete
list
Issues in movement:
e.g., Potatoes
 Hard to grow (day length sensitive)
=> breeding new varieties
© T. M. Whitmore
 Cultural bias (nightshade, Bible
Movement of plants III
• Africa south of the Sahara (role of
slave trade)
Maize in 1500s via Spain & Portugal
 Out produces indigenous crops =>
became mainstay of many African
diets
Manioc:
 likely as slave food
Peanuts:
 expanded in 19th C export schemes
Sweet potatoes
© T. M. Whitmore
Movement of plants IV
• South & SE Asia and China
Few changes in basic food crops since
1500s (rice still dominates)
India: maize, chilies, tomatoes,
peanuts, sweet potatoes (all by
Portuguese in 1500s)
Coffee: 19th C introduction by Dutch
(Java!)
Brazilian rubber (Hevea brasiliensis)
 Brazil => Kew gardens (UK) =>
© T. M. Whitmore
Singapore => plantations in Malaysia
The Columbian Exchange
• To Americas – Columbus attempts to
move SW Asian (European) crop system
(and some SE Asian crops) to Caribbean
in 1493
 Main grains fail (wheat, rye, oats,
barley): too warm & damp =>
diseases
 Summer rain patterns (inverse of
Mediterranean)
 Wheat only successful in highland
Mexico after irrigation and winter
© T. M. Whitmore
growth (works well in temperate
Columbian Exchange II
• Special role for sugar and slave trade
Portuguese grew sugar in islands off
W Africa – and used slaves (Columbus’
wife owned some and he knew all about
it – he brought sugar to Hispaniola in
1493)
Cortes’ 1st Mexican estates were sugar
plantations
Portuguese introduced sugar/slave
system to Brazil after failure of other
ventures in early 1500s
© T. M. Whitmore
Spread to Caribbean by 1700s (great
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Columbian Exchange III
Cotton:
 Mexican cotton (Glossypium hirsutium) moved to
USA south (basis of antebellum economy)
 Glossypium barbadense (a Caribbean variety)
introduced to “sea islands” of SE USA and on to
Egypt (became “Egyptian cotton”)
N America (maize, beans, squash pre-Columbian)
 Spanish: => citrus & other Med crops to FL & CA
 English colonies: S American tobacco for export
 Potatoes introduced from England (!)
 Rice (and African expertise) to SE USA from
Africa
 Late arrivals: durum & hard winter wheats from
Russia & later soy beans from China
© T. M. Whitmore
Movement of major animals I
• Cattle (Bos spp)
Domesticated in SW Asia 7000-6000
BP
Independently domesticated or
diffused to Mediterranean & N
Africa then to Europe & W Africa
early
 Texas longhorn and Spanish criollo
© T. M. Whitmore
Movement of major animals II
• Development of short-horned variants
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by 5000 BP (N Europe)
Most modern US cattle from this line
Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) from South
Asia “Brahma”
Many US cattle varieties crosses
using Brama and European varieties
(e.g., “Beefmaster”
Water Buffalo (Bubalus spp.)
© T. M. Whitmore
Movement of major animals III
• Sheep & goats
Domesticated earlier than cattle in C
and SW Asia
Early diffused E and W
Merino sheep (wool) developed in NW
Africa => Spain by Roman times (or by
Moors)
 To Americas by 1600
English sheep (wool & meat)
© T. M. Whitmore
Movement of major animals IV
• Pigs (Sus spp)
Independently domesticated in
Europe, Russia, China (SE Asia?)
A forest animal => little penetration
to dryer lands
 Spanish oak-fed hams
Food taboos preclude its acceptance
in Muslim and Jewish areas
China has 9/10 of world's pigs
© T. M. Whitmore
History of Horticulture © 2002
Jules Janick, Purdue University
Oca (S American potato-like tuber)
quinoa
Yuca, cassava, manioc
Dried manioc for sale in a market in Cameroon
© Brian Smithson
Nopal & tunas
maguey
amaranth
chilies
Cacao tree
vanilla
Ancient Maya fresco depicting cocoa
Cacao pods
Cacao pods & beans
Beef master
(Brahma bulls & Herford cows
History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University