“ My Heart Leaps Up”
My heart leaps up when I behold
A rainbow in the sky;
So was it when my life began
So is it now I am a man
So be it when I shall grow old
Or let me die!
The Child is father of the Man
And I could wish my days to be
Bound each to each to natural piety.
William Wordsworth
Table of Contents

 3 phases
– germinal stage = first 2 weeks
• conception, implantation, formation of placenta
– embryonic stage = 2 weeks – 2 months
• formation of vital organs and systems
– fetal stage = 2 months – birth
• bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply
• age of viability
Table of Contents






 periods of vulnerability in prenatal period (pg 435)
Maternal nutrition
– Malnutrition linked to increased risk of birth complications, neurological problems, and psychopathology
Maternal drug use
– Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs
– Fetal alcohol syndrome
Maternal illness
– Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, severe influenza
– Prenatal health care
– Prevention through guidance
Infant mortality by countries – next slide
Preventive care for children
Table of Contents

Slide 5
Cross-cultural comparisons of infant mortality
Table of Contents




Basic Principles
– Cephalocaudal trend – head to foot
– Proximodistal trend – center-outward
Maturation – gradual unfolding of genetic blueprint
Developmental norms – next slide
– median age – growth charts
– 95% level
– Cultural variations
Table of Contents

Developmental Motor milestones Table of Contents

 Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional designs –


Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970)
– 3 basic temperamental styles
• easy – 40%
• slow-to-warm-up – 15%
• difficult – 10%
• mixed – 35%
– stable over time
Go home and ask mom and dad about when your temperament you were a baby.
Kagan & Snidman (1991)
– Inhibited vs. uninhibited temperament
• inhibited – 15 - 20%
• uninhibited – 25 - 30%
– stable over time, genetically based
Table of Contents

Table of Contents



Separation anxiety
– Ainsworth (1979)
– The strange situation and patterns of attachment
• Secure
• Anxious-ambivalent
• Avoidant
• Next slide, cross-cultural comparison
• Effects on mating strategy –
• Developing secure attachment
– Bonding at birth – contact comfort – Harlow –Daycare
– Cultural factors
Evolutionary perspectives on attachment
Table of Contents





Secure attachment is indicated when an infant explores the situation freely in the presence of the mother, but displays distress when the mother leaves, and responds enthusiastically when the mother returns
– Caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to an infant’s needs are more likely to develop a secure attachment with the infant
Insecure-avoidant attachment is indicated by exploration, but minimal interest in the mother, the infant showing little distress when the mother leaves, and avoiding her when she returns
Insecure-ambivalent attachment is indicated by the infant seeking closeness to the mother and not exploring the situation, high level of distress when the mother leaves, and ambivalent behavior when she returns by alternately clinging to and pushing away from her
Insecure-disorganized (disoriented) attachment is marked by the infant’s confusion when the mother leaves and when she returns
– The infant acts disoriented, seems overwhelmed by the situation, and does not demonstrate a consistent way of coping with it
Table of Contents

Cultural variations in attachment patterns
Attachment and mating strategy, from childhood to puberty
Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive
Uninvolved
Parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children’s desires, and communicate poorly with their children
Parents are demanding but set rational limits for their children and communicate well with their children
Parents make few demands and are overly responsive to their child’s desires, letting their children do pretty much as they please
Parents minimize both the time they spend with the children and their emotional involvement with them, doing little more than providing for basic needs
Table of Contents



– progress through stages in order
– progress through stages related to age
– major discontinuities in development slide
Erik Erikson (1963) – slide
– Eight stages spanning the lifespan
– Psychosocial crises determining balance between opposing polarities in personality
Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

1 Trust vs. Mistrust
(birth to 1 year)
2
3
4
Autonomy vs. Shame and
Doubt
(1 to 2 years)
Initiative vs. Guilt
(3 to 5 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority
(5 years to puberty)
Infants learn that they can or cannot trust others to take care of their basic needs
Children learn to be self-sufficient in many activities such as toilet training, walking, and exploring; if restrained too much they learn to doubt their abilities and feel shame
Children learn to assume more responsibility by taking the initiative but will feel guilty if they overstep limits set by parents
Children learn to be competent by mastering new intellectual, social, and physical skills or feel inferior if they fail to develop these skills
Table of Contents

5 Identity vs. Role Confusion
(adolescence)
Adolescents develop a sense of identity by experimenting with different roles; no role experimentation may result in role confusion
6 Intimacy vs. Isolation
(young adulthood)
Young adults form intimate relationships with others or become isolated because of failure to do so
7 Generativity vs. Stagnation
(middle adulthood)
Middle-aged adults feel they are helping the next generation though their work and child rearing, or they stagnate because they feel that they are not helping
8 Integrity vs. Despair
(late adulthood)
Older adults assess their lives and develop sense of integrity if they find lives have been meaningful; develop sense of despair if not meaningful
Table of Contents

Table of Contents




Infant learns about the world through their sensory and motor interactions (including reflexes)
Lack object permanence , the knowledge than an object exists independent of perceptual contact
Symbolic representation of objects and events starts to develop during the latter part of the sensorimotor stage (e.g., use of telegraphic speech)
Table of Contents




The child’s thinking becomes more symbolic and language-based, but remains egocentric and lacks the mental operations that allow logical thinking
Egocentrism is the inability to distinguish one’s own perceptions, thoughts, and feelings from those of others
– Cannot perceive the world from another person’s perspective
The child, however, can pretend, imagine, and engage in make-believe play
Table of Contents

 Conservation is the knowledge that the quantitative properties of an object (such as mass, volume, and number) remain the same despite changes in appearance
– Some grasp of conservation marks the end of the preoperational stage and the beginning of the concrete-operational stage
– The liquid/beakers problem is a common test of conservation ability
Table of Contents

Table of Contents



A major reason why a preoperational child does not understand conservation is that the child lacks an understanding of reversibility , the knowledge that reversing a transformation brings about the conditions that existed before the transformation
Child’s thinking also reflects centration , the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a problem at a time
Table of Contents



Children gain a fuller understanding of conservation and other mental operations that allow them to think logically, but only about concrete events
– Conservation for liquids, numbers, and matter acquired early, but conservation of length acquired later in the stage
– Develops transitivity (e.g., if A > B, and B > C, then A > C)
– Develops seriation , the ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension (e.g., a set of pencils by their length)
The reasoning of concrete operational children is tied to immediate reality (i.e., what is in front of them and tangible) and not with the hypothetical world of possibility
Table of Contents

 The child gains the capacity for hypotheticaldeductive thought
– Can engage in hypothetical thought and in systematic deduction and testing of hypotheses
Table of Contents

 In one scientific thinking task, the child is shown several flasks of what appear to be the same clear liquid and is told one combination of two of these liquids would produce a clear liquid
– The task is to determine which combination would produce the blue liquid
– The concrete operational child just starts mixing different clear liquids together haphazardly
– The formal operational child develops a systematic plan for deducing what the correct combination must be by determining all of the possible combinations and then systematically testing each one
Table of Contents

 The formal operational child can evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to concrete situations
– For example, the formal operational child would judge the statement “If mice are bigger than horses, and horses are bigger than cats, then mice are bigger than cats” to be true, even though in “real life” mice are not bigger than cats
Table of Contents

 Recent research has shown that rudiments of many of
Piaget’s key concepts (e.g., object permanence) may begin to appear at earlier stages than Piaget proposed
– For example, research that involved tracking infants’ eye movements has found that infants as young as 3 months continue to stare at the place where the object disappeared from sight, indicating some degree of object permanence
Table of Contents

1. Not all people reach formal operational thought
2. The theory may be biased in favor of Western culture
3. There is no real theory of what occurs after the onset of adolescence
4. Despite refinements, recent research has indeed shown that cognitive development seems to proceed in the general sequence of stages that Piaget proposed
Table of Contents




Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
– Thought and Language (1934)
– Importance of social interactions in cognitive development
– Zone of proximal development (ZPD) – difference in accomplishing alone and with help from others
Inhibition – disinhibition – innate?
Memory abilities – active maintenance rehearsal 9-
10 years
 Memory capacities - metacognition
Table of Contents



Kohlberg (1976)
– Reasoning as opposed to behavior
• Moral dilemmas
– Measured nature and progression of moral reasoning
– 3 levels, each with 2 sublevels – slide
• Preconventional – punishment S1 – naïve reward S2
• Conventional good boy/good girl S3 – authority S4
• Postconventional social contract S5 – individual principles and conscience S6
– Longitudinal studies – (slide) , research issues (use of males), reasoning versus behavior
Greene’s et al. studies of moral judgments and brain functioning – fMRI studies using 60 moral dilemmas
Table of Contents



Built on an earlier theory of moral reasoning proposed by
Piaget, using a series of stories that involved moral dilemmas to assess a person’s level of moral reasoning
Discerned three levels of moral reasoning based on responses to the stories and the reasoning behind the responses given
Table of Contents

1.
At the preconventional level of moral reasoning, the emphasis is on avoiding punishment and looking out for your own welfare and needs
– Moral reasoning is self-oriented
2.
At the conventional level of moral reasoning, moral reasoning is based on social rules and laws
– Social approval and being a dutiful citizen are important
3.
At the highest level, the postconventional level of moral reasoning, moral reasoning is based on self-chosen ethical principles
– Human rights taking precedent over laws; the avoidance of selfcondemnation for violating such principles
Table of Contents

Level 1 Preconventional Morality
Stage 1 Punishment orientation
Compliance with rules to avoid punishment
Stage 2 Reward orientation
Compliance with rules to obtain rewards and satisfy own needs
Level 2 Conventional Morality
Stage 3 Good-girl/ good-boy orientation
Engages in behavior to get approval of others
Stage 4 Law and order orientation
Behavior is guided by duty to uphold laws and rules for their own sake
Table of Contents

Level 3 Postconventional Morality
Stage 5 Social contract orientation
Stage 6 Universal ethical principles orientation
Obeys rules because they are necessary for social order but understands rules are relative
Concerned about selfcondemnation for violating universal ethical principles based on human rights
 Kohlberg proposed that we all start at the preconventional level as children and as we develop, especially cognitively, we move up the ladder of moral reasoning
– The sequence is uniform; however, not everyone reaches the postconventional level
Table of Contents

 Shortcomings of Kohlberg’s theory
– Studied moral reasoning and not moral behavior
– May not have adequately represented the morality of women
– The higher stages may be biased toward Western cultures
Table of Contents

Adolescence: Puberty and the Growth Spurt
 Pubescence – growth spurts
10 – 12 females 12 – 14 males



 Puberty
– Secondary sex characteristics
– Primary sex characteristics
• Menarche / Spermarche
• Sperm production
• Tanner stages
– Maturation: early vs. late – Belsky’s study
• Sex differences in effects of early maturation
Brain Development in adolescence – slide
Risk taking – slide
Rates of suicide
Table of Contents

Prefrontal Cortex and adolescence development
Table of Contents

Peer influence on risk taking
Table of Contents

 Problems – suicide rates and brain development


Erik Erikson (1968)
– Key challenge - forming a sense of identity
James Marcia (1988) – next slide
– 4 identity statuses
• Foreclosure
• Moratorium
• Identity Diffusion
• Identity Achievement
Table of Contents

Marcia’s four identity statuses
Table of Contents



Search for identity extends into adulthood
Ages 18 – 25 have become a distinct transitional stage of life
– Characterized by:
• subjective feeling of transition
• age of possibilities
• self-focused
• period of identity formation
Table of Contents





Personality development – midlife crisis? -
Social development – family life cycle, marriage, parenthood, empty nest –
Career development – patterns, work and in the home –
Physical changes – biological aging process
 Cognitive changes – mental abilities - memory, response time -
Table of Contents

Median age at first marriage in United States
Table of Contents

Sternberg’s triangular theory of love.
Table of Contents

Each person will identify one indicator of LOVE and an example of how it could be measured. (Did you come upon this from “firsthand” experience or second party?)
Then make a poster with the group identifiers.
Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Age and the stability of primary mental abilities
Table of Contents








Stereotypes –
Cognitive –
Social/personality
Biological origins – brain hemisphere differences –
Figure
Hormone influences – estrogens and androgens
Environment influences - socialization
Gender role – gender versus sex
Father’s (dad’s) role in children’s well-being
Table of Contents






Denial
– "I feel fine."; "This can't be happening, not to me."
Denial is usually only a temporary defense for the individual. This feeling is generally replaced with heightened awareness of positions and individuals that will be left behind after death.
Anger
– "Why me? It's not fair!"; "How can this happen to me?";
"Who is to blame?"
Once in the second stage, the individual recognizes that denial cannot continue.
Because of anger, the person is very difficult to care for due to misplaced feelings of rage and envy. Any individual that symbolizes life or energy is subject to projected resentment and jealousy.
Bargaining
– "Just let me live to see my children graduate."; "I'll do anything for a few more years."; "I will give my life savings if..."
The third stage involves the hope that the individual can somehow postpone or delay death. Usually, the negotiation for an extended life is made with a higher power in exchange for a reformed lifestyle. Psychologically, the individual is saying, "I understand I will die, but if I could just have more time..."
Depression
– "I'm so sad, why bother with anything?"; "I'm going to die...
What's the point?"; "I miss my loved one, why go on?"
During the fourth stage, the dying person begins to understand the certainty of death. Because of this, the individual may become silent, refuse visitors and spend much of the time crying and grieving. This process allows the dying person to disconnect oneself from things of love and affection. It is not recommended to attempt to cheer up an individual who is in this stage. It is an important time for grieving that must be processed.
Acceptance – "It's going to be okay."; "I can't fight it, I may as well prepare for it.” of his loved one.





Define “death”.
Do you believe in some kind of “afterlife”?
– Why or why not? If so, what’s it like?
Why are funerals important?
If you could know the exact time and cause of your death would you want to know? Why or why not?
 Write about your funeral:
– What would you want it to include?
– Who are 3 people that you would want to speak and what would you hope they say?
Table of Contents