Speech Outline
I.
Speaking in Public a.
The Power of Public Speaking i.
480 companies ranked communication skills 1 st among personal skills b.
The Tradition of Public Speaking i.
Oldest handbook written on papyrus in Egypt some 4500 years ago ii.
Aristotle’s Rhetoric, 3 rd public speaking
Century BCE, considered most important work on iii.
Roman leader Cicero spoke on the defense of liberty c.
Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation i.
30% of waking life in conversation ii.
Similar skills
1.
Organizing your thoughts effectively
2.
Tailoring your message to your audience
3.
Telling a story for maximum impact
4.
Adapting to listener feedback d.
Differences Between Public Speaking and Conversation i.
Different skills
1.
Public speaking is more highly structured
2.
Public speaking requires more formal language
3.
Public speaking requires a different method of delivery e.
Why learn to speak in public? i.
Success in the school/workplace can be tied to a person’s ability to effectively communicate. ii.
Some opportunities are unavailable to people because the opportunity includes a public speaking component. iii.
Ability to address one’s peers allows for the ability to express one’s opinions and concerns. Make a contribution. f.
Developing Confidence i.
70% claim giving a speech as greatest fear ii.
Stage Fright: Anxiety over the prospect of giving a speech in front of an audience iii.
Glossophobia: fear of public speaking
1.
People are often afraid to speak in public because: a.
Lack of information b.
Lack of confidence c.
Nervousness i.
Embarrassment ii.
Fear of making a mistake iii.
Looking “stupid” iv.
Sounding “stupid” iv.
The key to overcoming the fear of public speaking is fostering confidence.
1.
Eye contact with the audience, facial expression, body movement, personal appearance and strength of voice all convey confidence externally.
2.
Knowledge of the subject and proper preparation and mental state breed confidence internally. v.
Preparation
1.
Preparation is the key to success in a public speaking environment.

Speech Outline
2.
Preparing a speech includes determining a purpose of a speech, analyzing the intended audience, gathering information, organizing information and delivery.
3.
Delivery includes not only what is said but how it is said. vi.
Nervousness is normal
1.
Positive Nervousness: zesty, enthusiastic, lively feeling with a slight edge to it.
2.
Acquire Speaking Experience
3.
Practice like a champion a.
1 minute speaking = 1-2 hrs preparation b.
Proper preparation reduces glossophobia by 75%
4.
Think positive!
5.
Visualize yourself successfully
6.
Don’t expect perfection a.
Be at your best physically and mentally b.
As you are waiting to speak, quietly tighten and relax leg muscles. Helps relieve tension c.
Take slow deep breaths before you start speaking d.
Work especially hard on your introduction – anxiety levels drop after the first 30-60 seconds of a speech vii.
“There are always three speeches for every one you actually gave. The one you practiced, the one you gave, and the one you wish you gave.” ~Dale
Carnegie g.
Public Speaking and Critical Thinking i.
Critical Thinking: focused, organized thinking about such things as the logical relationships among ideas, the soundness of evidence, and the differences between fact and opinion. ii.
You have to be analytical when approaching a speech.
1.
Topic
2.
Audience
3.
Information
4.
Organization h.
Communication Process i.
There are 5 steps in the communication process:

Speech Outline
1.
Speaker wishes to communicate an idea a.
Person who is presenting an oral message to a listener
2.
Speaker encodes the idea into a message a.
Whatever a speaker communicates to someone else
3.
Message is sent through a channel to an audience a.
Means by which a message is communicated
4.
Audience receives and decodes message a.
The person who receives the speaker’s message b.
Message is decoded through a frame of reference i.
The sum of a person’s knowledge, experience, goals, values, and attitudes. No two people can have exactly the same frame of reference
5.
Audience responds to the message with feedback. a.
The messages, usually nonverbal, sent from a listener to a speaker ii.
Interference: Anything that impedes the communication of a message
1.
Can be internal or external iii.
Situation: The time and place in which speech communication occurs iv.
Breakdowns in Communication
1.
“What we have here is a failure to communicate” - Cool Hand Luke
2.
A breakdown in communication can usually be tracked down to a missed, altered, or ineffective step in the act of communication.
3.
The speaker, message, channel, and audience are all responsible for the act of communication i.
Public Speaking in a Multicultural World i.
Cultural Diversity Today
1.
195 nations in the world; all have someone living in the U.S.
2.
47 million people in the U.S. speak a language other than English at home
3.
France has as many Muslims as practicing Catholics
4.
Radio CHIN in Toronto, Canada, broadcasts in 31 languages
5.
In Geneva, Switzerland, there are so many people from around the world that nearly 60% of the school population is non-swiss. ii.
Cultural Diversity and Public Speaking
1.
Giving a speech becomes more complex as cultural diversity increases
2.
Biggest issues stem from differences in language a.
Connotations b.
Gestures c.
Facial expressions d.
Non-verbal signals iii.
Avoiding Ethnocentrism
1.
Ethnocentrism: the belief that one’s own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures a.
Makes us think of our values and beliefs as “right” b.
Can be positive by creating pride and loyalty c.
Can be negative by creating prejudice and hostility

Speech Outline
2.
Avoiding ethnocentrism does not mean agreeing with others values and practices a.
Must show RESPECT for other cultures
3.
When listening, be courteous and respectful iv.
Adapting your Speech
1.
You must adapt to the needs of your audience
2.
Things to consider: a.
Individual characteristics such as personality, interests, and aspirations b.
Cultural characteristics such as age, religion, and national and ethnic background c.
Sociological characteristics such as affiliations, educational background, and occupation j.
Informal Speaking i.
Informal communication: giving and receiving messages in casual, personperson interactions
1.
Practical communication: useful, direct, goal oriented a.
Giving directions b.
Business phone call c.
Making Announcements
2.
Social communication: friendly, cordial, enjoyable a.
Phone call to a friend b.
Making introductions c.
Conversation
II.
Listening a.
Listening is Important i.
Hearing: vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of electrochemical impulses in the brain ii.
Listening: paying close attention to, and making sense of, what we hear iii.
Listening is more important than ever iv.
We only grasp 50% of what we hear; 24 hours later we can remember only
10% of the original message v.
In this class, you will spend more time listening to speeches than giving them b.
Listening and Critical Thinking i.
Appreciative Listening: for pleasure or enjoyment ii.
Empathic Listening: to provide emotional support for a speaker iii.
Comprehensive Listening: to understand the message of a speaker iv.
Critical Listening: to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or rejecting it v.
Comprehensive and Critical Listening are the most common vi.
When your mind is not actively involved, you are hearing, not listening c.
Four Causes of Poor Listening i.
Not concentrating
1.
We talk at a rate of 120-150 words a minute
2.
The brain can process 400-800 words a minute ii.
Listening too hard
1.
Trying to remember everything said equally and missing the main point

Speech Outline
2.
Often leads to mixing up information iii.
Jumping to conclusions
1.
Putting words into a speaker’s mouth
2.
Prematurely rejecting a speaker’s ideas as boring or misguided iv.
Focusing on delivery and personal appearance
1.
Easy to be distracted by accents, appearance, or vocal mannerisms d.
How to be a Better Listener i.
Take listening seriously; it takes practice and self-discipline to be a good listener ii.
Be an active listener; passive listening is a habit
1.
Active: giving undivided attention to a speaker in a genuine effort to understand the speaker’s point of view iii.
Resist Distractions; tune out sources of external and internal interference iv.
Do not be swayed by appearances; both attractive and unattractive v.
Suspend Judgement vi.
Focus your listening
1.
Listen for Main Points a.
Introduction often tells you how many main points will be presented
2.
Listen for Evidence a.
Main points need to be supported by evidence
3.
Listen for Technique a.
What methods does the speaker use to gain attention? Relate to the audience? b.
Is the delivery fluent? Dynamic? Convincing? c.
How well does the speaker use eye contact? Gestures? Visual aids? e.
Develop Note-Taking Skills i.
Do not attempt to write down everything ii.
Use a key-word outline
1.
Briefly note main points and supporting evidence
2.
Example a.
Serious nurse shortage i.
Total of 120,000 ii.
Avg. 47 per hospital iii.
Reduced services b.
4 main causes i.
Low faculty at nursing school ii.
Employment available beyond hospitals iii.
Poor working hours iv.
Excessive paperwork
III.
Choosing a Topic and Purpose a.
Topic: The subject of a speech b.
Choosing a Topic i.
Topics you know a lot about ii.
Topics you want to know more about iii.
Brainstorming: a method of generating ideas for speech topics by free association of words and ideas

Speech Outline
1.
Personal Inventory: experiences, hobbies, skills, beliefs, etc.
2.
Clustering a.
Divide paper into 9 columns: People, Places, Things, Events,
Processes, Concepts, Natural Phenomena, Problems, and
Plans b.
List the first 5-6 things that come to mind for each category
3.
Reference Search: browse through an encyclopedia, periodical database, or other reference sources.
4.
Internet Search: use a subject-based search engine to browse categories and sub-categories a.
Yahoo! Directory (dir.yahoo.com) b.
Librarians’ Index (www.lii.org) c.
Determining the Purpose i.
General Purpose: the broad goal of a speech
1.
Persuade: to change or structure the attitudes of the audience
2.
Inform: to convey information clearly ii.
Specific Purpose: A single infinitive phrase that states precisely what a speaker hopes to accomplish in his or her speech
1.
Limited focus
2.
Indicates PRECISELY what you hope to accomplish iii.
How to Write a Good Purpose Statement
1.
Write it as a full infinitive phrase, not a fragment a.
Ineffective: calendars b.
Effective: To inform my audience about the four major kinds of calendars used in the world today
2.
Express your purpose as a statement, not a question a.
Ineffective: What is Dia de los Muertos? b.
Effective: To inform my audience about the history of
Mexico’s Dia de los Muertos celebration
3.
Avoid Figurative Language in your Personal Statement
4.
Limit you Purpose Statement to One Distinct Idea
5.
Make sure your specific purpose is not too vague or general a.
Ineffective: Hot-air Balloons b.
Effective: to inform my audience about the scientific uses of hot-air balloons iv.
Questions to ask about your Purpose Statement
1.
Does my purpose meet the assignment?
2.
Can I accomplish my purpose in the time allotted?
3.
Is the purpose relevant to my audience?
4.
Is the purpose too trivial to my audience?
5.
Is the purpose too technical for my audience? d.
Phrasing the Central Idea i.
Central Idea: a one-sentence statement that sums up or encapsulates the major ideas of a speech
1.
also called the Thesis Statement ii.
Could also be phrased as the residual message
1.
What a speaker wants the audience to remember after it has forgotten everything else in a speech.

Speech Outline iii.
Guidelines
1.
Expressed in a full sentence
2.
Should not be in the form of a question
3.
Should avoid figurative language
4.
Should not be vague or overly general
IV.
Introductions and Conclusions a.
Introduction i.
No longer than 10% of the speech ii.
3 purposes
1.
Get the attention of the audience: help them focus so they listen to the body of your speech. a.
Startling Statement b.
Ask a Question c.
Tell a brief story or anecdote d.
Open with a fitting quotation e.
Give a personal reference
2.
Gain the goodwill of the audience: if the audience trusts and likes you, they are more likely to be receptive to your message.
3.
Develop interest: if your audience isn’t interested, they will tune you out b.
Conclusion i.
2 main goals
1.
Emphasize key ideas of the speech
2.
Intensify emotions and feelings of the audience ii.
Once you have started your conclusion, do not continue to add points. iii.
Techniques
1.
Summarize (Informative, Demonstrative)
2.
Recommendation (Persuasive, Argumentative)
3.
Stirring Ending (Argumentative, Special Occasion)
V.
Analyzing the Audience a.
Audience-Centeredness: keeping the audience foremost in mind at every stop of speech preparation and presentation i.
To whom am I speaking? ii.
What do I want them to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech? iii.
What is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to accomplish that aim? b.
Identification: a process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences c.
The Psychology of Audiences i.
Every speech contains 2 messages
1.
Sent by the speaker
2.
Received by the listener ii.
People want to hear about things that are meaningful to them
1.
Egocentrism: the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being. d.
Know Your Audience: Demographics

Speech Outline i.
Demographic Audience Analysis: audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background. ii.
Stereotyping: creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike. iii.
Age iv.
Gender v.
Background
1.
Education
2.
Cultural
3.
Socioeconomic vi.
Religion vii.
Group Membership viii.
Situational Audience Analysis: audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical setting for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion.
1.
Size a.
The larger the audience, the more formal your presentation must be b.
Affects language, choice of appeals, and use of visual aids
2.
Physical Setting: size of room, temperature, seating arrangements, time of day, etc.
3.
Disposition Toward the Topic a.
Interest b.
Knowledge c.
Attitude: a frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.
4.
Disposition toward the speaker
5.
Disposition toward the occasion ix.
Gathering Audience Information
1.
Fixed-alternative questions: questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives
2.
Scale questions: questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers
3.
Open-ended questions: questions that allow respondents to answer however they want
4.
Plan all questionnaires carefully a.
Plan it so it elicits precisely the information you need b.
Use all three types of questions c.
Make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous d.
Keep the questionnaire relatively brief e.
Adjust your Vocabulary to the Audience i.
Relate to your audience’s experience ii.
Use personal pronouns iii.
Ask rhetorical questions
1.
A question that is not meant to be answered iv.
Avoid

Speech Outline
1.
Jargon
2.
Cliches
3.
Slang
4.
Euphemisms v.
Be wary of connotation
VI.
Outlining the Speech a.
Determine your purpose i.
General ii.
Specific b.
Craft a thesis statement/Central Idea c.
Identify main points of support d.
Formal outline: short skeleton of a speech that provides an overview of organization and structure as well as the relationship of ideas e.
Why make an outline? i.
Helps to test the strength of your ideas and the logic of your structure ii.
Helps to organize your information iii.
Helps you rehearse your speech iv.
Provides a base for good speaker notes f.
How to Create an Outline i.
Use Roman Numerals to indicate main points ii.
Write in complete sentences iii.
Write main points in parallel language iv.
One idea for each point v.
Keep main points to less than five
VII.
Using Effective Language a.
Spoken i.
Must be immediately understandable ii.
Uses shorter, more familiar words iii.
Uses verbal cues iv.
Uses repetition of words and phrases b.
Written i.
Meant to be reread ii.
Contains larger and more complex vocabulary iii.
Fewer contractions and slang c.
Verbal Language i.
A system: consists of sounds, words, and their arrangement ii.
Symbolic iii.
Conventional iv.
Learned d.
Denotation: the dictionary definition e.
Connotation: the hidden meaning of a word i.
Often feelings or associations the words arouses ii.
Varies from person to person based on personal experiences with the word f.
Choose the Right Word i.
Simple: familiar, one to two syllables ii.
Precise: express thoughts and feelings accurately iii.
Specific: identify items within a category iv.
General: refers to an entire category

Speech Outline v.
Concrete: names things that can be perceived by one or more of the five senses vi.
Abstract: names things that cannot be perceived by one or more of the five senses g.
Nonverbal Language i.
Facial expressions
1.
Be careful in interpreting because people often attempt to mask their true feelings by adopting a facial expression that is associated with a more expected reaction. ii.
Eye contact
1.
In America, generally interpreted as a sign of honesty and straightforwardness. iii.
Gestures: movements of arms, hands, and fingers iv.
Posture v.
Movement: the way you walk, stand, sit, and perform actions h.
Paralanguage i.
Using voice variation and extraneous words and sounds to communicate
1.
Pitch: the highness or lowness of the speaker’s voice a.
Inflections: changes in the pitch or tone of a speaker’s voice b.
Monotone: a constant pitch or tone of voice i.
Makes it difficult for a listener to pay attention
2.
Volume: the loudness or softness of the speaker’s voice
3.
Rate: the speed at which a person speaks
4.
Pronunciation: the accepted standard of sound and rhythm for words in a given language
5.
Articulation: the physical production of particular speech sounds ii.
Also includes use of pauses i.
Use Expressive Language i.
Create a vivid image by using:
1.
Sensory words
VIII.
Visual Aids
2.
Figurative language: simile, metaphor, exaggeration, understatement, irony ii.
Create emphasis
1.
Repetition: saying something more than once
2.
Parallelism: repetition of words, phrases, or sentence structure
3.
Restatement: same idea, different wording
4.
Announcement: a statement that precedes what you intend to say a.
Using Visual Aids i.
A picture is worth a thousand words ii.
Audiences retain information better when it has been presented both visually and verbally iii.
When used properly, visual aids can enhance almost every aspect of a speech b.
Types of Visual Aids i.
Objects ii.
Models: an object, usually built to scale, that represents another object in detail iii.
Photographs

Speech Outline iv.
Drawings v.
Graphs: a visual aid used to show statistical trends and patterns vi.
Charts: a visual aid that summarizes a large block of information, usually in a list form vii.
Video viii.
Multimedia Presentations: a speech that combines several kinds of visual and/or audio aids in the same talk ix.
The Speaker c.
Guidelines for Preparing Visual Aids i.
Prepare visual aids in advance ii.
Keep visual aids simple iii.
Make sure visual aids are large enough iv.
Use fonts that are easy to read v.
Use a limited number of fonts vi.
Use color effectively d.
Guidelines for Presenting Visual Aids i.
Avoid using the chalkboard/whiteboard ii.
Display visual aids where listeners can see them iii.
Avoid passing visual aids among the audience iv.
Display visual aids only when discussing them v.
Talk to your audience, not to your visual aid vi.
Explain visual aids clearly and concisely vii.
Practice with your visual aids e.
PowerPoints i.
Guidelines
1.
Recheck your slides
2.
Know Slide Show Commands
3.
Practice with your PowerPoint
4.
Display slides only while discussing them
5.
Check room and equipment
6.
Have a backup plan ii.
Copyright and Fair Use Laws
1.
You may use copyrighted materials for a PowerPoint presentation that you create for a specific class
2.
You may not use materials obtained illegally
3.
You may not post copyrighted materials back to the Web without written consent from the copyright owner
4.
You must credit your sources and display the copyright symbol - © - when using copyrighted material
IX.
Speaking to Inform a.
Speeches about Objects i.
Object: anything visible, tangible, and stable in form
1.
May have moving parts
2.
Be alive
3.
Places
4.
Structures
5.
Animals
6.
People

Speech Outline ii.
You will not have time to tell everything, so you have to pick a specific purpose
1.
History or evolution: use chronological
2.
Main features: use spatial
3.
Many purposes will also use topical b.
Speeches about Processes i.
A systematic series of actions that leads to a specific result or product
1.
Demonstration speeches ii.
2 types
1.
Help audience understand it better
2.
Help audience perform the process themselves iii.
Generally uses visual aids to help the audience iv.
Organization is key to audience understanding c.
Speeches about Events i.
Events: anything that happens or is regarded as happening ii.
Specific Purpose
1.
History: Chronological
2.
Using an angle: Topical d.
Speeches about Concepts i.
Concepts: beliefs, theories, ideas, principles, etc. ii.
Use topical organization iii.
Often more complex
1.
Avoid technical language
2.
Define terms clearly
3.
Use examples and comparisons to illustrate concepts e.
Guidelines i.
Don’t Overestimate What the Audience Knows ii.
Relate the Subject Directly to the Audience iii.
Don’t be too Technical iv.
Avoid Abstractions v.
Personalize Your Ideas
X.
Researching a.
Places to Research: Print i.
Library ii.
Periodical Database: a catalogue of articles from a large number of journals and magazines
1.
Abstracts: summary of a magazine or journal article; written by someone other than the author iii.
Newspapers iv.
Encyclopedias
1.
Special Encyclopedias: devoted to a specific subject v.
Quotation Books vi.
Biographical Aids: reference work that provides information about people b.
Places to Research: Web i.
Search Engines ii.
Virtual Libraries: search engine that combines technology with a traditional library iii.
Government Resources

Speech Outline
1.
USA.gov: links to more that 250 million federal, state, local, and tribal governments
2.
Statistical Abstract: compiled by the Census Bureau
3.
World Factbook: published by the Central Intelligence Agency iv.
Multicultural Resources
1.
Yahoo! Regional
2.
WWW Virtual Library: American Indians
3.
Princeton University Library Asian-American Studies
4.
Latino/Hispanic Resources: maintained by University of Southern
California
5.
African American Web Connection: provides links to the National urban League, the Congressional Black Caucus, and the NAACP c.
As you Research i.
Start early; finding enough good research can take a long time ii.
Make a preliminary bibliography
1.
Helps you keep track of what you have looked at and helps you find it again iii.
Take notes efficiently
1.
Take lots of them
2.
Keep all notes in a consistent format
3.
Use evidence cards a.
3x5 index card b.
Contains i.
Citation
1.
Topic Heading for filing
2.
Subtopic heading when necessary
3.
Author’s name
4.
Author’s qualifications (important for proving credibility)
5.
Article Title
6.
Document title
7.
Date
8.
Page number ii.
Quote (only one) d.
Research Strategy i.
Obtain the highest quality evidence
1.
Look for external criticism: competence of source, competence of author, form of evidence
2.
When did the source become available
3.
Look for internal criticism: truth of the evidence a.
Does the evidence report fact or opinion e.
Research Tactics i.
Acquire background knowledge: general understanding of issue ii.
Research specific evidence
1.
Empirical evidence: experimental data and observational data
2.
Opinion Evidence: expert testimony and testimony from a layperson iii.
Hierarchy of Evidence

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1.
Best: experimental
2.
2
3.
3 nd : observational rd : expert opinion
4.
Weakest: layperson opinion f.
External Criticism (How Good is the Source?) i.
How competent is the source of the evidence?
1.
Is it objective?
2.
Is it responsible?
3.
Is it relatively free from bias? ii.
What is the form of the evidence?
1.
How permanent is it?
2.
Did the source intend permanence and strict interpretation? iii.
Who is the author of the evidence?
1.
Is the author an expert in the field?
2.
Is the author relatively free from bias?
3.
How was the information obtained? a.
Firsthand observation (primary source) b.
Obtained from someone else (secondary source)
4.
When did the author get the information? iv.
How recent is the evidence?
1.
Does it represent the latest material available?
2.
Have important events occurred since the evidence was written? g.
Internal Criticism (How Truthful is the Evidence?) i.
What does the evidence say? ii.
On what level of abstraction is it?
1.
Is it a factual report?
2.
Is it an inferential report?
3.
Is it a judgmental report? iii.
Is the evidence consistent within itself? iv.
Is the evidence consistent with other information?
XI.
Speaking to Persuade a.
Importance of Persuasion i.
Persuasion: the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people’s beliefs or actions. ii.
It’s important to understand persuasion in order to be an informed citizen and consumer iii.
By age 20, the average American has been exposed to 1 million television commercials – roughly 150 a day.
1.
The more you know about persuasion, the better equipped you are to analyze these messages. b.
When you speak to persuade, you are attempting to get people agree with you or to act on that behalf. c.
Ethics are Essential i.
In order to be successful, you must have ethical goals and methods of persuasion. ii.
There are many who are willing to “doctor” or fudge the truth in order to be successful in their persuasion. iii.
It’s essential to maintain the bond of trust in order to remain credible.

Speech Outline d.
Psychology of Persuasion i.
Most challenging form of public speaking ii.
Audience analysis and adaptation become much more important
1.
Talking about basic attitudes, values, and beliefs will increase your audience’s resistance. iii.
No matter how much you prepare or how well you speak, there will be those who do not agree with you.
1.
Listeners who are neutral or moderately in favor or opposed will be most likely to be swayed by your speech. e.
Persuasion i.
A deliberate attempt to influence the thought or behavior of others through the use of
personal, psychological, and logical appeals. ii.
Deliberate: Speaker must have a specific purpose and a desired end result. iii.
Attempt: Whether the speaker is successful, persuasion is still being done. iv.
Personal Proof
1.
“No one factor is more important to success in persuasion then the audience’s perception of the persuader” - Aristotle
2.
Sometimes, a speaker can be so well liked that his/her personality alone is more powerful than the information they pass along. (Bill
Clinton)
3.
For the audience to open themselves for persuasion, they must perceive that the speaker has: a.
Competence b.
Integrity c.
Goodwill d.
Appropriate Image v.
Credibility
1.
The audience will take all the previous traits and combine them to determine the speakers credibility.
2.
The audience must believe that the speaker believes what he/she is saying and that he/she “practices what they preach.”
3.
If an audience perceives a speaker to be less than credible, then the speaker has wasted his/her time and the time of the audience because they will discount everything he/she has said. vi.
Motives
1.
Motives can be broken down into physical and social categories.
2.
Physical motives lead to physical comfort for the person and are inherent. a.
Hunger b.
Health c.
Security/Defense
3.
Social motives lead to mental comfort and are completely learned by a person. a.
Approval b.
Conformity c.
Success d.
Creativity e.
Outrage/Injustice

Speech Outline vii.
3 Key Appeals
1.
Ethos – credibility or ethical appeal a.
Based in trustworthiness b.
You are more likely to be persuaded by a trustworthy and respectable source c.
Therefore i.
Look respectable when you speak ii.
Use proper grammar iii.
Take care with tone and style of presentation
2.
Pathos – emotional appeal a.
Appeals to an audience’s sympathies and imagination b.
Causes audience to identify with speaker’s point of view c.
Commonly used through storytelling d.
Conveys i.
Values ii.
Beliefs
3.
Logos – logical appeal a.
Based in logic b.
Must have i.
Clear claim ii.
Logical reasons iii.
Effective supporting evidence f.
Processing Persuasive Messages i.
Persuasion is not something you do to an audience; it is something you do
with an audience. ii.
They have to engage mentally. iii.
As the speaker, you must anticipate possible objections the audience will raise to your point-of-view. g.
3 Types of Persuasive Topics i.
Questions of fact
1.
Truth or falsity of an assertion
2.
Closest to informative
3.
Topical organization ii.
Questions of Value
1.
Worth, rightness, morality, etc. of an idea or action
2.
Establish claim, justify it with established standards
3.
Topical organization iii.
Questions of Policy
1.
Whether a specific course of action should be taken or not
2.
Usually include the word “should” in their propositions
3.
Problem-solution/Problem-Cause-Solution/Comparative
Advantages h.
Monroe’s Motivational Sequence i.
Developed in 1930s by Alan Monroe, speech professor at Purdue University ii.
Method of organizing speeches that seek immediate action iii.
5 steps
1.
Attention: gain your audience’s attention
2.
Need: make the audience feel a need for change

Speech Outline
3.
Satisfaction: provide a solution to the problem
4.
Visualization: after providing a plan, help your audience visualize the benefits
5.
Action: say exactly what you want your audience to do i.
Logic and Reasoning i.
Logical Proof
1.
Logical reasoning is the easiest way to convince because the information is presented as fact.
2.
However, not all information is common sense to the audience so the speaker has to connect the dots.
3.
To do this, the speaker can use: a.
Deductive reasoning b.
Inductive reasoning ii.
Logic: the study of reasoning
1.
allows us to test the truth or falsity of inferences and reasoning
2.
used in problem solving iii.
Inference: reaching a conclusion on the basis of evidence and reasoning
1.
the creation of new ideas or information from existing ideas or information
2.
the process of creating new statements from other statements
3.
these statements are called Propositions a.
Propositional Logic—the logic of propositions—analyzing the validity of propositions iv.
Inductive Reasoning: The inference of a general law from particular instances; The process of summarizing observations to derive a generalization about the world
1.
We rarely observe all of the instances if a particular phenomena, so we can never be sure it is true in all cases—we can estimate probability
2.
Example a.
A daisy is a flower. b.
A rose is a flower. c.
A violet is a flower. d.
Therefore, plants with colorful blooms are flowers. v.
Deductive Reasoning: a way for the speaker to draw a direct line from a general concept to the specific end of their purpose; the inference of particular instances by reference to a general law or principle
1.
Sherlock Holmes’ deductive reasoning techniques
2.
The format for these sets is called a syllogism a.
Example i.
All men are mortal. ii.
Socrates is a man. iii.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. b.
The 1 st statement is the generalization or general rule called the major premise c.
The 2 nd statement is an observation or specific fact called the
minor premise

Speech Outline d.
The 3 vi.
Validity and Truth rd statement is the inference that follows the first two statements called the conclusion
1.
The Rules of Inference tell us whether a syllogism is valid or not, but not if it is true.
2.
Validity: a matter of correct reasoning.
3.
Validity does not guarantee truth and truth does not guarantee validity.
4.
In order to have a sound syllogism, the form must be valid and the premises must be true.
5.
To determine if a conclusion of a valid syllogism is true, we have to agree that the premises are true.
6.
When a syllogism is both valid in reasoning and the premises are true, we say the conclusion is sound. vii.
Accuracy vs. Precision
1.
Accuracy: proximity to target or true value
2.
Precision: proximity to similar situations
3.
Accurate, but not precise
4.
viii.
Logical Fallacies
Precise, but not accurate
1.
Fallacies: mistruths that are used to make a point; generally used to dramatize a position, dramatize information or to compensate for the lack of supporting information.
2.
While popularly used, they can lead to a destruction of the credibility of the speaker and therefore a destruction of the speech itself.
3.
Types of fallacies include: a.
Unwarranted or Hasty Generalization (Including information that does not apply.) i.
Blondes are dumb ii.
Canadians are nice b.
Errors in casual information i.
Post Hoc – Unproven cause-effect relationship
1.
Frozen came out, then the US was covered in the Polar Vortex; therefore, the Polar Vortex was caused by Frozen. ii.
Non Sequitur – Stating a conclusion that does not necessarily follow the argument.
1.
The rain came down so hard that my mother started making pies.

Speech Outline c.
Begging the Question (States as fact what needs to be proven.) i.
The reason everyone wants the new "Slap Me Silly
Elmo" doll is because this is the hottest toy of the season! d.
Ignoring the Question (Misdirection of attitude) i.
Person A: Why will you make a good president? ii.
Person B: America is a great country! Who wouldn’t want to be president of this great nation? e.
False Analogy (A parallel that does not exist.) i.
Making people register their own guns is like the
Nazis making the Jews register with their government.
This policy is crazy. f.
Either/Or Fallacy (Stating only two options when more exist.) i.
You either love mashed potatoes or hate good food. g.
Ad Hominem (Attack of character on the opposition) i.
Martin Luther King Jr. plagiarized on his doctoral thesis, therefore he is a terrible human being. h.
Red Herring (Addition of information to confuse) i.
You have 5 cats, and they are all 6, and they all weigh
10 pounds. How much do they weigh altogether? i.
Ad Populum (Public opinion MUST be right, right?) i.
McDonald’s has served over 99billion, therefore it must make delicious food.
XII.
Speaking to Argue a.
Ethics and Argument i.
Study your topic thoroughly so that you don’t mislead your audience through poor research or disorganized thinking ii.
Learn about all sides of an issue, find competing viewpoints, and get your facts straight. iii.
Be wary of:
1.
Quoting out of context
2.
Only sharing a few details
3.
Misrepresenting the sources of facts and figures iv.
Aim for the highest standards b.
Argument vs. Persuasion i.
Persuasion
1.
Purpose: agreement
2.
Technique: blend opinion with facts
3.
Audience: target Market
4.
Attitude: Personal/Emotional
5.
Perspective: Biased
6.
Process a.
Pick topic b.
Choose side c.
Start writing

Speech Outline ii.
Argument
1.
Purpose: accept as truth
2.
Technique: blend reasons and data to show the argument is sound
3.
Audience: universal
4.
Attitude: fair/respectful
5.
Perspective: Pro/Con
6.
Process a.
Research the debatable topic b.
Align with the strongest side c.
Do more research d.
Outline arguments
XIII.
Advanced Logical Fallacies a.
Ambiguity: The expression used is confusing to the audience because it is
AMBIGUOUS– has more than one meaning. i.
EX) “Bus Driver Stops En Route to Help Dog Bite Victim.” - Is the bus driver helping the dog bite the victim? Or aiding the wounded, bitten victim? b.
Ad Hominem: A person’s character is being attacked instead of the topic at hand. i.
EX) “He is so evil, and you have no reason to believe the lies he is telling you.” – Person talking about their opponent instead of the topic at hand c.
Begging the Question: Circular reasoning is used in a way that offers the argument itself as proof. i.
Restating the argument in different words ii.
EX) “The product is in high demand because everyone wants one!” d.
Bogus Claims: Promising more than you can deliver i.
EX) “I promise to have FREE ICECREAM in the Cafeteria during ALL lunches!” – Student Running for Student Council e.
Card Stacking: Evidence on the opposing side of the issue is ignored i.
EX) A snack food brand may claim to be low in fat to hide the fact that the food is loaded with sugar. f.
Either-Or: Only two choices are offered when, really, others exist. i.
EX) “Deep condition your long, luscious locks with our special Moroccan
Oil treatment... Or say goodbye to healthy hair!” g.
False Analogy: Misleading comparisons are made i.
EX) “Students should only be required to take open-notes tests. After all, lawyers get to use briefs during a trial!”
1.
The situations compared are not similar enough. Lawyers in this situation are not being tested over how much they have learned. h.
Guilty by Association: Attacking the beliefs of a person because of who/what the person is associated with. i.
EX) Sally must HATE men because she did a research paper on feminism. i.
Bandwagon/Ad Populum: Something is right because everyone else does it i.
EX) “If they jumped off a bridge, would you do it, too?” – Angry mother discussing peer pressure ii.
EX) “Try our new cigars. Everyone is using them!” j.
Hasty Generalization: Stereotyping, making generalizations based on poor evidence i.
EX) “When visiting a college , my student tour guide was very rude.
Therefore, all students at this college are rude.”

Speech Outline k.
Irrelevant Argument: The conclusion made does NOT relate to the premise i.
EX) “I am on a strict diet, but I decided to order soda at my favorite restaurant, anyways. There were free refills!”
1.
The argument for ordering a soda has nothing to do with dieting. l.
Loaded Terms: Use of biased diction i.
Words typically have a strong connotation ii.
EX) Unloaded Term: Plant Loaded Term: Weed m.
Misrepresentation: Using or presenting deliberate, outright LIES i.
EX) Two candidates are running for office. The first states that he wants to increase education spending. The second candidate says that his opponent hates the country because he is going to cut military spending in order to increase spending for the schools. n.
Non Sequitur: Irrelevant evidence is introduced in attempt to support the argument i.
EX) “Of course you will go to your room! I am your mother!! You WILL do what I tell you to do!” o.
Red Herring: Diverting the issue with topic that is in no way related to the topic at hand i.
Diverts the attention of the audience from the original issue ii.
EX) In crime shows and mystery novels, we are often led to believe that someone is guilty, when in reality, they are innocent and someone else is the criminal. p.
Slippery Slope: Failure to provide evidence that one event will result in a catastrophic chain of events i.
EX) DIRECTV commercials...
1.
When you have cable, you get bored. When you get bored, you witness something you’re not supposed to... q.
Self-contradiction: Arguing two premises that cannot both be true i.
EX) “You cannot give me this C on my project! This is all wrong. I am always an A student!” r.
Taking Issues Out of Context: Issue is distorted when taken out of context i.
EX) A movie critic originally stated the following: “This movie lacks a strong plot and beautiful character development.” The movie trailer states that the critic said the following: “... Strong plot and beautiful character development.”
XIV.
Speaking on Special Occasions a.
Speech of Introduction i.
Be brief ii.
Accurate remarks iii.
Adapt your remarks to the occasion iv.
Adapt your remarks to the main speaker v.
Adapt your remarks to the audience vi.
Create a sense of anticipation and drama b.
Speech of Presentation i.
Presenting a gift, award, or public recognition ii.
Tells the audience why the recipient is receiving the award iii.
2 Considerations
1.
Describe the award
2.
If a public competition, acknowledge the other competitors

Speech Outline c.
Speech of Acceptance i.
Gives thanks for a gift or an award ii.
Thank the people giving you the award iii.
Thank the people who helped you achieve it d.
Commemorative Speeches i.
Speeches of praise or celebration
1.
Eulogies
2.
Holidays
3.
Dedications ii.
Describe why subject is praiseworthy iii.
Main goal is to inspire your audience iv.
Want to express feelings: joy, anticipation, lamentation v.
Relies on subtle and creative uses of language
1.
Challenge is to use language imaginatively to imbue the occasion with dignity, meaning, and honest emotion