Chapter 5:
The Roman Republic
The Emergence of Rome
Not much is known of the prehistoric people of Italy
– Indo-Europeans did move in by 2nd half of 2nd millennium BC
– Greeks and Etruscans had settled on the peninsula by the 1st cent. BC
Geography
narrow peninsula 750 mi north to south & averaging 120 mi
across
Rome itself is 17 mi inland on the Tiber River (access to the sea
but safe from pirates)
The city was built on 7 hills making it easily defended
Rome became a natural crossing point in north/south travel & the
peninsula juts into the Mediterranean catching sea traffic
The Greeks
Arrived on the peninsula during the age of colonization
Planned permanent settlements in Sicily & Naples
Passed on cultivation of olive & the vine, their alphabet,
literature, religion, sculpture & architecture
The Etruscans
The initial development of Rome was influenced most by the
Etruscans
– City-dwelling people that established & fortified cities in strategic positions
Origins unclear, but by 650 BC, they had expanded in Italy &
became a cultural and economic force in the northern half of the
peninsula
Etruscan power peaked in the 6th cent
– By 480 BC, power was declining; by 400 BC, power limited to Etruria
– Later invaded by the Gauls and eventually conquered by the Romans
Early Rome (753 BC – 509 BC)
According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by twin
brothers Romulus & Remus
Archeologists have found proof that at least a collection of fishing
villages by the 8th cent BC
Roman historical tradition indicates that in the early period,
Rome was ruled by 7 kings & 2 of the last 3 were Etruscan
The Etruscans left behind an impressive legacy of
engineering (concrete, roads, the arch)
– Responsible for the first roadbed for 1st major street in Rome
Romans adopted the toga and short cloak form the
Etruscans
The Latin alphabet was a modification of the Etruscan one
that they had built off of the Greek alphabet
The Romans associate the end of monarchy & Etruscan
domination w/ the story of the rape of Lucretia
– After being raped by the son of an Etruscan king, she tells her family,
and commits suicide
– Her family gathers the Roman nobility and drives the king out of
Rome and establishes a republic
– More myth symbolic of the perceived “rape” or domination of the
Romans by the Etruscans
– More likely not a patriotic uprising, but an attempt by the nobility to
maintain their power
The Roman Republic (509-264 BC)
In politics and law, the Romans took a very practical approach
– Political institutions developed as the problems themselves arose
The Roman State
The Romans had a very clear idea of executive power
– Imperium – the right to command
– Magistrates held supreme power but only held office for a limited time and
could be tried after leaving office for offenses
After the monarchy was overthrown, two consuls were elected
annually, administering the govt. & leading the army
366 BC – the office of praetor was created, also held imperium &
ruled when the consuls were away from the city
– Primary duty was the execution of justice
– As the Republic grew, more praetors were added (6 total by 197 BC)
– eventually consuls and praetors that had served their terms were sent to
govern provinces as proconsuls & propraetors
– while it makes sense to use administrators w/ experience; much more open
for corruption in the provinces
Occasionally, the Republic appointed an “extraordinary executive”
– In emergencies, the consuls would resign and a dictator would be
appointed to rule with unlimited power for 6 months at a time
Quaestors – assisted consuls and praetors with administrative &
financial duties
Aediles – supervised public games and monitored the grain
supplies in the city.
– Increasing problem as Rome’s population grew, forcing the city to
rely on imported grain
Censors – chosen every 5 years, responsible for assessing the
ages & property of citizens for use in taxes, military service &
office-holding
Senate – a council of around 300 “men of influence” who served
until death.
– Not a legislative body, only advisors to the magistrates
The advice of the senate was not to be taken lightly.
– Chief magistrates changed annually, popular assemblies met only
periodically, while the Senate met continuously
Of all the popular assemblies, the centuriate assembly was the
most important, by far
– the Roman army functioning politically
– Organized by class and wealth (wealthiest citizens always had the majority)
– Elected chief magistrates and passed laws
Social Organization
Society based on the family, the family ran like its own miniature
state
paterfamilias (head of the family) ruled theoretically w/ unlimited
power
– When the father died, his sons became the heads of their own families
– Families grouped into clans, descended from a common ancestor
Society divided into 2 groups: patricians & plebeians
– Patricians were families descended from the original senators from the age
of kings
– Power came from wealth as great landowners, made up an aristocratic ruling
class, only ones that could serve as chief magistrates and senators
– Plebeians considerably larger group, non-privileged citizens
– 471 BC – finally given representation w/ a Plebian Council
The plebeians began to realize if they wanted to increase their
power, they needed to understand the law.
– No written laws, until 450 BC when the Twelve Tables of Law was
published
Plebeians begin to see how underprivileged they were
– 445 BC – plebeians allowed to intermarry
– 367 BC – plebeians allowed to hold the consulship
– 342 BC – law stipulated that both consuls could be plebeian, but one
must be
– 287 BC – Hortensian Law – all laws passed by the council of the plebs
applied to all citizens regardless of class and did not have to be
approved by the senate
Roman Conquest of Italy
493 BC – Rome enters an alliance w/ the Latin communities
343-290 BC – struggles w the Samnites, south of Rome
Conflict w/ Greek communities in southern Italy
– Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans twice but they were very costly
victories (Pyrrhic victory) only to lose to the Romans in a third battle
The Roman Confederation was devised to rule Rome
– Some were allowed to become full Roman citizens, others were kept
as allies
– Allies were allowed to continue running their local affairs, but had to
supply soldiers for the Roman army
As the Romans expand, they build fortified cities along the
peninsula joined by expertly constructed roads
Very consistent in their policies, expansion wasn’t so much a
policy as it was opportunism
Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean (264-133 BC)
After the conquest of the Italian peninsula, Rome came face to
face w/ the Mediterranean power – Carthage
– Founded by the Phoenicians in 800 BC, Carthage controlled much of
the Mediterranean trade and was an important commercial center
By 264 BC, Carthage controlled North Africa, southern Spain,
Sardinia, Corsica & part of Sicily
– Fearful of Carthaginian expansion, Rome enters into a lengthy
struggle for control of the Mediterranean
The Struggle with Carthage
The First Punic War (264-241 BC)
Punicus – Latin for Phoenician
Rome sent an army into Sicily to settle a dispute between
two Sicilian cities, Carthage considered this cause for war
The war dragged on for several years, both sides raising
navies.
– Both won and lost battles along North Africa & Spain
241 BC - Carthage pushed for peace & was forced to give
up its holdings in Sicily
– 238 BC – Rome capitalizes on Carthaginian problems and seizes
Corsica and Sardinia
– Basically assures another confrontation
Following the war, Carthage recovers under the leadership
of Hamilcar Barca
– Expansion further into Spain for manpower & military build-up
221 BC – Barca’s son, Hannibal, takes over for his father
and within 3 yrs Rome and Carthage are at war again
Rome and Carthage had divided Spain into spheres of
influence but Rome began spreading anti-Carthaginian
sentiment, provoking an attack by Hannibal
218 BC – Rome declares war
– Hannibal aimed to bring the war to Rome’s doorstep
– Drove an army of 30-40,000 men, 6,000 horses and elephants
across the Alps into Northern Italy
– Roman tactics of following and harassing Hannibal w/o a full-fleged
battle breaking out kept losses at a minimum
216 BC – Rome decides to confront Hannibal directly
– Roman army destroyed at Cannae, losing 40,000 men
– Southern cities begin to rebel against Rome, but eventually Rome
would recover
– Hannibal was free to roam the peninsula but did not have the men to
attack major cities
As Hannibal ran rampant through Italy, the Romans pursued a
Spanish strategy
– By 206, Scipio Africanus the Elder had pushed the Carthaginians
out of Spain and back to North Africa
204 BC – Scipio led an army from Sicily into North Africa and
forced Hannibal to return to Carthage
– Battle of Zama (202 BC) – defeated Hannibal and his armies, war
ends
– Hannibal continues to serve as a mercenary general, fighting Rome
in the Seleucid kingdom, Bithynia, finally committing suicide
201 BC – Carthage signs a peace treaty, losing Spain &
promising not to go to war w/o Rome’s permission
Third Punic War (149-146 BC)
Carthage makes war against a Roman ally in North Africa,
breaking the treaty
Scipio Aemilianus Africanus, destroys the Carthaginian armies
Carthage is made a Roman province called Africa
Society & Culture in the Roman Republic
Religion
Religion was a part of everyday life
As Rome came into greater contact w/ the Greek culture, an
eventual amalgamation of their religions occurred
Generally tolerant of religious cults, only occasionally
outlawing them
Ritual was important to maintain the proper relationship with
the gods (applied to people and to the state itself)
– Pontifex maximus (chief pontiff) and vestal virgins p. 119
The college of augurs was responsible for interpreting the
signs/warning from the gods
– makes them very important to the magistrates b/c no decision should
be made w/o consulting them (seeking the gods’ approval)
Religious festivals were a major event in the Republic, just
like in Greece, lasting for days at a time
Education
No system of public education
– The family provided a child w/ all the knowledge to be a good citizen
– Boys – expected to learn the basics of farming, physical skills to be
good soldiers, acquaint themselves w/ traditions of the republic &
public affairs
– Girls – learn the skills needed to be a good wife & mother
– All upper-class children were expected to be literate
Increased contact w/ Greek culture caused wealthy Romans
to want their children exposed to Greek studies
– Rhetoric (persuasive speaking) and philosophy (mainly stoicism)
became very important
– To pursue a political career, one must learn good speaking skills to
win elections and lawsuits in court
As more of the educational process focused on knowledge
of Greek subjects, by the 2nd & 1st cent. BC, educated
Romans were becoming increasingly bilingual
Evolution of Roman Law
greatest original contribution to western culture was their legal
system
450 BC – The Twelve Tables puts the Roman legal code in
writing
– There would not be a follow-up codification of Roman law until 6th
cent AD, by Byzantine emperor, Justinian (Corpus Ius Civilus)
As centuries passed, Roman law depended on past precedent
and edicts of current praetors
Ius Civile (civil law) applied to Roman citizens, so new legal
codes developed to deal with issues between non citizens and
citizen/non-citizen issues
– Ius gentium – (law of nations), applied to dealings w/ citizens and
non citizens
– Ius naturale – (natural law), more of a philosophical legal code to
justify systemizing Roman law according to basic principles
Literature & Art/Values and Attitudes (pp.123-125)
The Decline & Fall of the Republic (133-31 BC)
political, social & economic problems all play a role
By 100 BC, the senate had become the governing body of the
Roman state
– Still made up of 300 men, primarily from landed aristocracy
– During the Punic Wars, it directed foreign and domestic affairs
Magistracies and senate controlled by a select few powerful families
– Patrician and Plebian, called nobiles (nobles), these were the men
selected to the most powerful positions in the Roman government
– 233 to 133 BC – 80% of consuls came from 26 families, 50% came from
only 10 of those families
– When a novus homo (new man) won the consulship, his family became
part of the inner circle
Conflicts between the controlling aristocrats (optimates & populares)
The Equestrians often made their fortunes on state engineering
contracts
– 218 BC – law forbade senators from taking state contracts or engaging
in commerce, essentially barring the class from powerful political office
Backbone of the Roman state & army was and had always been
the small farmer
– During the second Punic War, many farms were destroyed. Made it had to
pay bills, had to sell land to pay off debts
– Military service increased from 2yrs to 6; the existing structure of the army
had never been meant to fight distant, extended wars.
– Many returned home after years to find their land in such bad shape, they
sold old instead of recovering it
Landed aristocrats bought much of this land and found ways to
take over state owned land to form latifundia (large estates) that
focused on specific products
– Estates relied on slave labor and tenant farmers
Since the army only drew enlisted men from citizen farmers
(people w/ a financial stake in the republic), the pool for potential
soldiers diminished
Many landless families either knocked around in the county-side
working as they found it, or they moved to cities and built a class
of day laborers that owned no property
Reforms of Tiberius & Gaius Gracchus
133 BC - Tiberius Gracchus was elected as a tribune of the plebs
– Believed that the underlying cause Rome’s decline was the decline
of the small farmer
Knowing the senate would oppose his reforms, he took his
legislation to the council of the plebs
– It authorized the government to reclaim public lands from latifundia
and redistribute it to landless Romans
– Since many senators were large landowners, they were infuriated.
– Tiberius was assassinated later that same year
His brother Gaius is elected consul in 123 & 122 BC
– Shared his brother’s desire for reform
– Replaced senators on the jury courts that tried provincial governors
for corruption with members of the equestrian class
– In a “final decree of the senate”, consuls were encouraged to do
everything possible to avoid any misfortune befalling the Republic”
– Gaius & his closest followers are assassinated in 121 BC
Marius and the New Roman Army
Marius had served as a legate to general Metellus in Africa
– returns to Rome & runs for consul, winning in 108 BC
– Council of the plebs gives him command of the African army, making the
army loyal to him not the senate
defeated the Jugurthines in north Africa, then Gauls in Europe
– Victories got him elected consul for 5 yrs (104-100 BC)
Marius restructured the army
– Recruited soldiers from the urban and rural working class who owned no
property
– Swore an oath to their general not the senate
– The general was responsible for paying the soldiers
– This places much more power in the hands of individual generals
Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-88 BC)
Consul in 88 BC, given command of war against Mithridates, king
of Pontus
– Marius comes out of retirement and the council of plebs transfers
command to him
Sulla marched on Rome w/ his army, Marius fled and Sulla
reassumed command of the war
– Marius joined forces w/ the consul Cinna, marched on Rome, seized
control, outlawed Sulla and killed Sulla’s supporters
– Marius died, but Cinna continued to use his forces to ensure his rule
After Sulla returned victorious, he eliminated rival armies in
Italy and seized Rome itself in 82 BC
– Forced the senate to grant the title of dictator to “reconstitute the
Republic”
– Set out on a reign of terror to “cleanse” the republic
– Revised the constitution to restore power to the senate
– Eliminated the powers of the popular assemblies
– Restored senators to the jury courts
– Enlarged the senate by adding members of the equestrian order
79 BC – resigned as dictator, retired & soon died
Legacy is not as savior of the Republic, but the example of
how ambitious military leaders could gain power
The Death of the Republic
Rise of Pompey & Caesar
After the death of Sulla, the senate made two important
military appointments, Crassus & Pompey
– Both fought under Sulla
– Crassus had become very wealthy and put down the slave revolt led
by Spartacus
– Pompey was given a command in Spain and returned as a hero in
71 BC
Despite huge rivalry, they joined forces in 70 BC and were
elected as consuls
– Restored the power of the tribunes (made the plebs favorable to the
two men)
– Put equites back in control of the courts
– 67 BC – Pompey cleared the Mediterranean of pirates
Becoming fearful of powerful military leaders, the senate
refused his requests to compensate his men in 62 BC
60 BC - Julius Caesar returned from
Spain and requested funds to
celebrate victory w/ his men and run
for consul, rival senators blocked his
request
Caesar joined w/ Pompey & Crassus
in the First Triumvirate
– The combined wealth and power of
these three was enormous
– 59 BC – Caesar elected consul &
granted military command in Gaul
– Pompey received his compensation from
earlier
– Allies of Crassus were granted special
considerations
55 BC - Crassus and Pompey elected
consuls again
53 BC – Crassus killed in battle in
Syria
Caesar had used his time in Gaul to gain fame and military
experience
– numerous campaigns cost the lives of an estimated 2 million men,
women & children
– Amassed enough wealth & slaves to pay off all debts from gaining
political office
– Had an army of seasoned veterans loyal only to him
Senate voted for Caesar to lay down his command and return to
the life of a private citizen
– Jan 10, 49 BC - he moved his army across the Rubicon into Italy
“the die is cast”
Pompey fled to Greece & Caesar followed by the end of the year
– Caesar’s army defeated Pompey, who fled to Egypt
– Pompey was assassinated & Caesar defeated the remaining army
47 BC – Caesar becomes dictator b/c he dislike the title of king
45 BC – returns triumphant from his war w/ Pompey
44 BC – named “dictator for life”
increased the senate to 900 members
granted citizenship to people in the provinces that had
aided him in his military campaigns
a generous victor - pardoned many of the republican
leaders that opposed his rise to power
– Wanted to project an image of a fearless man of the people,
traveled whenever possible w/o his appointed guard detail
Replaced the Roman calendar w/ the Egyptian one of
365 days (so-called Julian calendar)
March 15, 44 BC – a group of senators who resented
his domination, plotted to and carried out his
assassination
– Conspirators believed that they were clearing the way for a
return to the old republican ways, instead set up another civil war
& fall of the Republic
Octavian vs. Antony
Caesar had no male heir so he adopted his grandnephew,
Octavian
Octavian (only 19) inherited Caesar’s estate along w/ the
command of his legions
– Used this to force the senate to name him consul
Despite a great distrust of each other, formed the Second
Triumvirate w/ Mark Antony & Marcus Lepidus to
– Make a list of conspirators & hunt down Caesar’s assassins
– They restored Sulla’s policy of proscription (eliminating enemies)
After wiping out the last of the conspirators, Lepidus is discarded
& Octavian and Antony divide the Roman world
– Octavian rules the east & Antony the west
– Antony marries Octavian’s sister to seal the pact
Octavian eventually leaves Octavia & allies himself w/ Cleopatra
VII of Egypt (a former mistress of Caesar)
Augustus uses the same propaganda that Caesar’s rivals
had during his affair; that Antony was catering to her (“the
whore of the East”) not Rome
Octavian does not like Cleopatra either either b/c she was Caesar’s
mistress and quickly attached herself Antony or b/c she was simply
Antony’s lover
Also rumored that her son was Caesar’s illegitimate son, possibly
putting him in competition w/ Octavian for Caesar’s estate
31 BC – Octavian’s forces defeat the combined
armies/navies of Antony & Cleopatra at Actium in Greece
Both flee to Egypt where they supposedly committed suicide
the following year
– Antony by his own sword, Cleopatra by snake venom
At age 32, Octavian rules supreme over the Roman world
and the Republic has ended
Literature in the Late Republic (pp132-134)